There was growing dissatisfaction among the broad masses with taxes, which were unbearable. The impetus for the uprising was a fire in Moscow at the end of the second ten days of June. It was huge in size and caused irreparable damage to the well-being of Muscovites.
Embittered people, who had lost all their property, took to the streets of the capital on June 21, 1547.
Rumors spread among the rebels that the city was set on fire by the Glinsky princes. Allegedly, their wives cut out the hearts of the dead, dried them, crushed them, and sprinkled the resulting powder on houses and fences. After this, magic spells were cast and the powder burst into flames. So they set fire to Moscow buildings in which ordinary people lived.
The angry crowd tore to pieces all the Glinsky princes who came to hand. Their estates, which survived the fire, were looted and burned.
The indignant people began to look for the young tsar, but he left Moscow and took refuge in the village of Vorobyovo (Sparrow Hills, during the years of Soviet power they were called Lenin Hills). A huge mass of people went to the village and surrounded it on June 29.
The Emperor came out to the people. According to available evidence, he behaved calmly and confidently. After much persuasion and promises, he managed to persuade the people to calm down and disperse. People believed the young king. Their indignant ardor died down. The crowd moved to the ashes in order to somehow begin to organize their life.
Meanwhile, by order of Ivan IV, troops were brought to Moscow. They began to arrest the instigators of the uprising. Many of them were executed. Some managed to escape from the capital. But the Glinskys' power was irrevocably undermined. The situation was aggravated by unrest in other Russian cities. All this made it clear to the king that the existing government system was ineffective. That is why he gathered progressive-minded people around him. Life itself and the instinct of self-preservation forced him to do this. Thus, in 1549, the Elected Rada began its work to reform the government structure in the Muscovite kingdom. .
The first steps towards reforms were expressed in the convocation on February 27, 1549. an extended meeting, which was attended by the Boyar Duma, the Consecrated Cathedral, governors, as well as boyar children and “big” nobles (obviously from Moscow). February meeting of 1549 (“Cathedral of Reconciliation”) was actually the first Zemsky Sobor.
Its convocation marked the transformation of the Russian state into an estate-representative monarchy and the creation of a central estate-representative institution. It was extremely important that the most important state measures began to be taken with the sanction of representatives of the ruling class, among which the nobles played a significant role.
The decision of the Zemsky Sobor showed that the government was going to continue to use the support of both the boyars and the nobles. It was clearly not in favor of the feudal aristocracy, since it had to give up a number of its privileges in favor of the bulk of the service people. The abolition of the jurisdiction of the nobles (later the Code of Laws of 1550) meant the gradual formalization of the class privileges of the nobility.
Due to the fact that in February 1549. it was decided to “give justice” if a person filed a petition against the boyars, treasurers and butlers, a special Petition Hut was created, which was in charge of A. Adashev and, possibly, Sylvester.
The author of the Piskarevsky Chronicler gives the location of this “Izba” near the Annunciation in the Kremlin . But in reality, the location of the Petition Hut is not entirely clear: the treasury premises were located near the Annunciation. Without being formally a treasurer, A. Adashev in the 50s of the 16th century actually headed the activities of the state treasury .
But, in any case, the connection between the emergence of the Petition Hut and the reforms of the mid-century is undeniable. Petitions addressed to the sovereign were received at the Petition Hut, and decisions were made on them here - the Petition Hut was a kind of supreme appellate department and control body that supervised another government agency. Simultaneously with the “Council of Reconciliation,” sessions of a church council also took place, which established the church celebration of 16 more “saints” and examined the lives of these “miracle workers.”
In the context of the growth of the reformation movement, the church sought to strengthen its declining authority by canonizing its prominent figures. After the February councils, government activities in 1549 developed in various areas. The growth of popular movements in the city and countryside forced the resumption of the lip reform after the triumph of the Shuiskys in 1542. September 27, 1549 a labial order was issued to the peasants of the Kirillov Monastery.
This order testified to the growing influence of the nobility. Now provincial affairs were transferred to the jurisdiction of elected provincial elders from among the children of the boyars.
The formation of various huts occurred according to functional differences, and not according to territorial ones.
This indicated the significant success of centralization of control.
1549 was the year of an active attack on the immune privileges of spiritual feudal lords . June 4, 1549 A letter was sent to Dmitrov, according to which a number of monasteries were deprived of the right to duty-free trade in Dmitrov and other cities. But large monasteries retained their privileges.
By the end of 1549 Voices began to be heard more and more insistently, pushing the government to carry out reforms. Ermolai-Erasmus submitted his project to the Tsar, which proposed, at the cost of some concessions, to prevent the possibility of new unrest. He began measures to unify the land taxation system and provide land for service people.
The projects of I.S. were distinguished by their versatility and thoughtfulness. Peresvetov, defender of strong autocratic power. Centralization of the court and finances, codification of laws, creation of a permanent army provided with salaries - these are some of the proposals of this “warrior” - a publicist who expressed the thoughts and aspirations of the advanced part of the nobility affected by the reformation-humanistic movement.
Initially, in royal matters, the task was to issue laws that were supposed to restore the order that existed under Ivan III and Vasily III.
The reference to “father” and “grandfather” found in the legislation meant that “they tried to give the reforms the appearance of measures aimed against those abuses of power by the boyars, which were “filled” with the teenage years of Ivan IV.” .
After the statement on the abolition of localism, the draft set out a number of considerations about the need to restore order in patrimonial and local law. According to the author of the project, it was necessary to conduct an inspection of land holdings (patrimonies, estates) and feeding in order to determine the size of the holdings and the performance of military duties by servicemen. It was necessary to redistribute the available service fund in order to provide for the land-poor and landless feudal lords.
But this project violated the original patrimonial rights of the feudal aristocracy, so the project was not implemented .
Financial reforms include a project to eliminate travel duties (taxes) within countries.
Customs barriers between individual lands of the Russian state, reflecting the incompleteness of the process of eliminating economic fragmentation, prevented the further development of commodity-money relations.
If we summarize the consideration of the royal “issues” as part of the Elected Rada, we can state the far-reaching intentions of the government to satisfy the land demands of the nobles at the expense of boyar land ownership, to strengthen the army and state finances.
The composition of the “Elected Rada” is the subject of debate . Definitely, the priest of the Annunciation Cathedral of the Kremlin, the confessor of the Tsar Sylvester and a young figure from a not very noble family A.F. Adashev, Metropolitan Macarius, clerk Viskovaty and others participated in the “Rada”. The full composition of this unofficial government is unknown.
On the other hand, some historians deny the existence of the Elected Rada as an institution. Eg. K.N. Bestuzhev-Ryumin talks about it this way: “everything that was done in this era is attributed to the “elected Rada” (i.e., the tsar’s closest advisers); they say that this Rada was elected by Sylvester and Adashev. It is unlikely, however, that any advisers could do much without completely convincing the king of the need for changes in the existing system. I.'s exaggerated, angry testimony that the advisers did not allow him to walk freely testifies only to how far Sylvester extended his claims, how much the tsar was irritated against him and his supporters; but one should not think that these words are completely true.” . Thus, the historian denies the very need for Raja and denies that she could lead some kind of separateIVpolitics.
