Periodic system - an ordered set of chemical elements, their natural classification, which is a graphical (tabular) expression of the periodic law of chemical elements. Its structure, in many respects similar to the modern one, was developed by D. I. Mendeleev on the basis of the periodic law in 1869–1871.
The prototype of the periodic system was the “Experiment of a system of elements based on their atomic weight and chemical similarity”, compiled by D. I. Mendeleev on March 1, 1869. For two and a half years, the scientist continuously improved the “Experience of the System”, introduced the idea of groups, series and periods of elements. As a result, the structure of the periodic system acquired in many respects modern outlines.
Important for its evolution was the concept of the place of an element in the system, determined by the numbers of the group and period. Based on this concept, Mendeleev came to the conclusion that it is necessary to change the atomic masses of some elements: uranium, indium, cerium and its satellites. This was the first practical application of the periodic system. Mendeleev was also the first to predict the existence and properties of several unknown elements. The scientist described in detail the most important properties of ekaaluminum (future gallium), ekabor (scandium) and ekasilicon (germanium). In addition, he predicted the existence of analogues of manganese (future technetium and rhenium), tellurium (polonium), iodine (astatine), cesium (francium), barium (radium), tantalum (protactinium). The scientist's predictions regarding these elements were of a general nature, since these elements were located in little-studied areas of the periodic system.
The first versions of the periodic system in many respects represented only an empirical generalization. After all, the physical meaning of the periodic law was not clear, there was no explanation of the reasons for the periodic change in the properties of elements depending on the increase in atomic masses. As a result, many problems remained unresolved. Are there limits to the periodic system? Is it possible to determine the exact number of existing elements? The structure of the sixth period remained unclear - what is the exact amount of rare earth elements? It was not known whether there are still elements between hydrogen and lithium, what is the structure of the first period. Therefore, right up to the physical substantiation of the periodic law and the development of the theory of the periodic system, serious difficulties arose more than once. Unexpected was the discovery in 1894-1898. five inert gases that seemed to have no place in the periodic table. This difficulty was eliminated thanks to the idea of including an independent zero group in the structure of the periodic system. Mass discovery of radioelements at the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries. (by 1910 their number was about 40) led to a sharp contradiction between the need to place them in the periodic system and its existing structure. For them, there were only 7 vacancies in the sixth and seventh periods. This problem was solved as a result of the establishment of shift rules and the discovery of isotopes.
One of the main reasons for the impossibility of explaining the physical meaning of the periodic law and the structure of the periodic system was that it was not known how the atom was arranged (see Atom). The most important milestone in the development of the periodic system was the creation of the atomic model by E. Rutherford (1911). On its basis, the Dutch scientist A. Van den Broek (1913) suggested that the ordinal number of an element in the periodic system is numerically equal to the charge of the nucleus of its atom (Z). This was experimentally confirmed by the English scientist G. Moseley (1913). The periodic law received a physical justification: the periodicity of changes in the properties of elements began to be considered depending on Z - the charge of the nucleus of an atom of an element, and not on atomic mass (see Periodic law of chemical elements).
As a result, the structure of the periodic system has been significantly strengthened. The lower bound of the system has been determined. This is hydrogen, the element with the minimum Z = 1. It has become possible to accurately estimate the number of elements between hydrogen and uranium. "Gaps" in the periodic system were identified, corresponding to unknown elements with Z = 43, 61, 72, 75, 85, 87. However, questions about the exact number of rare earth elements remained unclear and, most importantly, the reasons for the periodic change in the properties of elements were not revealed. depending on Z.
Based on the established structure of the periodic system and the results of the study of atomic spectra, the Danish scientist N. Bohr in 1918–1921. developed ideas about the sequence of construction of electron shells and subshells in atoms. The scientist came to the conclusion that similar types of electronic configurations of the outer shells of atoms are periodically repeated. Thus, it was shown that the periodicity of changes in the properties of chemical elements is explained by the existence of periodicity in the construction of electron shells and subshells of atoms.
The periodic system covers more than 100 elements. Of these, all transuranium elements (Z = 93–110), as well as elements with Z = 43 (technetium), 61 (promethium), 85 (astatine), 87 (francium) were obtained artificially. Over the entire history of the existence of the periodic system, a very large number (> 500) of its graphic representations have been proposed, mainly in the form of tables, as well as in the form of various geometric figures (spatial and planar), analytical curves (spirals, etc.), etc. The most widespread are short, semi-long, long and ladder forms of tables. Currently, the short form is preferred.
