FRANCO-PRUSSIAN WAR
1870 – 1871
Background to the war
After victory in the Austro-Prussian-Italian War of 1866 (see previous posts), Prussia sought to unite all German states under its auspices, as well as weaken France. France, in turn, tried to exclude the possibility of the formation of a united and strong Germany.
The formal reason for the war was the claim to the Spanish throne, which was put forward by a relative of the Prussian king, Leopold Hohenzollern. Spanish Queen Isabella was overthrown in 1868 II , which led to the start of the revolution. Afterwards, Germany and France put forward their candidacies for the Spanish throne. Leopold's claims were secretly supported by Otto von Bismarck. In Paris they were outraged by Leopold's claims. Napoleon III forced Hohenzollern to renounce the Spanish throne, and after that Napoleon's ambassador demanded that King William of Prussia himself approve this refusal I , which would be an insult.
This was taken advantage of by von Bismarck, who, as a result of diplomatic intrigue, forced France to declare war on Prussia. Thus, from the point of view of “big politics,” France was the aggressor. "Guard! France again threatens the freedom of Germany!!” But in essence, Prussia needed this war, and it was Prussia that was better prepared for it.
Beautiful Germany guarding the Rhine
KEY PARTICIPANTS
Emperor of France Napoleon III
King Wilhelm of Prussia I
Chancellor of the North German Confederation
Otto Eduard Leopold von Bismarck-Schönhausen
WAR CARDS
Detailed
Take it easy
Simple
Fighting
By August 1, the French Army of the Rhine was ready to enter Germany. It consisted of the Guard, seven army corps and a cavalry reserve. The total number of French troops reached 200 thousand. The emperor himself took charge of them, with General Leboeuf as chief of staff. By the same time, the advanced German troops (about 330 thousand), divided into 3 armies, deployed on the Trier-Landau line. Here it is necessary to clarify that although the war is called Franco-Prussian, in fact the alliance of North German states opposed France, plus the South German states joined this alliance. Thus, the war should be called Franco-German.
Already on July 28, at the military council in Metz, it became clear that the French army was completely unprepared, but public opinion demanded offensive action, and the 2nd Corps of General Frossard was moved to Saarbrücken, where the first, inconclusive battle with the Germans who occupied this city followed (August 2). squad.
Meanwhile, on August 3, the transportation of German troops to the border was completed, and the next day the 3rd Prussian (German) Army invaded Alsace and defeated the French division of General Douai, located near Weissenburg.
Following this, Napoleon III , having abandoned the general command of the troops and leaving at his disposal only the guard and the 6th corps, entrusted the defense of Alsace to three corps (1st, 5th and 7th) under the command of MacMahon, and the troops stationed at Metz subordinated to Marshal Bazin. Thus, the army, which was not distinguished by great combat fervor, was divided.
Subsequently, a series of fierce battles followed, in which the Prussians/Germans invariably held the upper hand. The French retreated, the Germans pressed, and an interesting situation turned out. The Germans bypassed the French and near Metz they attacked to the East, and the French fought facing the West, i.e., the armies fought with an inverted front.
On the morning of August 16, Emperor Napoleon, who was with Bazin’s army, III went to Chalons. On the same day, French troops were attacked at Mars-la-Tour and Vionville by two corps of the 2nd German Army. This battle, indecisive in a tactical sense, was an important victory for the Germans in a strategic sense. They intercepted Bazin's direct route of retreat to Paris. Instead of taking advantage of the temporary superiority of his forces to attack the enemy the next day, on August 17 Bazaine withdrew his troops to an impregnable, in his opinion, position under the very fortress of Metz. Meanwhile, the 1st and 2nd German armies (over 250 thousand) were quickly approaching the decisive point of the campaign. The location of Bazaine's troops became clear to the Germans only around noon on August 18th. On this day, in the morning they moved in a northerly direction. A stubborn general battle took place at Saint-Privat and Gravelotte, in which the Germans inflicted a decisive defeat on the French. The French army retreated to Metz, where it was blocked.
Map of the battle of Gravelotte - Saint-Privat
Siege of Metz
The next day, the German military forces were reorganized. The 4th Army (Meuse) was formed from the guard, 12th and 4th corps of the 2nd Army, with the 5th and 6th cavalry divisions. She, together with the 3rd (total strength up to 245 thousand), was ordered to attack Paris.