R. Skrynnikov partly agrees with him, arguing that “the traditional interpretation of Kurbsky’s text boils down to the fact that after the Moscow fire of 1547, Sylvester and Adashev came to power. They drove away the “caressers” from the king and formed the government of the Chosen Rada, which carried out reforms. This interpretation is not consistent with the facts. In the story about the Rada, the names of the “caresses” are not mentioned. But from the further narration it follows that Kurbsky considered the Sovereign Zakharyins’ “shuryas” to be the main “caressers”. He called them the wicked destroyers of the entire Holy Russian kingdom, noting that above he “rekhom many times” (said many times) about them…. The history of the Rada cannot be connected either with the fire of 1547 or with the removal of the “caressers”. The Zakharyins not only did not lose their influence after the fire, but, on the contrary, became powerful. There was no talk of any replacement of the “caresses” with wise men - the Rada. We have to admit that Kurbsky’s confused story can only give a wrong idea of the reform government of the mid-16th century...” .
Thus, the researcher does not consider the Rada to be a real institution. However, he is convinced of the reality of the so-called. Near Duma - “Unlike the Elected Rada, the Near Duma was a real institution that operated for many years. To solve current affairs, the authorities gathered a few “close people” who were directly related to the agenda. In a critical situation, the Near Duma was assembled in full force.”
Development of a history lesson. 6th grade.. “Reforms of the Chosen Rada”
History and social studies teacher: Nikitina Anastasia Sergeevna
The purpose of the lesson: Consider the internal policies of Ivan IV in the first years of his reign.
Tasks:
Educational: formation of students’ ideas about the personality of Ivan IV, the essence and nature of the reforms of the second half of the 15th century.
Developmental: creating conditions for the development of active mental activity in students through active forms of working with text.
Educational: developing an understanding of the ambiguity in the assessment of historical figures
Expected results:
Students should know:
Prerequisites for the reform activities of Ivan Vasilyevich;
The essence and nature of the reforms of Ivan IV;
The system of government bodies in the second half of the 15th century.
Students must understand the meaning of the terms
centralized state
Zemsky Sobor
Elected Rada
Streltsy army
5) Code of Law
6) Stoglavy Cathedral
7) Orders
Students should be able to:
Conduct information and semantic analysis of a video fragment
Highlight the main thing in the text (abstractly)
Formulate conclusions
Lesson type: lesson of learning new material.
Lesson format: combined lesson with elements of practical work.
Didactic and methodological equipment of the lesson: textbook “History of Russia from ancient times to the end of the 16th century.” Authors: A.A. Danilov, L.G. Kosulina; handout didactic material (table for filling out the “Reform of the Elected Rada”), presentation (appendix),
Equipment:
computer;
multimedia projector;
During the classes.
Organizational moment (1 min).
Updating knowledge, motivation and goal setting.(5 min)
Learning new material (31 min, including physical education)
Reflection (5 min)
Homework (3 min)
2. Updating knowledge, motivation, goal setting.
Over the course of several lessons in a row, we have been studying the formation of the Moscow centralized state. Let's remember how it was managed in the 15th century
Who headed the state? (Grand Duke)
With the help of which advisory body did the prince govern the state? (B.D.)
What were the names of the national departments? (palace and treasury)
What were the names of the people who ruled certain districts of the country? (vicars).
From 1505 -1533 the country was ruled by Grand Duke Vasily III .
After his death, the throne goes to his son.
Introduction to the topic: Today in class we will start a conversation about Ivan IV, who in the history of Russia was nicknamed the Terrible. We will get to know the personality of Ivan Vasilyevich. Let's find out what reasons influenced the formation of the character of the future king. Let's study:
Prerequisites for the reform activities of Ivan Vasilyevich;
The essence and nature of the reforms of Ivan IV;
The system of government bodies in the second half of the 15th century.
3. Studying new material.
Vasily III died in 1533. Anticipating his death, he created a guardian council of 7 boyars under his young son Ivan and his mother Elena Glinskaya. Council functions:
Take care of Ivan Vasilyevich;
Train the future king in state affairs;
Help his mother in management.
In the first years, Elena Glinskaya ruled together with the council. Through joint efforts, Ivan’s uncle, Yuri Ivanovich (son of Ivan 3), was eliminated. He was imprisoned. Later, Elena Glinskaya liquidated the board of trustees.
From this moment on, the struggle begins between the Shuisky boyars and their followers and the boyars who shared the views of the princess.
Elena Glinskaya ruled the state for five years. During these years in the country:
There was further centralization of power;
Limitation of the judicial power of the boyars
A monetary reform was carried out. 1534 The Mint was founded. A unified coinage system was established.
Kopeyka - called because of the horseman with a spear
Money
Polushka
introduction of uniform units of length and weight.
Question: what contributed to these reforms? (Further development of a single centralized state.)
Teacher: under Vasily Ivanovich and Elena Glinskaya, the first bricks were laid on the road to reforms that would be carried out during the reign of their son.
Watching a video about Ivan's childhoodIV, about the factors that influenced the formation of the character of the future ruler.
Questions after watching the video: What events influenced the future king? When and where was Ivan crowned king?IV? (January 1547 in the Assumption Cathedral of the Moscow Kremlin.)
As a result of statements, students come to a conclusion about the ambiguity of the character of Ivan the Terrible, and, consequently, his activities.
Teacher:
Ivan the Terrible, under the circumstances, could not trust everyone, so it is quite logical that a circle of close people formed around him. A.F. entered it. Adashev, Kurbsky, priest Sylvester and his beloved wife Anastasia.
Relying on the Elected Rada, Ivan Vasilyevich began implementing reforms. We will get acquainted with the reforms by filling out the table that each of you has on your desk.
Together with the teacher, fill out the diagram “Government of the State in the second half of the 16th century”
Reform
Content
1550
Judicial
Page 197 of the textbook
A new code of law has been adopted:
size was increased________________
punishments have become stricter_______________
penalties were introduced for _______________
the right of the highest legislative body under the tsar was vested in _________________
1550
Central Administration
Page 197 of the textbook
New executive bodies for governing the country have been created ________________________
1550
Military reform
Page 198 of the textbook
During hostilities:
limited to____________________
was created________________________
directly subordinate to the king;
___________________________________
1551
Church
Reform
Page 197 of the textbook
Stoglavy Cathedral:
Led to uniformity _________________
Recognized all local saints ____________
Developed rules of conduct for _____________________________________
1556
Local government
Page 198 textbook
Canceled_________________________________
Elected positions established_________________
1
556
"Service Regulations"
Page 198 of the textbook
Determined the exact norms of compulsory service in the tsarist army for all _______________________
From every ________________________________________
had to report for duty______________________________
Applications.
Stoglavy Cathedral - church reform
In 1551 a Church Council was held. This cathedral was led by Metropolitan Macarius, one of the most active participants in the Elected Rada. In addition, the tsar personally took part in the work of this council. The result of the activities of this council is the creation of a single collection of documents for the church. This document consisted of 100 chapters, which is why the cathedral itself received the name Stoglavogo. As part of this reform, the following activities were carried out:
Streamlining rituals. The cathedral made uniform all the rituals that are carried out within the framework of religion throughout the country.