The fundamental principle of building the periodic system is its division into groups and periods. Mendeleev's concept of rows of elements is not currently used, since it is devoid of physical meaning. The groups, in turn, are subdivided into the main (a) and secondary (b) subgroups. Each subgroup contains elements - chemical analogues. The elements of the a- and b-subgroups in most groups also show a certain similarity among themselves, mainly in higher oxidation states, which, as a rule, are equal to the group number. A period is a set of elements that begins with an alkali metal and ends with an inert gas (a special case is the first period). Each period contains a strictly defined number of elements. The periodic system consists of eight groups and seven periods, and the seventh period has not yet been completed.
Peculiarity first period lies in the fact that it contains only 2 gaseous elements in the free form: hydrogen and helium. The place of hydrogen in the system is ambiguous. Since it exhibits properties in common with alkali metals and halogens, it is placed either in the 1a- or Vlla-subgroup, or both at the same time, enclosing the symbol in brackets in one of the subgroups. Helium is the first representative of the VIIIa‑subgroup. For a long time, helium and all inert gases were separated into an independent zero group. This provision required revision after the synthesis of chemical compounds of krypton, xenon and radon. As a result, inert gases and elements of the former group VIII (iron, cobalt, nickel and platinum metals) were combined into one group.
Second period contains 8 elements. It begins with the alkali metal lithium, whose only oxidation state is +1. Next comes beryllium (metal, oxidation state +2). Boron already exhibits a weakly expressed metallic character and is a non-metal (oxidation state +3). Next to the boron, carbon is a typical non-metal that exhibits both +4 and −4 oxidation states. Nitrogen, oxygen, fluorine and neon are all non-metals, with nitrogen having the highest oxidation state of +5 corresponding to the group number. Oxygen and fluorine are among the most active non-metals. The inert gas neon completes the period.
The third period (sodium - argon) also contains 8 elements. The nature of the change in their properties is largely similar to that observed for the elements of the second period. But there is also its own specificity. So, magnesium, unlike beryllium, is more metallic, as well as aluminum compared to boron. Silicon, phosphorus, sulfur, chlorine, argon are all typical non-metals. And all of them, except for argon, exhibit the highest oxidation states equal to the group number.
As we can see, in both periods, as Z increases, a distinct weakening of the metallic and strengthening of the non-metallic properties of the elements is observed. D. I. Mendeleev called the elements of the second and third periods (in his words, small ones) typical. The elements of small periods are among the most common in nature. Carbon, nitrogen and oxygen (along with hydrogen) are organogens, that is, the main elements of organic matter.
All elements of the first - third periods are placed in a‑subgroups.
Fourth period (potassium - krypton) contains 18 elements. According to Mendeleev, this is the first big period. After the alkali metal potassium and the alkaline earth metal calcium, a series of elements follows, consisting of 10 so-called transition metals (scandium - zinc). All of them are included in b‑subgroups. Most transition metals exhibit higher oxidation states equal to the group number, except for iron, cobalt, and nickel. Elements from gallium to krypton belong to the a-subgroups. A number of chemical compounds are known for krypton.
Fifth period (rubidium - xenon) in its construction is similar to the fourth. It also contains an insert of 10 transition metals (yttrium - cadmium). The elements of this period have their own characteristics. In the triad ruthenium - rhodium - palladium, compounds are known for ruthenium where it exhibits an oxidation state of +8. All elements of the a‑subgroups exhibit the highest oxidation states equal to the group number. The features of the change in the properties of the elements of the fourth and fifth periods as Z grows are more complex in comparison with the second and third periods.
Sixth period (cesium - radon) includes 32 elements. In this period, in addition to 10 transition metals (lanthanum, hafnium - mercury), there is also a set of 14 lanthanides - from cerium to lutetium. The elements from cerium to lutetium are chemically very similar, and for this reason they have long been included in the family of rare earth elements. In the short form of the periodic system, the lanthanide series is included in the lanthanum cell and the decoding of this series is given at the bottom of the table (see Lanthanides).
What is the specificity of the elements of the sixth period? In the triad osmium - iridium - platinum, the oxidation state of +8 is known for osmium. Astatine has a fairly pronounced metallic character. Radon is the most reactive of all inert gases. Unfortunately, due to the fact that it is highly radioactive, its chemistry has been little studied (see Radioactive Elements).
Seventh period starts with france. Like the sixth, it should also contain 32 elements, but 24 of them are known so far. Francium and radium, respectively, are elements of subgroups Ia and IIa, actinium belongs to subgroup IIIb. Next comes the actinide family, which includes elements from thorium to lawrencium and is arranged similarly to the lanthanides. The decoding of this row of elements is also given at the bottom of the table.