On the French side, meanwhile, a new army (about 140 thousand) was formed at Chalons, under the command of MacMahon. The emperor himself arrived to this army. At first it was decided to take her to Paris, but public opinion rebelled against this, demanding Bazin’s revenue, and, at the insistence of the new Minister of War, Count Palikao, MacMahon decided to carry out such a risky operation. On August 23, his army moved to the Meuse River. This movement was delayed by food difficulties, and yet on August 25, accurate information about it was received at the German headquarters. The 3rd and 4th German armies moved in a northerly direction, across MacMahon, and managed to warn the French at the crossings across the Meuse. Repeated clashes with the German troops that were overtaking him pointed out to McMahon the danger that threatened him. He still had the opportunity to save his army, but instead led it to the Sedan fortress, which did not at all represent a reliable stronghold and was surrounded on all sides by dominant heights. The result was the Sedan disaster that followed on September 1, which ended with the capture of the entire French army of MacMahon, along with Emperor Napoleon III.
Maps of the Sedan disaster
Of the entire active French army, only the 13th Corps remained free, which was sent by the Minister of War to reinforce MacMahon and had already reached Maizières, but, having learned on the evening of September 1 about what happened at Sedan, it immediately began to retreat to Paris. pursued by the 6th German Corps.
Official news of the defeat at Sedan was received in the capital of France on September 3, and the next day there, as a result of a mass uprising of Parisians, Napoleon III was declared deposed, and a Government of National Defense was organized, which offered peace to Germany, but, due to the excessive demands of the victorious enemy, the agreement did not take place.
The Germans brought about 700 thousand people into France during September and October. The French, apart from Bazin’s army locked in Metz, had only relatively insignificant reliable forces left. Together with Vinoy's corps, which made it to Paris, up to 150 thousand people could be counted in Paris, a significant part of which were of very dubious dignity. However, the Germans refused to storm Paris and surrounded it with a tight ring. Later, when heavy artillery was brought up, they began shelling Paris.
Maps of the Siege of Paris
Subsequently, the war took on the character of a struggle for Paris. A prominent role was later played by Leon Michel Gambetta. The hastily elected Government of People's Defense entrusted Gambetta with the post of Minister of the Interior. Before the new government could do anything, Paris was surrounded and cut off from the country. Gambetta flew from Paris in a hot air balloon and two days later appeared in Tours, imbued with the thought of saving his homeland.
Leon Michel Gambetta
France was completely disorganized, left without an army, without weapons and fortresses. Gambetta, vested with dictatorial powers, organized the defense within a month. The armies he assembled spent four months trying to unblock Paris and somehow improve the situation in the war.
Using the enormous economic and human potential, Gambetta created new corps and armies, but the trouble was that he tried to command them, not paying attention to the advice of the military. The newly created armies were invariably defeated. Several attempts by the Parisian garrison to break through were unsuccessful. Moreover, after 70 days of siege, the army in Metz capitulated. A series of bloody battles took place in the Orleans area, where the French tried to break through to Paris.
Meanwhile, the French, led by Gambetta, “produced” more and more new corps and armies. The Loire, 2nd Loire, Eastern, and Northern armies were created. Moreover, even Giuseppe Garibaldi decided to help France and created his own “army”. But this hero of Italy was a little mistaken - that being good for Italy and against all sorts of Italian “states” is completely unsuitable against German power. The Prussian General Staff never seriously considered this army. One Badensky demonstration was enough XIV corps, so that the “valiant Garibaldians” began to retreat and evade battle.
After the fall of Metz, the liberated German troops began to methodically capture all the fortresses in the combat area.
On January 19, 1871, the French made a new attempt to break out of surrounded Paris to the south, to the Loire, which ended in complete failure and the loss of more than 4 thousand people.
On January 22, a riot broke out in Paris, which, however, was soon suppressed. On January 28, a truce was concluded for 21 days. Pressed to the border, Clenchan's French army (about 80 thousand) crossed from Verrieres to Switzerland on February 1, where they laid down their arms.
Peace treaty
February 26, 1871 A preliminary peace treaty was signed at Versailles. On March 1, German troops entered Paris and occupied part of the city. After receiving news of the ratification of the preliminary treaty by the French National Assembly, they were withdrawn on March 3. The final peace treaty was signed on May 10 in Frankfurt am Main.
France lost Alsace and Lorraine, and also pledged to pay an indemnity of 5 billion francs.
French Army losses
Total losses in the war
Birth of the German Empire
January 18, 1871 at Versailles Bismarck and Wilhelm I announced the reunification of Germany. Bismarck's dream came true - he created a unified German state. The Empire was quickly joined by states that were not part of the North German Confederation - Bavaria and other southern German states. Austria did not become part of the newly unified Germany. The five billion francs that the French paid to the Germans as indemnities became a solid foundation for the German economy. Bismarck became Germany's second man, but this is only formally. In fact, the prime minister was practically the sole ruler, and William I was not persistent and greedy for power.