Definition of the One Saints. New saints were canonized and recognized throughout the country within a single religion.
Creation of uniform rules of behavior for priests. In fact, we are talking about tightening discipline.
Was designatedthe most important role of the church is to educate the population .
As a result of church reform, uniform religious norms were created, as well as religion was brought to uniform standards for the entire country.
Local government reform
Over the years, while the country was actually ruled by the boyars, the efficiency of local authorities became extremely low. That is why the reforms of the Elected Rada under Tsar Ivan 4 at the initial stage were aimed at the formation of local government. This reform was carried out in 1556.
These reforms of the Elected Rada abolished the system of so-called feeding throughout the country, and also abolished the governorship. A position was created in its placeLip prefects. This headman was elected by the landowners of a particular region of the country. As for city managers, they were electedZemstvo elders. And the Policeman was elected directly to govern the city. In fact, elected authorities were formed, which were endowed with enormous powers. In particular, it was these people who ensured the rule of law and also administered justice. It is important to note that judicial functions were also assigned to the church, which had every right to independently conduct trials.
The management reform also affected the reform of the central government. The following orders were created:
Petition order - dealt with the distribution of those petitions that were addressed to the king.
Ambassadorial order - dealt with relations with other states. In fact, it is an analogue of the modern Ministry of Foreign Affairs.
Local order - dealt with issues of estates and estates.
Zemsky order - was responsible for ensuring law and order in Moscow and some other cities.
Robbery order - was responsible for countering robberies that were carried out en masse in the country.
A huge number of other orders were also created: discharge, yam, large parish, new quarter, large treasury, serf, secret affairs, Kazan palace, Siberian, Streltsy, Pushkar, Cossack. Orders played a fundamental role in the state life of Russia, since they were responsible for various aspects of the life of the state. In fact, they were local government bodies that acted as an intermediate link between the population and the king.
As a result of these transformations, the principles of governing the country were completely changed.
Military reform of the Elected Rada
Military reform began in 1550. The main initial idea of the reform was to form an army not on the basis of family nobility, but on the basis of military talent. For this purpose, a special provision was created, according to which the highest command of the army was to be formed not by the nobility of the family, but by people who had demonstrated their military talent. One of the first such units was the Chosen Thousand.
The chosen thousand is a special military detachment created on the basis of a militia, which was formed according to a new principle and was personally subordinate to the king.
In addition, during this period of time the first rifle regiments began to form. These were special regiments that represented a transitional link between the temporary and permanent armies. Therefore, when we talk about the creation of a regular army in Russia, we must begin counting the time not from the era of Peter the Great, but from Ivan the Terrible’s reform of the Elected Rada.
Speaking about military uniform, it should be noted that it was carried out in three stages:
Creation of the Streltsy army - 1550. We talked about this period in the paragraph above.
Introduction of the Service Code - 1556. The Code created a unified law that obliged landowners to provide the state with soldiers for a regular army. In particular, the owner of 100 quarters of land had to send one mounted warrior to the regular army.
Attempts to reform the Chosen Thousand. These attempts were carried out throughout the life of Tsar Ivan 4, but did not lead to significant results.
As a result, we can say that the reforms of Ivan the Terrible were unique for their era and were aimed at creating a single centralized state. This was necessary to unite the Russian lands, as well as to create a strong and competitive state that could stand up for itself. It is very simple to prove that the reforms of the Elected Rada primarily strengthened the central government. After all, all the changes that took place in the country were aimed at creating a vertical power structure, where the king made all decisions.
Judicial reform of Ivan the Terrible. Code of laws of 1550.
Changes in public administration also caused the need for legal reform - the publication of a new set of laws, which went down in history under the name Code of Laws of 1550. The Code of Law of Ivan 3 of 1497 was taken as a basis, to which changes were made related to the general trends of centralization of power.
1) In relation to peasants, the Code of Law of 1550 confirmed their right to transfer to another feudal lord on St. George’s Day, increasing the payment for the “elderly”.
2) The feudal lord was now responsible for the crimes of the peasants, which further reflected their increased dependence on their master.
3) Civil servants should have been punished for bribery.
4) Trade duties could only be collected by the state.
5) A tax was introduced for the entire population - a complex of natural and monetary duties.
6) A single tax collection unit was introduced for everyone - a large plow, which amounted to 400-600 acres of land, depending on the fertility of the soil and the social status of the owner.
Service Code 1555-1556 - a legislative act that determined the order of service in Russia in the 16th century. Included in the reforms of the “Chosen Rada” in the first half of the reign of Ivan the Terrible. Completes land legislation of the 1550s.
The Code of Service, part of the single “Tsar’s Verdict on Feeding and Service,” completes the development of the legal foundations of local land ownership and at the same time is the completion of the process of restructuring the army of the Russian state. In place of the old military squads from the time of feudal fragmentation, a single army of a new type is being created - the “noble army”, the central figure of which is a nobleman, a “service man”. As a royal “grant”, “serving people” were given estates at the expense of egalitarian “land survey” and surplus land from “nobles impoverished by service,” that is, those “who hold the land, but do not pay the service from it.”
The local system, obliging to field a fighter from every hundred quarters of land, equalized all nobles in terms of service. The formation of the military service class influences the revival of autocracy: the local militia becomes a powerful military support for the monarchy.
Ivan the Terrible is one of the most mysterious Russian autocrats. There is still a lot of controversy about his personality and rule. This is the first Russian Tsar, an intelligent diplomat, an educated person, a far-sighted politician. But on the other hand, this is a man who strived for absolute power and contributed in no way to the ruin of the state. This work examines a very broad topic: “Ivan the Terrible. Reforms. Oprichnina." I consider this topic relevant, firstly because there are no topics in history that are not relevant, and secondly because this topic allows us to trace two opposite lines of behavior of Ivan the Terrible, who began his reign as a progressive reformer king and carried out important state reform, which for some reason many have now forgotten, and ended his reign as an absolute monarch with unlimited power, relying not on councils and councils, but on oprichnina terror.
This topic is important to study in order to understand many other moments in the history of Russia. It was Ivan the Terrible who was considered an outstanding ruler by Peter the Great and Catherine II and Joseph Stalin. Trying to be like him. As you can see, more than one scientific work can be written about Ivan the Terrible, but I do not set myself such a goal. The purpose of my work: to talk about the features of the internal policy of Ivan the Terrible. To do this, I briefly characterize the internal policy of Ivan the Terrible, his first steps in politics, give a description of the Chosen Rada and its reforms, and talk in detail about the oprichnina terror.
When writing this work, I mainly used the book by Chumachenko E.G. History of Russia 12 centuries (IX – XX).
Ivan the Terrible
IVAN IV VASILIEVICH (1530–1584) (Ivan the Terrible), first Russian Tsar. Born in the village of Kolomenskoye near Moscow on August 25, 1530. In 1533, after the death of his father, Vasily III, at the age of three he became the Grand Duke of Moscow. As a child, Ivan witnessed the fierce struggle between the Shuisky and Belsky boyars for power. There was an intense struggle between these two families for influence on the young prince, and the boyars did not care about the needs of the prince himself. In 1543, the future Ivan the Terrible made his first independent decision, ordering the murder of Prince Shuisky. After this step, the frightened boyars began to listen to the opinion of the prince, but the struggle between the clans did not stop. Only in 1547, when Ivan assumed the title of Tsar, did the turmoil subside.