Now let's see how the properties of chemical elements change in subgroups periodic system. The main pattern of this change is the strengthening of the metallic nature of the elements as Z increases. This pattern is especially pronounced in IIIa–VIIa subgroups. For metals of Ia–IIIa‑subgroups, an increase in chemical activity is observed. In the elements of IVa–VIIa‑subgroups, as Z increases, a weakening of the chemical activity of the elements is observed. For elements of b‑subgroups, the nature of the change in chemical activity is more complex.
The theory of the periodic system was developed by N. Bohr and other scientists in the 1920s. 20th century and is based on a real scheme for the formation of electronic configurations of atoms (see Atom). According to this theory, as Z increases, the filling of electron shells and subshells in the atoms of elements included in the periods of the periodic system occurs in the following sequence:
| Period numbers | ||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 |
| 1s | 2s2p | 3s3p | 4s3d4p | 5s4d5p | 6s4f5d6p | 7s5f6d7p |
Based on the theory of the periodic system, the following definition of a period can be given: a period is a collection of elements that begins with an element with a value of n equal to the period number and l = 0 (s-elements) and ends with an element with the same value of n and l = 1 (p- elements) (see Atom). The exception is the first period, which contains only 1s elements. From the theory of the periodic system, the numbers of elements in periods follow: 2, 8, 8, 18, 18, 32 ...
In the table, the symbols of elements of each type (s-, p-, d- and f-elements) are shown on a specific color background: s-elements - on red, p-elements - on orange, d-elements - on blue, f-elements - on green. Each cell contains the serial numbers and atomic masses of the elements, as well as the electronic configurations of the outer electron shells.
It follows from the theory of the periodic system that elements with n equal to the period number and l = 0 and 1 belong to the a-subgroups. The b-subgroups include those elements in whose atoms the shells that previously remained incomplete are completed. That is why the first, second and third periods do not contain elements of b‑subgroups.
The structure of the periodic system of elements is closely related to the structure of atoms of chemical elements. As Z increases, similar types of configuration of the outer electron shells are periodically repeated. Namely, they determine the main features of the chemical behavior of elements. These features manifest themselves differently for the elements of the a-subgroups (s- and p-elements), for the elements of the b-subgroups (transitional d-elements) and the elements of the f-families - lanthanides and actinides. A special case is represented by the elements of the first period - hydrogen and helium. Hydrogen is highly reactive because its only 1s electron is easily split off. At the same time, the configuration of helium (1s 2) is very stable, which makes it chemically inactive.
For elements of a-subgroups, the outer electron shells of atoms are filled (with n equal to the period number), so the properties of these elements change noticeably as Z increases. Thus, in the second period, lithium (configuration 2s) is an active metal that easily loses a single valence electron ; beryllium (2s 2) is also a metal, but less active due to the fact that its outer electrons are more firmly bound to the nucleus. Further, boron (2s 2 p) has a weakly pronounced metallic character, and all subsequent elements of the second period, in which the 2p subshell is formed, are already nonmetals. The eight-electron configuration of the outer electron shell of neon (2s 2 p 6) - an inert gas - is very strong.
The chemical properties of the elements of the second period are explained by the desire of their atoms to acquire the electronic configuration of the nearest inert gas (the helium configuration for elements from lithium to carbon or the neon configuration for elements from carbon to fluorine). This is why, for example, oxygen cannot exhibit a higher oxidation state equal to the group number: after all, it is easier for it to achieve the neon configuration by acquiring additional electrons. The same nature of the change in properties is manifested in the elements of the third period and in the s- and p-elements of all subsequent periods. At the same time, the weakening of the strength of the bond between the outer electrons and the nucleus in a-subgroups as Z increases manifests itself in the properties of the corresponding elements. So, for s-elements, there is a noticeable increase in chemical activity as Z increases, and for p-elements, an increase in metallic properties.
In atoms of transitional d-elements, previously unfinished shells are completed with the value of the main quantum number n, one less than the period number. With some exceptions, the configuration of the outer electron shells of transition element atoms is ns 2 . Therefore, all d-elements are metals, and that is why the changes in the properties of d-elements as Z increases are not as sharp as is observed in s- and p-elements. In higher oxidation states, d-elements show a certain similarity with p-elements of the corresponding groups of the periodic system.
Features of the properties of the elements of triads (VIIIb‑subgroup) are explained by the fact that the b‑subshells are close to completion. This is why iron, cobalt, nickel and platinum metals, as a rule, are not inclined to give compounds of higher oxidation states. The only exceptions are ruthenium and osmium, which give the oxides RuO 4 and OsO 4 . For elements of Ib- and IIb-subgroups, the d-subshell actually turns out to be complete. Therefore, they exhibit oxidation states equal to the group number.