Thus, a new powerful power appeared on the continent - the German Empire, whose territory was 540,857 km², population 41,058,000 people, and an army of almost 1 million soldiers.
Proclamation of the German Empire
MAJOR BATTLES OF THE WAR
PAINTINGS
DEDICATED TO WAR
As it turned out, there are no paintings based on this war! She was portrayed by both the French and Germans. There is romance, tragedy, and drama. There is both realism and criticism. So here's a little, a little.
For the first decade and a half after the re-proclamation of the empire in France in the 19th century, Napoleon lll sought to act as the father of all Frenchmen. Having created a luxurious court, bringing closer to himself the aristocracy and industrialists who were enriching themselves on military orders, Bonaparte’s nephew secured the support of the nobility and the wealthy segments of the population. The introduction of universal suffrage for men over 21, the repeal of laws prohibiting strikes, permission to create workers' organizations, and an increase in wages at state enterprises were greeted with satisfaction by the population.
Napoleon's policies lll gave rise to the term "Bonapartism", which meant a course based on concessions to the demands of all sectors of society, including those with opposing interests. This made it possible to increase the influence and authority of the authorities without repression and terror. Carrying out such a policy required significant resources, which could be provided either by a prosperous economy or constant external conquests.
Economic crisis of the late 1860s. led to an aggravation of the situation in the country. Strikes became more frequent, and at the next elections to the legislative body the representation of supporters of the republican form of government expanded.
Internal difficulties were combined with a deterioration in France's international position.
The ambitious plans of Napoleon lll to return France to the role of the first power in Europe did not suit the leading countries of the world. Russia was hostile to France and did not forgive it for its defeat in the Crimean War. Italy, forced to cede Nice and Savoy to France for very limited support during the war of 1859, also did not have good feelings towards its neighbor. In addition, the French troops occupying Rome prevented the final unification of the country; Austria, which had lost its Italian possessions in the war with France, was not inclined to show solidarity with it. The influence of France in Egypt, which allowed it to build the Suez Canal in 1869, alarmed the ruling circles of England. They saw France's control of the shortest route from Europe to Asia as a threat to their possessions in India.
The diplomatic isolation of France was used by Prussia, where French influence on the southern German states (Bavaria, Baden, Württemberg, Hesse-Darmstadt) was seen as an obstacle to the completion of the unification of the German lands. The reason for the war was the question of succession to the throne in Spain.
The proposal of King William of Prussia to occupy the vacant throne in Madrid by a prince from the House of Hohenzollern was rejected by Napoleon lll. He, in an ultimatum, demanded that the King of Prussia renounce his claims. William l was inclined to yield, but Bismarck edited the king's answer in such a way that it became offensive to the Emperor of France.
On July 14, 1870, Napoleon lll declared war on Prussia. Thus, Bismarck achieved his goal: in the eyes of other powers, France looked like an attacking party. Napoleon lll hoped that the war with Prussia would consolidate the nation, restore the prestige of France and expand its borders. However, Prussia was much better prepared for the war; its army acted according to a clear plan developed by the Chief of the General Staff G. von Moltke (1800-1891).
The Prussian army managed to seize the initiative from the very beginning of hostilities and inflict significant damage on the French troops, who retreated in disorder along the entire front. On September 2, 1870, more than 100 thousand French soldiers and officers, surrounded in the Sedan area, surrendered, Emperor Napoleon lll was also captured, and on September 16, German troops approached Paris.
The news of the emperor's capture marked the end of the Second Empire. A provisional government of national defense was formed in Paris and elections to a constituent assembly were scheduled. The Parisians armed themselves, and a national guard was created in a huge city with a population of more than 1.5 million people, which prevented the Prussians from capturing Paris.
Nevertheless, it was no longer possible to turn the tide of the war. On October 27, the French army capitulated, surrounded in the Metz fortress. Paris remained under siege for more than four months, despite bombing, famine and food shortages.
The impotence of the government caused growing discontent among Parisians, and suspicions of treason grew. The repeated unrest that broke out in the city alarmed the authorities. Fears of establishing a Jacobin-type dictatorship pushed the government to conclude a truce on January 28, 1871, on terms dictated by Prussia - resistance ceased. Paris paid the indemnity, its forts and artillery were transferred to the Prussian troops. At the same time, they failed to disarm the National Guard.
In the National Assembly, the monarchists received a majority in the elections. However, the deputies spoke in favor of preserving the republic, in whose name the peace was concluded. France pledged to pay Germany an indemnity of 5 billion francs in gold and ceded Alsace and Lorraine, rich in iron ore. These conditions laid the foundation for a long confrontation between France, which did not accept the loss of part of its territory, and the German Empire, the creation of which was declared on January 18, 1871.