The beginning of the independent reign of the Grand Duke was marked by his crowning of the kingdom. In Rus', Byzantine and German emperors and Golden Horde khans were called tsars. In this way, complete and final independence from the Horde was emphasized, and the rank of the ruler of Russia in relations with the rulers of Europe increased. This idea most likely belonged to Metropolitan Macarius. The wedding ceremony took place in the Assumption Cathedral of the Kremlin in 1547. Following this, the tsar married Anastasia Romanovna from the noble boyar family of the Zakharyins-Koshkins, who were not part of any of the court groups.
The Tsar clearly understood that the boyar rule had undermined the authority of the Grand Duke; there was a growing need for reforms in the state, for which an Elected Rada was created and a number of Zemsky Councils were held. As a result, important reforms were carried out affecting many aspects of life. Some historians and contemporaries of Ivan the Terrible divide his reign into good and bad. The first years of this reign are considered good, when the king relied on the elected council and actively carried out important reforms. The bad ones include the destruction of the Chosen Rada, the establishment of the oprichnina, executions, and disgrace. The ruin of the country and the unsuccessful Livonian War for Russia.
The reign of Ivan the Terrible is undoubtedly one of the most controversial and interesting stages in the history of Russia, about which there is still a lot of controversy, although it lasted only 50 years. John the Terrible left his successor Tsar Fedor a ruined state, unrest and did not see a worthy successor. We can say that with the crowning of Ivan the Terrible, one time of troubles ended, and after his death another began.
Reforms of the elected council
At the beginning of his reign, a group of people close to him formed around Ivan the Terrible. One of its active members, Prince Andrei Kurbsky, called this circle the Chosen Rada, that is, the elected council. Its most authoritative members were Metropolitan Macarius, the royal confessor priest Sylvester, Prince Andrei Kurbsky, and Duma nobleman Alexei Fedorovich Adashev. Historians often call the Elected Rada a government of compromise, emphasizing the need for reforms carried out by it in the interests of all segments of the population.
Cathedral of Reconciliation
In 1549, the first Zemsky Sobor known in Russian history was convened. It was called the “Cathedral of Reconciliation.” The Boyar Duma, the highest church ranks of the Consecrated Cathedral, as well as elected people from cities and counties were represented in the cathedral. The Council probably agreed to reforms.
New code of law
In 1550, a new Tsar's Code of Law was adopted. It was based on the Grand Ducal Code of Law of 1497, from which the new code of law differed in that for the first time responsibility for official crimes was introduced. Punishments for bribes were provided for everyone: from clerks to boyars. The rights of governors were somewhat limited, liability for insult and punishment for dishonor were established. The code of law confirmed the right of peasants to leave the owner on St. George’s Day, and the payment for the “elderly” increased.
Stoglavy Cathedral
In 1551, a church council met in Moscow with the participation of the tsar, boyars and nobles. He examined issues of morality and discipline of church hierarchs, and the management of church lands. A single pantheon of Orthodox saints was approved, and innovations in icon painting were prohibited. The cathedral went down in history under the name “One Hundred Chapters,” since its decisions amounted to one hundred chapters.
Orders
In the middle of the 16th century. The system of orders was finally formed. In addition to the already existing orders: the Big Treasury, the Palace, the Posolsky, a number of others appeared. The Rank Order was in charge of organizing the army, the Razboinny was in charge of the fight against criminal offenses, and the Local Order was in charge of distributing lands on the estate. A special petition order appeared, which was in charge of complaints submitted to the king. The order was usually headed by a boyar or okolnichy, clerks and clerks were in charge of office work.
Canceling feedings
Under John the Terrible, significant changes took place in local government. In 1555 – 1556 Feedings were cancelled. Power in the districts passed from governors-feeders into the hands of elected representatives of the local nobility - labial elders, and in those districts where there was no private land - to zemstvo elders elected by black-growing peasants and townspeople. All local government was in the hands of provincial and zemstvo elders, however, their work was not paid.
Army reforms
A number of reforms were carried out to strengthen the army. A thousand nobles received estates in the volosts closest to Moscow and formed an elected regiment - the “Thousand”. A special “Code of Service” determined the duties of the nobles and the size of the land plots with which they were allocated. The average allotment of a service man was 300 quarters, and from each quarter a man had to leave “on horseback, with people and in arms.”
A Streltsy army was created from common people. It was armed with firearms - arquebuses. The Sagittarius carried out constant service under the command of their “heads”. In peacetime, they lived with their families in special urban settlements, engaged in gardening, trade, and crafts.
Ivan the Terrible showed particular attention to the creation of artillery. A “Cannon Yard” was built in Moscow, which cast cannons of fairly good quality. Each gun had its own name. The famous “Tsar Cannon”, which was cast by foundry maker Andrei Chokhov, has survived to this day.
The fall of the government of the Chosen Rada
In 1560, the Government of the Elected Rada fell. There had long been serious political disagreements between the Tsar and his advisers. Strengthening the state and its centralization required deep reforms designed for a long period of time, but the tsar needed immediate results.
There were significant differences in foreign policy: The elected Rada did not support the Livonian War, considering the defense of the southern borders and the development of lands south of Tula more important.
In 1560, Sylvester was sent into exile to the Solovetsky Monastery, Adashev became a governor in Livonia, then was arrested and died in prison, Prince Kurbsky, demoted in the Livonian War, fearing for his life, fled to Lithuania with his like-minded people. The elected council ceased to exist.
Oprichnina, its goals
The main goal of the oprichnina was to establish absolutely unlimited power of the tsar, close in nature to eastern despotism. The meaning of these historical events is that in the middle - second half of the 16th century. Russia is faced with an alternative for further development. The beginning of the reign of Ivan the Terrible, the huge role played at that time by the Elected Rada, the reforms being carried out, the convening of the first Zemsky Sobors could lead to the formation of a softer version of development, to a limited representative monarchy. But, due to the political ideas and character of Ivan the Terrible, another option was developed: an unlimited monarchy, autocracy close to despotism.
John the Terrible strove for this goal, stopping at nothing, without thinking about the consequences.
Oprichnina and Zemshchina
In December 1564, Ivan the Terrible, taking with him his family, “close” boyars, part of the clerks and nobles, as well as the entire treasury, left Moscow on a pilgrimage to the Trinity-Sergius Monastery, however, after being there for a week, he went on and stayed in the village of Aleksandrovskaya Sloboda. From there, in January 1565, a messenger arrived in Moscow with two messages, which were announced publicly. The letter addressed to the boyars, clergy, nobles and children of the boyars said that the tsar was putting “disgrace” on all of them for their “treason,” the theft of the sovereign’s treasury and lands, and for their unwillingness to protect him from external enemies. Therefore, he decided to renounce the throne and settle “where God will guide him, the sovereign.” The second letter was addressed to merchants and townspeople, it said that he did not hold any grudge against them.