In the atoms of lanthanides and actinides (all of them are metals), the completion of previously incomplete electron shells occurs with the value of the main quantum number n two units less than the period number. In the atoms of these elements, the configuration of the outer electron shell (ns 2) remains unchanged, and the third outside N shell is filled with 4f electrons. That's why the lanthanides are so similar.
For actinides, the situation is more complicated. In atoms of elements with Z = 90–95, electrons 6d and 5f can take part in chemical interactions. Therefore, actinides have many more oxidation states. For example, for neptunium, plutonium and americium, compounds are known where these elements act in the heptavalent state. Only elements starting from curium (Z = 96) become stable in the trivalent state, but even here there are some peculiarities. Thus, the properties of the actinides differ significantly from those of the lanthanides, and therefore both families cannot be considered similar.
The actinide family ends with an element with Z = 103 (lawrencium). An evaluation of the chemical properties of kurchatovium (Z = 104) and nilsborium (Z = 105) shows that these elements should be analogues of hafnium and tantalum, respectively. Therefore, scientists believe that after the family of actinides in atoms, the systematic filling of the 6d subshell begins. The chemical nature of elements with Z = 106–110 has not been experimentally evaluated.
The finite number of elements that the periodic system covers is unknown. The problem of its upper limit is, perhaps, the main riddle of the periodic system. The heaviest element found in nature is plutonium (Z = 94). The reached limit of artificial nuclear fusion is an element with the atomic number 110. The question remains: will it be possible to obtain elements with higher atomic numbers, which ones and how many? It cannot yet be answered with any certainty.
Using the most complex calculations performed on electronic computers, scientists tried to determine the structure of atoms and evaluate the most important properties of "superelements", up to huge serial numbers (Z = 172 and even Z = 184). The results obtained were quite unexpected. For example, in an atom of an element with Z = 121, the appearance of an 8p electron is expected; this is after the formation of the 8s subshell was completed in the atoms with Z = 119 and 120. But the appearance of p-electrons after s-electrons is observed only in atoms of elements of the second and third periods. Calculations also show that in the elements of the hypothetical eighth period, the filling of the electron shells and sub-shells of atoms occurs in a very complex and peculiar sequence. Therefore, to evaluate the properties of the corresponding elements is a very difficult problem. It would seem that the eighth period should contain 50 elements (Z = 119–168), but, according to calculations, it should end at the element with Z = 164, i.e., 4 serial numbers earlier. And the "exotic" ninth period, it turns out, should consist of 8 elements. Here is his "electronic" record: 9s 2 8p 4 9p 2. In other words, it would contain only 8 elements, like the second and third periods.
It is difficult to say how true the calculations made with the help of a computer would be. However, if they were confirmed, then it would be necessary to seriously revise the patterns underlying the periodic system of elements and its structure.
The periodic system has played and continues to play a huge role in the development of various fields of natural science. It was the most important achievement of atomic and molecular science, contributed to the emergence of the modern concept of "chemical element" and the refinement of the concepts of simple substances and compounds.
The laws revealed by the periodic system had a significant impact on the development of the theory of the structure of atoms, the discovery of isotopes, and the emergence of ideas about nuclear periodicity. A strictly scientific statement of the problem of forecasting in chemistry is connected with the periodic system. This manifested itself in the prediction of the existence and properties of unknown elements and new features of the chemical behavior of elements already discovered. Nowadays, the periodic system is the foundation of chemistry, primarily inorganic, significantly helping to solve the problem of chemical synthesis of substances with predetermined properties, the development of new semiconductor materials, the selection of specific catalysts for various chemical processes, etc. Finally, the periodic system underlies teaching chemistry.
Four ways to attach nucleons
Nucleon attachment mechanisms can be divided into four types, S, P, D and F. These types of attachment reflect the color background in our version of the D.I. table. Mendeleev.
The first type of attachment is the S scheme, when nucleons are attached to the nucleus along the vertical axis. The display of attached nucleons of this type, in the internuclear space, is now identified as S electrons, although there are no S electrons in this zone, but there are only spherical regions of the volume space charge that provide molecular interaction.
The second type of attachment is the P scheme, when nucleons are attached to the nucleus in the horizontal plane. The mapping of these nucleons in the internuclear space is identified as P electrons, although these, too, are just regions of space charge generated by the nucleus in the internuclear space.
The third type of attachment is the D scheme, when nucleons attach to neutrons in the horizontal plane, and finally, the fourth type of attachment is the F scheme, when nucleons attach to neutrons along the vertical axis. Each type of attachment gives the atom the properties characteristic of this type of bond, therefore, in the composition of the periods of the D.I. Mendeleev has long identified subgroups, according to the type of S, P, D and F bonds.