The king, of course, did not intend to abdicate the throne. He contrasted the feudal lords with ordinary people, presenting himself as the defender of the latter. As was calculated, the townspeople began to demand that the boyars persuade the tsar not to leave the kingdom and promised that they themselves would destroy the sovereign’s enemies. When the delegation arrived in Alexandrov Sloboda, the tsar agreed to return to the throne with the condition of establishing an “oprichnina” - giving him the right to execute “traitors” and confiscate their property at his discretion.
The term “oprichnina” was known before. This was the name of the land that the prince bequeathed to his widow in addition to the rest of the territory. Now this word has been given a new meaning. The entire territory of the Russian state was divided into two parts. The first is the oprichnina, a kind of inheritance that belongs only to the sovereign of all Rus' and is taken under his control. The second part is the rest of the land - zemshchina. The feudal lords accepted into the oprichnina constituted a special “sovereign court”, became the tsar’s personal servants, and were under his special protection. Both the oprichnina and the zemshchina had their own Boyar Duma and orders. Princes I. Belsky and I. Mstislavsky were placed at the head of the zemshchina, who were supposed to report to the tsar on military and civil affairs.
In addition, Ivan the Terrible created a special personal guard, the oprichnina. The guardsmen dressed in black and tied a dog's head and a broom-shaped hand to the saddle as a sign that they, like devoted dogs, would gnaw at treason and sweep it out of the state. No matter what the guardsmen did, people from the zemshchina could not resist in any way.
When the land was divided into the oprichnina, volosts and counties with developed feudal land tenure were taken: central, part of the western and northern. At the same time, the tsar warned that if the income from these lands was not enough, other lands and cities would be taken into the oprichnina. In Moscow, an oprichnina part was also allocated, the border ran along Bolshaya Nikitskaya Street. Feudal lords who lived in the oprichnina lands and were not part of the oprichnina had to be evicted, giving them land elsewhere in the zemshchina; usually those evicted received land on the estate instead of estates. A complete resettlement from the zemshchina to the oprichnina lands did not happen, although it was quite massive.
The tsar’s reprisal against the “enemies” of him and the state began. Frequent pretexts for this were denunciations, signed and anonymous, and the denunciations were not verified. Upon denunciation, the oprichnina army was urgently sent to the estate of the person against whom the denunciation was received. Anyone suspected of treason could face anything: from relocation to another territory to murder. Property was given to the oprichniki, the land went to the oprichnina, and the informer, if he was known, was entitled to a certain percentage of the property of the person subjected to execution.
Executions
The first executions fell on noble and wealthy families who enjoyed authority and respect. Whether they were involved in some kind of conspiracy is unknown. Authority and respect should belong only to the king. In those days, it was dangerous to discuss anything or clearly express one’s emotions at court; this aroused suspicion of malicious intent against the king. The king especially did not tolerate people who were smart, honest and independent. Among others, boyar Ivan Fedorov was executed, the last representatives of the family of princes Staritsky were destroyed, Metropolitan Philip, who argued with the tsar, stood up for the disgraced, and refused to give a blessing for the defeat of Novgorod, was also executed.
The defeat of Novgorod
Another denunciation became the reason for the campaign against Novgorod in 1570. Novgorodians greeted the tsar and his army with bread and salt at the entrance to the city. The king broke bread and agreed to take part in a gala dinner in his honor. During lunch, at his sign, the guardsmen began to kill. People were killed just because they were Novgorodians... The lands of the Novgorod boyars were transferred to the guardsmen, the survivors were transferred to other lands.
After the Novgorod pogrom, the tsar began to receive denunciations against the guardsmen. Now there were repressions against them too. Father and son Basmanov, Prince Vyazemsky, Prince Cherkassky died. The oprichnina was led by Malyuta Skuratov and Vasily Gryaznoy.
Cancellation of the oprichnina
The division of the state into oprichnina and zemshchina, constant disgraces and executions weakened the state. It was dangerous, since at that time the most difficult Livonian War was going on. “Traitors” were blamed for the failures of military operations. Türkiye took advantage of the weakening of the country. Turkish and Crimean troops besieged Astrakhan in 1571, and then the Crimean Khan Devlet-Girey went to Moscow. The guardsmen, who were supposed to hold the barrier on the banks of the Oka, for the most part did not show up for duty. Devlet-Girey set fire to a Moscow suburb, a fire started, and the city burned down. The Tsar fled from Moscow, first to Alexandrov Sloboda, then further to Beloozero. The following year, the khan repeated the raid, hoping to capture the king himself. But this time Ivan the Terrible united the oprichnina and zemstvo troops, placing the disgraced Prince Vorotynsky at their head. In July 1572, in a battle near the village of Molodi, 50 km. from Moscow, the army of Devlet-Girey was defeated.
In the same year, the tsar abolished the oprichnina, some of the victims were given back their lands, the word “oprichnina” was banned, but the terror did not stop, everything continued as before.
Oprichnina results
As a result of the Livonian War and the oprichnina, the land was devastated. Peasants fled to the Don and Volga, many boyars and nobles became beggars. A land census taken at the end of the century showed that approximately half of the previously cultivated land had become wasteland. This played an important role in the next stage of enslavement of the peasants.
Conclusion
In conclusion of my work, I would like to summarize. What did Ivan the Terrible manage to do in the internal politics of Russia during the 5 years of his reign? A lot of things. He was crowned king like a tsar, he equated himself with the emperors of Europe and raised the international prestige of Russia. A new code of law was approved, military reform and a number of administrative reforms were carried out to simplify the governance of the country; a number of controversial religious issues were resolved at a church council in the presence of the tsar and with his participation. Thus, the reforms carried out affected many aspects of life, simplified government, and contributed to the strengthening of royal power. As a result, the king was faced with a choice: whether to rely in the future on the Chosen Council of other advisers, or only on himself.
The Tsar chose the second and established the oprichnina. Oprichnina is a unique phenomenon of a state within a state, a unique mobile police force and justice, which ultimately led the country to an economic crisis. Oprichnina was also a way to strengthen royal power. This problem, one way or another, is solved by every ruler. I think that many rulers could benefit from the experience of Ivan the Terrible.
In 1545-1547, several events were carried out designed to emphasize the transfer of full power to the young sovereign: Ivan Vasilyevich began to go on military campaigns, married Anastasia Romanovna Zakharyina, and accepted the title of “tsar.”
All these events were preceded by a long period of boyar rule. Since 1538, an intense struggle for power between boyar groups began.
Political instability, unprincipledness and greed of the newly-minted rulers, increased parochial disputes and uncontrolled distribution of land led to the weakening of the central government, the decline of its prestige, the arbitrariness of the governors and the “impoverishment of the nobility.”
As a result, this led to growing contradictions both between the boyars and the service class, and between the common people and the entire ruling elite. The young ruler encountered all these contradictions at the time of his crowning.
In the summer of 1547, an uprising broke out in Moscow. The reason for the performance was the terrible fires that destroyed almost all of wooden Moscow.
The supply of food stopped. The people blamed the incident on the Glinskys. With great difficulty, the Boyar Duma managed to calm down the townspeople and service people who took part in the performance.
The opinions of many scientists boil down to the fact that it was the uprising of 1547 that was the result of a change in political course and the beginning of a policy of reforms carried out by the tsar’s new advisers. They turned out to be people who were not associated with the previously ruling boyar groups.
According to R. G. Skrynnikov, the uprising revealed the fragility of the boyar governments and created the conditions for the nobility to enter the political arena.
S. F. Platonov believes that as a result of this “popular revolt,” Ivan the Terrible lost the “guardianship of the Glinskys,” and “random people” who were not part of the ruling nobility—Sylvester and Adashev—took advantage of the “spiritual orphanhood of the malicious king.” S. M. Solovyov explains the creation of the Chosen Rada by the “moral revolution of seventeen-year-old Ivan” that occurred after the uprising.
Historians also have different points of view as to why exactly these people ended up in the Elected Rada.
Klyuchevsky claims that Ivan IV “without 20 years...
with energy unusual for his age, he took up the affairs of government,” in which he needed help, which he received from Metropolitan Macarius and Priest Sylvester. S. M. Solovyov agrees with this; in his opinion, Ivan decides to finally break “with the princes and boyars, to seek support in persons of a different origin and in persons of high morality.” N.I. Kostomarov calls the elected Rada a “circle of favorites” of the Tsar, by whom “the state began to be governed.” This “circle,” according to the Russian-Ukrainian historian, consisted of people “who were more distinguished than others by their broad outlook and love for the common cause.”
Platonov claims that this was a company of boyars who united with the goal of mastering Moscow politics and ruling it in their own way, that is, the “Elected Rada” expressed the interests of the people included in it.
“... A private circle created by temporary workers for their purposes, and placed by them near the tsar not in the form of an institution, but as a collection of “well-wishing” friends.” R. Yu. Vipper explains the rise to power of the main figures of the Chosen Rada, Sylvester and Adashev, by the initiative of the “churchmen” led by Metropolitan Macarius.
M. N. Pokrovsky believes that the members of the Elected Rada were nominated not by the Tsar, but by the full composition of the Boyar Duma.
Another group of scientists, in particular Zimin and Smirnov, believes that this group of boyars expressed the interests of the nobility and far-sighted circles of the boyars.
“The elected Rada...was the conductor of noble interests.” It is also important to note that A. A. Zimin identifies the Elected Rada with the Middle Duma - the official body of power under the tsar, which included the most loyal “representatives of the feudal nobility” to the throne. Another scientist, V.B. Kobrin, does not agree with this position, since the Middle Duma, according to his statements, appeared only in the 17th century.
The historian suggests that the “government circle” was unofficial and did not have a generally accepted name.
The traditional point of view is that the Elected Rada was not a government body and did not have a legal basis for its activities. Of course, the assertion that all the reforms were developed by the Elected Rada is also controversial. After all, this would characterize Ivan the Terrible not only as a bad politician, but it would also mean that his activities during his entire reign were only destructive, and everything that was good belonged exclusively to other people.
But, for example, V.B. Kobrin suggests that the Chosen Rada did not have a carefully developed program of action. Although most of the reforms were conceived by the leaders of the Chosen Rada, Ivan IV in the 1550s. personally participated in government activities.
The composition of the “Chosen Rada”.
So, the priest of the Annunciation Cathedral in the Kremlin, Sylvester, and the royal bed-keeper Alexey Fedorovich Adashev came to the political forefront of the times of the “Elected Rada”.
Sylvester had an active influence on the spiritual life of the tsar, introducing Ivan IV to books and contributing to his education. Adashev was a talented statesman, coming from an humble but wealthy family of Kostroma patrimonial landowners.
He supervised the activities of the Petition Hut, which received complaints and denunciations, i.e. which performed the highest control functions and at the same time served as the personal office of the king. In addition to them, the “Elected Rada” included Prince Kurlyatev, Prince Andrei Mikhailovich Kurbsky, clerk Ivan Mikhailovich Viskovaty and some other representatives of the aristocracy.
Zemsky Sobor. The beginning of the reforms was the convocation in 1549. the first Zemsky Sobor in the history of the country, or as some researchers also call it, the Cathedral of Reconciliation.
It did not even represent the Zemsky Sobor in its entirety - i.e. with the participation of representatives of the highest aristocracy, nobility and townspeople of the country, as will be decided a little later, but only a large extended meeting of the metropolitan, boyars and nobles chaired by the tsar himself. In his speech, the tsar accused the boyars of abuses that occurred “before his royal age,” but in the end he called on everyone in the spirit of Christian morality for mutual forgiveness: “People of God and given to us by God!
Bowing deeply in all four directions, the king spoke. - I pray for your faith in him and love for me, be generous! It is impossible to correct the past evil: I can only save you from such oppression and robbery.
Forget what is no longer and will not be! Leave hatred and enmity, let us all unite through Christian love. From now on, I am your judge and defender!..”
Meanwhile, some scientists prove: the speech delivered by Ivan on February 27, 1549, contained a brief program of reforms that Ivan intended to implement and which were aimed specifically at overcoming the negative consequences of the period of boyar rule.
This means precisely to protect the most vital interests of the entire people, to solve their common problems.
Thus, a course was set to achieve agreement between various groups at the top of Russian society and their unification around the central government.
Brief description of reforms
Lawyer Based on the decisions of the Council, in 1550 a new Code of Law was adopted, which provided for punishments for boyars and clerks for official crimes (for example, bribery).
In addition, the judicial rights of governors were limited, primarily in relation to nobles. St. George's Day was preserved, although the “elderly” was increased.
Church Council. In 1551 A church council was convened, called the Stoglavy Council (the collection of its decisions consisted of one hundred chapters), which was attended, along with the clergy, by the boyars and the top nobility.
In addition to purely religious issues (strengthening order in churches and monasteries, unifying rituals, creating an all-Russian pantheon of saints), national problems were also discussed. Thus, it was decided to review the ownership rights of the church to the lands it received after 1533.
Order system. In the 1550s, the formation of the order system was completed. Specialized departments before 1568 were called “mandatory hut”. The Ambassadorial Prikaz was in charge of foreign policy, the Local Prikaz was in charge of the distribution of lands among service people, the Razbytny Prikaz was in charge of collecting the noble militia and appointing governors, the Robber Prikaz was in charge of the capture of criminals, etc.
Sovereign's yard.
In 1552 a complete list of the Sovereign's Court was compiled, which, along with the princely and boyar aristocracy, also included the milestones of the nobility. The persons included in it (initially about 4 thousand people) began to be called nobles. The lower layer of service people continued to bear the old name - boyar children. It was from among the nobles that many appointments to command, military and administrative positions now took place.
The creation of orders and the expansion of the Sovereign's court strengthened central power.
Military reforms.
In addition, the archers had their own business - a craft workshop or small trade, which brought them their main income. Like all service people, they did not pay taxes.
· In the same year, taking into account the demands of the time, the authorities limited localism in the military sphere.
For example, it was forbidden to conduct parochial disputes during hostilities, the principle of unity of command was established, and novices - young nobles who entered military service for the first time - were excluded from parochial accounts.
· In 1556, the “Code of Service” was adopted, which established a unified procedure for organizing military forces.
Now, from a certain amount of land (100 quarters), an armed warrior on horseback had to be deployed. If the landowner brought more people than he had land, then he was rewarded through the “feeder’s payback” (a special tax, the amount of which before the introduction of self-government was equal to the expenses intended for the maintenance of the boyar-feeder); if less, he paid a fine.