Since the addition of each subsequent nucleon produces an isotope of either the preceding or subsequent element, the exact arrangement of nucleons according to the type S, P, D and F bonds can only be shown using the Table of known isotopes (nuclides), a version of which (from Wikipedia) we used.
We divided this table into periods (see Tables of filling periods), and in each period we indicated the scheme by which each nucleon joins. Since, in accordance with the microquantum theory, each nucleon can join the nucleus only in a strictly defined place, the number and schemes of nucleon attachment in each period are different, but in all periods of the D.I. Mendeleev's laws of nucleon addition are performed uniformly for all nucleons without exception.
As you can see, in periods II and III, nucleons are added only according to S and P schemes, in periods IV and V - according to S, P and D schemes, and in periods VI and VII - according to S, P, D and F schemes. At the same time, it turned out that the laws of nucleon addition are executed so accurately that it was not difficult for us to calculate the composition of the nucleus of finite elements of the VII period, which in the table of D.I. Mendeleev have numbers 113, 114, 115, 116 and 118.
According to our calculations, the last element of period VII, which we called Rs (“Russia” from “Russia”), consists of 314 nucleons and has isotopes 314, 315, 316, 317 and 318. The element preceding it is Nr (“Novorossiya” from “ Novorossiya) consists of 313 nucleons. We will be very grateful to anyone who can confirm or refute our calculations.
To be honest, we ourselves are amazed at how accurately the Universal Constructor works, which ensures that each subsequent nucleon is attached only to its only correct place, and if the nucleon is placed incorrectly, the Constructor ensures the disintegration of the atom, and assembles a new atom from its parts. In our films, we have shown only the main laws of the work of the Universal Constructor, but there are so many nuances in his work that it will take the efforts of many generations of scientists to understand them.
But it is necessary for humanity to understand the laws of the work of the Universal Designer if it is interested in technological progress, since knowledge of the principles of the work of the Universal Designer opens up completely new perspectives in all areas of human activity - from the creation of unique structural materials to the assembly of living organisms.
Ether in the periodic table
The world ether is the substance of ANY chemical element and, therefore, of ANY substance, it is the Absolute true matter as the Universal element-forming Essence.The world ether is the source and crown of the entire genuine Periodic Table, its beginning and end, the alpha and omega of the Periodic Table of Elements of Dmitry Ivanovich Mendeleev.
In ancient philosophy, ether (aithér-Greek), along with earth, water, air and fire, is one of the five elements of being (according to Aristotle) - the fifth essence (quinta essentia - Latin), understood as the finest all-penetrating matter. At the end of the 19th century, the hypothesis of the world ether (ME), which fills the entire world space, was widely used in scientific circles. It was understood as a weightless and elastic fluid that permeates all bodies. The existence of the ether tried to explain many physical phenomena and properties.
Facts. Ether was in the original periodic table. The cell for Ether was located in the zero group with inert gases and in the zero row as the main system-forming factor for the construction of the System of chemical elements. After the death of Mendeleev, the table was distorted, removing the Ether from it and canceling the zero group, thereby hiding the fundamental discovery of the conceptual meaning.
In modern Ether tables: 1 - not visible, 2 - and not guessed (due to the lack of a zero group).
Such deliberate forgery hinders the development of the progress of civilization.
Man-made disasters (eg Chernobyl and Fukushima) would have been excluded if adequate resources had been invested in the development of a genuine periodic table in a timely manner. Concealment of conceptual knowledge is going on at the global level for the "lowering" of civilization.
Result. In schools and universities they teach a cropped periodic table.
Assessment of the situation. The periodic table without Ether is the same as humanity without children - you can live, but there will be no development and no future.
Summary. If the enemies of humanity hide knowledge, then our task is to reveal this knowledge.
Conclusion. There are fewer elements in the old periodic table and more foresight than in the modern one.
Conclusion. A new level is possible only when the information state of the society changes.
Outcome. A return to the true periodic table is no longer a scientific issue, but a political one.
What was the main political meaning of Einstein's teachings? It consisted in any way blocking access to mankind to inexhaustible natural sources of energy, which were opened by the study of the properties of the world ether. In case of success on this path, the world financial oligarchy lost power in this world, especially in the light of the retrospective of those years: the Rockefellers made an unthinkable fortune that exceeded the budget of the United States on oil speculation, and the loss of the role of oil, which was occupied by "black gold" in this world - the role of the blood of the world economy - did not inspire them.