The military reform equalized the boyar patrimony and estate “in service”, increased the number of armed forces, and increased their combat effectiveness. In addition, she somewhat streamlined the relations between service people, who were now divided into two main groups: those serving “at home” (i.e.
by inheritance - boyars and nobles) and “by device” (i.e. by recruitment - archers, gunners, city Cossacks, recruited for a cash salary).
Completion of the labial and implementation of the zemstvo reform. In 1555-1556. The reform of local government, begun under Elena Glinskaya, was completed, and the feeding system was abolished.
The nobles and “children of the boyars” elected provincial elders who headed the provincial hut - a territorial district that included one or two counties. The lip huts, subordinate to the Robbery Order, were engaged in the search and punishment of “dashing people”, as well as in the allotment of land, land surveying, collection of taxes and “feeder’s payback”.
Where there was no noble land ownership, townspeople and black-growing peasants elected zemstvo elders.
Fall of the Chosen Rada
As a result of the reforms, there was a relative consolidation of the service class, the internal situation in the country improved, the state administrative apparatus and the army strengthened, which made it possible to solve a number of pressing foreign policy problems.
All this was achieved at the expense of the masses: taxation of the population increased sharply, various new duties were introduced, which could cause an aggravation of the social situation.
By the end of the 50s.
Ivan IV, having grown stronger as a person and politician, longed for immediate autocratic power; he was not satisfied with either the pace of transformations or their results, which, in his opinion, did not eliminate the rights of the Boyar Duma and other obstacles to his true autocracy.
G. Skrynnikov notes that Ivan the Terrible considered only those reforms that strengthened autocratic power to be good. The final results of the policy of the Chosen Rada did not meet these criteria. Skrynnikov states the complete discrepancy between Ivan IV and his “advisers” in assessing the goals and directions of reforms.
The Tsar’s break with the Elected Rada became inevitable when, in addition to internal political differences, differences were added in the “sphere of foreign affairs” - on the issue of the Livonian War (Adashev opposed the continuation of the Livonian War when its futility became obvious).
B. Kobrin associates the fall of the Chosen Rada with disagreements between the members of this council and Ivan IV regarding the methods of carrying out reforms: while the royal entourage sought to create a state apparatus, Ivan IV wanted to resort to the simplest method - execution.
F. Platonov also argues that Ivan IV is gradually emerging from the influence of the Chosen Rada, which - wittingly or unwittingly - turned the tsar from an “inexperienced and dissolute youth” into a sophisticated politician.
A. A. Zimin explains the fall of the Elected Rada by the fact that the “government of compromise” (according to Zimin, the Elected Rada pursued a policy of compromise between the nobility and the “far-sighted part of the boyars,” hence the name) in the context of “popular movements” sought to consolidate the forces of the feudal lords and therefore could not undertake a “decisive fight against specific decentralization.”
Thus, in the end, the king put “disgraces” on his old advisers.
Ivan the Terrible accused Adashev and Sylvester of actually leading the country, and he was “led around like a young man, arm in arm.” So Sylvester was tonsured a monk and exiled to the Solovetsky Monastery; Adashev died in prison shortly before the reprisal that was being prepared against him. The tsar tried to eradicate the very memory of them - for example, asceticism and fasting, which flourished under Sylvester, were ridiculed, and they were replaced by luxurious feasts and buffoon fun.
The “Elected Rada” was destined to exist for just a decade.
But during this short period, the state and social structure of Russia underwent such strong changes that had not occurred during centuries of quiet development.
In recent years, historiography has begun to express doubts about the reality of the existence of the Chosen Council, which is beginning to take on the shape of the desired image (for A.
M. Kurbsky) and the hated (for Grozny) past in the famous correspondence. This version is developed in detail by A.I. Filyushkin, but this assumption still requires additional argumentation.
Despite the hypothesis expressed by Filyushkin, the traditional point of view still remains the opinion of the existence of a kind of government group of compromise between various layers of the ruling class, later called by Prince Andrei Kurbsky in the Lithuanian manner “The Chosen Rada”.
“... Several efficient, well-meaning and gifted advisers came forward and stood near the throne - the Chosen Rada.”
The “Elected Rada” arose no earlier than 1549, and in 1560 it no longer existed.
Oprichnina of Ivan the Terrible
Reform of the court under Ivan the Terrible
Reforms of Ghazan Khan in Iran
Reforms of Gaius Gracchus
Government bodies in Russia in the 18th century
Speransky's reforms
Reforms of Diocletian and Constantine
Reforms of Catherine II in the field of local self-government
Problems of local government reform in the 18th century
Reforms and reform plans in Russia in the 19th century
Results of reforms in Russia in the 18th-19th centuries
Reforms of Ivan IV and Peter I
Tsar Ivan the Terrible
Reforms of the Chosen Rada
Reforms of KosyginKhrushchev
The significance of the reforms of Peter I in the fate of Russia
Reforms of Peter I - a course towards Europeanization of Russia
Mysteries of history
Around 1549, a government circle formed around Tsar Ivan IV (the Terrible). He went down in history as Elected Rada. It was a kind of (unofficial) government under the leadership of Alexei Fedorovich Adashev. He himself was one of the Kostroma nobles, and had noble relatives in Moscow. The Elected Rada included:: priest of the court Cathedral of the Annunciation Sylvester, Metropolitan of Moscow and All Rus' Macarius, Prince Kurbsky Andrei Mikhailovich, head of the Ambassadorial Prikaz Viskovaty Ivan Mikhailovich and others.
The prerequisite for the creation of an unofficial government was the unrest of 1547, called the Moscow Uprising. Ivan IV at this time was only 17 years old. The cause of the uprising was the aggravation of social contradictions in the 30-40s. At this time, the arbitrariness of the boyars was very clearly manifested in connection with the early childhood of Ivan IV.
The Glinsky princes set the tone, since the mother of the crowned boy was Elena Vasilievna Glinskaya.
There was growing dissatisfaction among the broad masses with taxes, which were unbearable. The impetus for the uprising was a fire in Moscow at the end of the second ten days of June.
It was huge in size and caused irreparable damage to the well-being of Muscovites. Embittered people, who had lost all their property, took to the streets of the capital on June 21, 1547.
Rumors spread among the rebels that the city was set on fire by the Glinsky princes. Allegedly, their wives cut out the hearts of the dead, dried them, crushed them, and sprinkled the resulting powder on houses and fences.
After this, magic spells were cast and the powder burst into flames. So they set fire to Moscow buildings in which ordinary people lived.
The angry crowd tore to pieces all the Glinsky princes who came to hand. Their estates, which survived the fire, were looted and burned. The indignant people began to look for the young tsar, but he left Moscow and took refuge in the village of Vorobyovo (Sparrow Hills, during the years of Soviet power they were called Lenin Hills).
The Emperor came out to the people. He behaved calmly and confidently. After much persuasion and promises, he managed to persuade the people to calm down and disperse. People believed the young king. Their indignant ardor died down. The crowd moved to the ashes in order to somehow begin to organize their life.
Meanwhile, by order of Ivan IV, troops were brought to Moscow. They began to arrest the instigators of the uprising. Many of them were executed. Some managed to escape from the capital. But the Glinskys' power was irrevocably undermined. The situation was aggravated by unrest in other Russian cities. All this made it clear to the king that the existing government system was ineffective.
That is why he gathered progressive-minded people around him. Life itself and the instinct of self-preservation forced him to do this. Thus, in 1549, the Elected Rada began its work to reform the state structure in the Muscovite kingdom.
The unofficial government ruled the state on behalf of the king, so its decisions were equated with the royal will. Already in 1550, military reform began to be carried out. Streltsy troops began to form. This was a guard whose task was to protect the sovereign. By analogy, the Streltsy can be compared to the royal musketeers of France. At first there were only 3 thousand people. Over time, the number of archers increased significantly.
And Peter I put an end to such military units in 1698. So they existed for almost 150 years.
Order was established in military service. In total, there were two categories of service people. The first category included boyars and nobles. As soon as a boy was born, he was immediately enrolled in military service. And he became suitable for it upon reaching the age of 15 years.
That is, all people of noble birth were required to serve in the army or in some other government service. Otherwise, they were considered “underage”, regardless of age.
It was a shameful nickname, so everyone served.
Such people were called recruited “by appointment” or by recruiting. But the military of those years had nothing in common with today's military personnel. They did not live in barracks, but were allocated plots of land and private houses. Entire military settlements were formed. In them, the servicemen lived a normal, measured life. They sowed, plowed, harvested, got married and raised children. In case of war, the entire male population was put under arms.
Foreigners also served in the Russian army.
These were mercenaries, and their number never exceeded a couple of thousand people.
The entire vertical of power was subjected to serious reform. They established strict control over local government. It was not the population but the state that began to support it. A unified state duty was introduced. Now only the state collected it.
A single tax per unit area was established for landowners.
The unofficial government also carried out judicial reform. In 1550, a new Code of Law was published - a collection of legislative acts. He regulated cash and in-kind fees from peasants and artisans. Tightened penalties for robbery, robbery and other criminal offenses.
Introduced several harsh articles on punishment for bribes.
The elected Rada paid great attention to personnel policy. The so-called Yard Notebook was created. It was a list of sovereign people who could be appointed to various high positions: diplomatic, military, administrative.
That is, a person fell into a “clip” and could move from one high position to another, bringing benefit to the state everywhere. Subsequently, this style of work was copied by the communists and created the party nomenklatura.
The central state apparatus was significantly improved. Many new orders (ministries and departments, if translated into modern language) appeared, as the functions of local authorities were transferred to officials of the central apparatus.
In addition to national orders, regional ones also emerged. That is, they oversaw certain territories and were responsible for them.
At the head of the order was the clerk. He was appointed not from among the boyars, but from literate and unborn service people. This was done specifically in order to contrast the state apparatus with the boyar power and its influence. That is, the orders served the king, and not the noble nobility, who had their own interests, sometimes at odds with the state ones.
In foreign policy, the Elected Rada was oriented primarily to the east. The Astrakhan and Kazan khanates were annexed to the Moscow kingdom. In the west, the Baltic states fell into the zone of state interests. On January 17, 1558, the Livonian War began. Some members of the unofficial government opposed it. The war dragged on for 25 long years and caused a severe economic crisis (1570-1580), called Porukha.
In 1560, the unofficial government ordered long life. The reason was disagreements between Ivan the Terrible and the reformers. They accumulated for a long time, and their source lay in the exorbitant lust for power and ambitions of the Moscow Tsar. The autocrat began to feel burdened by the presence next to him of people who had independent and independent views.
While the tsarist power was weak, Ivan the Terrible tolerated the reformers and obeyed them in everything. But, thanks to competent transformations, the central apparatus has become very strong.
The Tsar rose above the boyars and became a true autocrat. Adashev and the rest of the reformers began to interfere with him.
The reforms of the Elected Rada did their job - it was no longer needed. The king began to look for a reason to alienate his former friends and devoted assistants. The relationship between Sylvester and Adashev with the closest relatives of the tsar’s first and beloved wife, Anastasia Zakharova-Yuryeva, was tense. When the queen died, Ivan IV accused his former favorites of neglecting the “youth.”
Foreign policy disagreements, aggravated by the Livonian War, added fuel to the fire. But the most serious were internal political conflicts. The Elected Rada carried out very deep reforms, lasting for decades. The king needed immediate results. But the state apparatus was still poorly developed and did not know how to work quickly and efficiently.
At this stage of historical development, all the shortcomings and shortcomings of the central government could only be “corrected” by terror.
The Tsar followed this path, and the reforms of the Elected Rada began to seem backward and ineffective to him.
In 1560, Sylvester was exiled to the Solovetsky Monastery. Adashev and his brother Danila went by royal decree as governors to Livonia. They were soon arrested. Adashev died in prison, and Danila was executed. In 1564, Prince Kurbsky, who led the troops in Livonia, fled to the Grand Duchy of Lithuania.
He was on friendly terms with Adashev and understood that disgrace and execution awaited him.
The fall of the Chosen Rada marked the beginning of one of the most terrible periods of Russian history - oprichnina. The events of the first half of the 60s became its background.
Main reforms of the elected council
The turbulent events that took place in 1547 necessitated radical government reforms. The young tsar, as well as his entourage, created what one of its participants (Prince Kurbsky) called the Elected Rada
This political circle of serving courtiers and nobility was headed by Archpriest Sylvester (the Annunciation Cathedral of the Kremlin), as well as a fairly wealthy nobleman from a noble family, A. F. Adashev. They were joined by such noble princes as Vorotynsky, Odoevsky, Kurbsky and others. In addition, the Elected Rada included the first head of the Polish Prikaz, Viskovaty, as well as an active figure in this circle, Metropolitan Macarius.
While not formally a government agency, the Rada remained essentially the Russian government for thirteen years, governing the state on behalf of the Tsar himself and implementing a series of significant major reforms.
In the mid-sixteenth century, the Elected Rada established a single standard for collecting taxes for the entire state called “plow”.
In order to strengthen the country's armament, in 1550 Ivan the Terrible began to implement military reforms. It was then that localism was abolished - the procedure for filling positions in the army according to the degree of nobility (during campaigns).
Also in the Moscow district, by order of the tsar on October 1, 1550, a “chosen thousand” was introduced (more than a thousand provincial nobles, constituting the core of the noble militia, as well as the support of autocratic power). But this project was not fully implemented.
One order of service was determined: by device (by recruiting) and by homeland (by origin). Boyar children and nobles served in their own country. Military service was regulated by the “Code of Service”, inherited and starting from the age of fifteen (a nobleman who had not reached this age was considered a minor). Nobles and boyars had to field a warrior, and if this was not done, it was punishable by a large fine.
Also in 1550, a rifle army was formed (from among the servicemen), armed with both bladed weapons (sabers and reeds) and firearms (squeaks). At the very beginning, three thousand people were recruited into this army, disbanded into six separate “orders” (regiments). It was they who made up the royal personal guard.
In addition, the government of the Chosen Rada strengthened the tsarist state apparatus, improving the order system and thus expanding the bureaucratic apparatus.
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