This did not inspire other oligarchs - coal and steel kings. So the financial tycoon Morgan immediately stopped funding the experiments of Nikola Tesla, when he came close to the wireless transmission of energy and the extraction of energy "out of nowhere" - from the world ether. After that, no one provided financial assistance to the owner of a huge number of technical solutions embodied in practice - solidarity among financial tycoons as thieves in law and a phenomenal sense of where the danger comes from. That's why against humanity and a sabotage called "The Special Theory of Relativity" was carried out.
One of the first blows fell on Dmitri Mendeleev's table, in which the ether was the first number, it was reflections on the ether that gave rise to Mendeleev's brilliant insight - his periodic table of elements.
6. Argumentum ad rem
What is now presented in schools and universities under the name "Periodic Table of Chemical Elements of D.I. Mendeleev, ”is an outright fake.
The last time, in an undistorted form, the real Periodic Table saw the light in 1906 in St. Petersburg (textbook "Fundamentals of Chemistry", VIII edition). And only after 96 years of oblivion, the real Periodic Table rises from the ashes for the first time thanks to the publication of a dissertation in the ZhRFM journal of the Russian Physical Society.
After the sudden death of D. I. Mendeleev and the death of his faithful scientific colleagues in the Russian Physical and Chemical Society, for the first time he raised his hand to the immortal creation of Mendeleev - the son of D. I. Mendeleev's friend and ally in the Society - Boris Nikolaevich Menshutkin. Of course, Menshutkin did not act alone - he only carried out the order. After all, the new paradigm of relativism required the rejection of the idea of the world ether; and therefore this requirement was elevated to the rank of dogma, and the work of D. I. Mendeleev was falsified.
The main distortion of the Table is the transfer of the "zero group" of the Table to its end, to the right, and the introduction of the so-called. "periods". We emphasize that such a (only at first glance - harmless) manipulation is logically explicable only as a conscious elimination of the main methodological link in Mendeleev's discovery: the periodic system of elements at its beginning, source, i.e. in the upper left corner of the Table, should have a zero group and a zero row, where the element “X” is located (according to Mendeleev - “Newtonium”), i.e. world broadcast.
Moreover, being the only backbone element of the entire Table of derived elements, this element "X" is the argument of the entire Periodic Table. The transfer of the zero group of the Table to its end destroys the very idea of \u200b\u200bthis fundamental principle of the entire system of elements according to Mendeleev.
To confirm the above, let's give the floor to D. I. Mendeleev himself.
“... If the analogues of argon do not give compounds at all, then it is obvious that it is impossible to include any of the groups of previously known elements, and a special zero group must be opened for them ... This position of argon analogues in the zero group is a strictly logical consequence of understanding the periodic law, and therefore (the placement in group VIII is clearly not correct) was accepted not only by me, but also by Braisner, Piccini and others ... Now, when it has become beyond the slightest doubt that there is a zero group in front of that I group, in which hydrogen should be placed, representatives of which have atomic weights less than those of the elements of group I, it seems to me impossible to deny the existence of elements lighter than hydrogen.
This element "y", however, is necessary in order to mentally get close to that most important, and therefore the most rapidly moving element "x", which, in my opinion, can be considered ether. I would like to call it "Newtonium" in honor of the immortal Newton... The problem of gravitation and the problem of all energy (!!! - V. Rodionov) cannot be imagined to be really solved without a real understanding of the ether as a world medium that transmits energy over distances. A real understanding of the ether cannot be achieved by ignoring its chemistry and not considering it an elementary substance; elementary substances are now inconceivable without subjecting them to periodic law” (“An attempt at a chemical understanding of the world ether”, 1905, p. 27).
“These elements, in terms of their atomic weights, occupied an exact place between the halides and the alkali metals, as shown by Ramsay in 1900. From these elements it is necessary to form a special zero group, which was first recognized in 1900 by Herrere in Belgium. I consider it useful to add here that, judging directly by the inability to combine elements of the zero group, analogues of argon should be put before the elements of group 1 and, in the spirit of the periodic system, expect for them a lower atomic weight than for alkali metals.
This is how it turned out. And if so, then this circumstance, on the one hand, serves as a confirmation of the correctness of the periodic principles, and on the other hand, clearly shows the relationship of analogues of argon to other previously known elements. As a result, it is possible to apply the principles being analyzed even more widely than before, and wait for elements of the zero row with atomic weights much lower than those of hydrogen.
Thus, it can be shown that in the first row, first before hydrogen, there is an element of the zero group with an atomic weight of 0.4 (perhaps this is Yong's coronium), and in the zero row, in the zero group, there is a limiting element with a negligibly small atomic weight, not capable of chemical interactions and possessing, as a result, an extremely fast own partial (gas) motion.
These properties, perhaps, should be attributed to the atoms of the all-penetrating (!!! - V. Rodionov) world ether. The thought of this is indicated by me in the preface to this edition and in a Russian journal article of 1902 ... ”(“ Fundamentals of Chemistry. VIII ed., 1906, p. 613 et seq.)
1 , , ,
From the comments:
For chemistry, the modern periodic table of elements is sufficient.
The role of the ether can be useful in nuclear reactions, but even this is too insignificant.
Accounting for the influence of the ether is closest in the phenomena of isotope decay. However, this accounting is extremely complex and the existence of regularities is not accepted by all scientists.
The simplest proof of the existence of an ether: The phenomenon of annihilation of a positron-electron pair and the emergence of this pair from vacuum, as well as the impossibility of catching an electron at rest. So is the electromagnetic field and the complete analogy between photons in vacuum and sound waves - phonons in crystals.
Ether is a differentiated matter, so to speak, atoms in a disassembled state, or more correctly, elementary particles from which future atoms are formed. Therefore, it has no place in the periodic table, since the logic of building this system does not imply including in its composition non-integral structures, which are the atoms themselves. Otherwise, it is possible to find a place for quarks, somewhere in the minus first period.
The ether itself has a more complex multi-level structure of manifestation in world existence than modern science knows about it. As soon as she reveals the first secrets of this elusive ether, then new engines will be invented for all kinds of machines on absolutely new principles.
Indeed, Tesla was perhaps the only one who was close to unraveling the mystery of the so-called ether, but he was deliberately prevented from carrying out his plans. So, until today, that genius has not yet been born who will continue the work of the great inventor and tell us all what the mysterious ether really is and what pedestal it can be placed on.
Attempts to systematize the chemical elements were made by many scientists. But only in 1869, D. I. Mendeleev managed to create a classification of elements, which established the relationship and dependence of chemicals and the charge of the atomic nucleus.
The modern formulation of the periodic law is as follows: the properties of chemical elements, as well as the forms and properties of compounds of elements, are in a periodic dependence on the charge of the nucleus of the element's atoms.
By the time the law was discovered, 63 chemical elements were known. However, the atomic masses of many of these elements have been erroneously determined.
D. And Mendeleev himself in 1869 formulated his law as a periodic dependence on the magnitude of the atomic weights of elements, since in the 19th century science did not yet have information about the structure of the atom. However, the scientist's brilliant foresight allowed him to understand more deeply than all his contemporaries the patterns that determine the periodicity of the properties of elements and substances. He took into account not only the increase in the atomic mass, but also the already known properties of substances and elements, and, taking the idea of periodicity as a basis, he was able to accurately predict the existence and properties of elements and substances unknown at that time to science, correct the atomic masses of a number of elements, correctly arrange the elements in system, leaving empty spaces and making permutations.
Rice. 1. D. I. Mendeleev.
There is a myth that Mendeleev dreamed of the periodic system. However, this is only a beautiful story, which is not a proven fact.
The periodic system of chemical elements of D. I. Mendeleev is a graphic reflection of his own law. Elements are arranged in a table according to a certain chemical and physical meaning. By the location of the element, you can determine its valence, the number of electrons, and many other features. The table is divided horizontally into large and small periods, and vertically into groups.
Rice. 2. Periodic table.
There are 7 periods that begin with an alkali metal and end with substances that have non-metallic properties. Groups, in turn, consisting of 8 columns, are divided into main and secondary subgroups.
The further development of science showed that the periodic repetition of the properties of elements at certain intervals, especially clearly manifested in 2 and 3 small periods, is explained by the repetition of the electronic structure of the external energy levels, where valence electrons are located, due to which chemical bonds and new substances are formed in reactions. Therefore, in each vertical column-group there are elements with repeating characteristic features. This is clearly manifested in groups where there are families of very active alkali metals (group I, main subgroup) and non-halogen metals (group VII, main subgroup). From left to right along the period, the number of electrons increases from 1 to 8, while there is a decrease in the metallic properties of the elements. Thus, the metallic properties manifest themselves the stronger, the fewer electrons there are in the outer level.
Rice. 3. Small and large periods in the periodic table.
Such properties of atoms as ionization energy, electron affinity energy and electronegativity are also periodically repeated. These quantities are related to the ability of an atom to donate an electron from an external level (ionization) or to retain an alien electron at its external level (electron affinity). Total ratings received: 147.
The nineteenth century in the history of mankind is a century in which many sciences were reformed, including chemistry. It was at this time that Mendeleev's periodic system appeared, and with it the periodic law. It was he who became the basis of modern chemistry. The periodic system of D. I. Mendeleev is a systematization of elements, which establishes the dependence of chemical and physical properties on the structure and charge of an atom of a substance.
The beginning of the periodical was laid by the book "The Correlation of Properties with the Atomic Weight of Elements", written in the third quarter of the 17th century. It displayed the basic concepts of relatively known chemical elements (at that time there were only 63 of them). In addition, for many of them, the atomic masses were determined incorrectly. This greatly interfered with the discovery of D. I. Mendeleev.
Dmitry Ivanovich began his work by comparing the properties of elements. First of all, he took up chlorine and potassium, and only then moved on to work with alkali metals. Armed with special cards depicting chemical elements, he repeatedly tried to assemble this “mosaic”: he laid it out on his desk in search of the necessary combinations and matches.
After much effort, Dmitry Ivanovich nevertheless found the pattern he was looking for, and built the elements into periodic series. Having received empty cells between the elements as a result, the scientist realized that not all chemical elements were known to Russian researchers, and that it was he who should give this world the knowledge in the field of chemistry that had not yet been given by his predecessors.
Everyone knows the myth that the periodic table appeared to Mendeleev in a dream, and he collected the elements from memory into a single system. This is, roughly speaking, a lie. The fact is that Dmitry Ivanovich worked on his work for quite a long time and with concentration, and it exhausted him greatly. While working on the system of elements, Mendeleev once fell asleep. When he woke up, he realized that he had not finished the table, and rather continued filling in the empty cells. An acquaintance of his, a certain Inostrantsev, a university teacher, decided that Mendeleev's table was a dream and spread this rumor among his students. Thus, this hypothesis was born.
The chemical elements of Mendeleev is a reflection of the periodic law created by Dmitry Ivanovich back in the third quarter of the 19th century (1869). It was in 1869 at a meeting of the Russian chemical community that Mendeleev's notification about the creation of a certain structure was read out. And in the same year, the book "Fundamentals of Chemistry" was published, in which Mendeleev's periodic system of chemical elements was first published. And in the book “Natural system of elements and its use to indicate the qualities of undiscovered elements”, D. I. Mendeleev first mentioned the concept of “periodic law”.
The first steps in creating the periodic law were made by Dmitry Ivanovich back in 1869-1871, at that time he worked hard to establish the dependence of the properties of these elements on the mass of their atom. The modern version is a two-dimensional table of elements.
The position of an element in the table has a certain chemical and physical meaning. By the location of the element in the table, you can find out what its valency is, and determine other chemical features. Dmitry Ivanovich tried to establish a connection between elements, both similar in properties and different.
He put valency and atomic mass as the basis for the classification of chemical elements known at that time. Comparing the relative properties of elements, Mendeleev tried to find a pattern that would unite all known chemical elements into one system. Having arranged them, based on the increase in atomic masses, he nevertheless achieved periodicity in each of the rows.
The periodic table, which appeared in 1969, has been refined more than once. With the advent of noble gases in the 1930s, it was possible to reveal the newest dependence of elements - not on mass, but on serial number. Later, it was possible to establish the number of protons in atomic nuclei, and it turned out that it coincides with the serial number of the element. Scientists of the 20th century studied the electron. It turned out that it also affects the periodicity. This greatly changed the idea of the properties of elements. This point was reflected in later editions of Mendeleev's periodic system. Each new discovery of the properties and features of the elements organically fit into the table.
The periodic table is divided into periods (7 lines arranged horizontally), which, in turn, are divided into large and small. The period begins with an alkali metal, and ends with an element with non-metallic properties.
Vertically, Dmitry Ivanovich's table is divided into groups (8 columns). Each of them in the periodic system consists of two subgroups, namely, the main and secondary. After long disputes, at the suggestion of D. I. Mendeleev and his colleague W. Ramsay, it was decided to introduce the so-called zero group. It includes inert gases (neon, helium, argon, radon, xenon, krypton). In 1911, scientists F. Soddy proposed to place indistinguishable elements, the so-called isotopes, in the periodic system - separate cells were allocated for them.
Despite the fidelity and accuracy of the periodic system, the scientific community did not want to recognize this discovery for a long time. Many great scientists ridiculed the activities of D. I. Mendeleev and believed that it was impossible to predict the properties of an element that had not yet been discovered. But after the alleged chemical elements were discovered (and these were, for example, scandium, gallium and germanium), Mendeleev's system and his periodic law became the science of chemistry.
Mendeleev's periodic system of elements is the basis of most chemical and physical discoveries related to atomic and molecular science. The modern concept of the element has developed precisely thanks to the great scientist. The advent of Mendeleev's periodic system has made fundamental changes in the ideas about various compounds and simple substances. The creation of a periodic system by a scientist had a huge impact on the development of chemistry and all sciences related to it.
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