The entry into force of the peace treaty and the withdrawal of German troops from French territory were delayed by the uprising that began in Paris on March 18, 1871. The pretext for it was an attempt by government troops to take away artillery from the National Guard. The rebel guards took possession of the city. The government fled to the former royal residence - Versailles. In Paris, a self-government body was elected that united the executive and legislative powers - the Commune. Uprisings also swept through other cities of France - Bordeaux, Lyon, Marseille, Toulouse and others, but the Communes created in them failed to establish themselves for more than a few days.
The Paris Commune lasted 72 days and attracted the attention of both governments and revolutionary democrats in Europe. Polish and Belgian revolutionaries fought on the side of the Communards against the Versailles troops. The experience of the Commune was subsequently considered by Marxists and leaders of revolutionary movements as a prototype of the future workers' government.
Meanwhile, the Commune was more reminiscent of a debating club than a functional government. From the very beginning, its leaders lost the military initiative by refraining from attacking Versailles. There was no unanimity in their ranks on the question of whether the Commune should be considered the government of only Paris or all of France. The measures taken by the Commune were limited, limited to establishing workers' control over enterprises abandoned by their owners and moving poor families from working-class neighborhoods into empty apartments of aristocrats and bourgeois.
Troops loyal to the government gathered at Versailles; the Prussian army, which continued to blockade Paris, let them through their positions to the city. Having burst into the city after stubborn fighting, the Versailles achieved victory. Defenders of the Commune were shot without trial, and on May 28, 1871, the fighting in Paris ended.
And so... briefly about the main thing)) here:
Reunification of Italy:
1861 - Italian reunification around the Savoy dynasty.
By the second half of the 19th century, a significant part of Italy was part of the Austrian Habsburg Empire.
The most developed state is Sardinia.
The Prime Minister of Sardinia, Count C. Cavour, is a liberal. views, he believed that the situation was favorable for the unification of the country under the auspices of Piedmont. conditions
Progress of the merger:
1) During Crimea. During the war, Sardinia took the side of England and France, sending troops to the Crimea. For this help, Cavour hoped for assistance from France in the reunification of Italy (+ in 1858, an agreement was concluded on the transfer of Nice and Savoy to France in exchange for participation in the war against Austria, which controlled most of Northern Italy);
2) In the war that began in 1859 (Austro-Italian-French War), Parma created constituent assemblies that decided to unite with Sardinia;
3) France made peace with Austria (having betrayed Italy + certain lands promised to Italy remained with Austria, etc.);
4) This provoked the growth of patriotism. movement in Italy;
5) In 1860, an uprising began in Sicily (Kingdom of Naples). The volunteer corps led by D. Garibaldi opposed the Bourbons, who ruled in the south of the country;
6) Overthrow of the Bourbons;
7) In 1861, the 1st All-Italian. parliament proclaimed edited the country and created the kingdom of Italy, led by a cat. became King Victor Emmanuel of Piedmont.
The composition is new. The kingdoms did not include Venice and the Roman region, which remained a church state under the rule of the Pope.
Further the unification of Italy is connected with the struggle of Prussia for the unification of Germany (Italy took the side of Prussia in the Austro-Prussian War of 1866, Italy received Venice).
German reunification:
1871 – unification of Germany (creation of a federal state around the Kingdom of Prussia, the German Empire, consisting of several dozen independent states with a German population; Austria and Luxembourg were not included in Prussia).
The unification of Germany is traditionally considered. as watered percent throughout 1864-70, during the cat. Prussia conducted a series of wars. campaigns against Denmark, Austria and France.
Conducted by Otto von Bismarck.
The unification of Germany is a result of the Franco-Prussian War.
1870-71 – Franco-Prussian War.
Franco-Prussian War:
1) The reason for the war was Prussia’s desire to unite other fragmented countries under its leadership. Germany, France resisted this;
2) The reason for the war was the Emma Dispatch (claims to the Spanish throne put forward by Wilhelm of Prussia’s relative Leopold Hohenzollern. Leopold’s claims were secretly supported by Otto von Bismarck. In Paris they were outraged by Leopold’s claims. Napoleon III forced Hohenzollern to renounce the Spanish throne, and after that the ambassador Napoleon demanded that Wilhelm himself approve this refusal);
3) July 14, 1870 Napoleon lll declared war on Prussia (Bismarck achieved his goal: in the eyes of other powers, France looked like the attacking party);
4) Prussia with himself. won the beginning of the war (for example, in the fall of 1870 Napoleon lll was captured);
5) 28 Jan. 1871 - the conclusion of a truce, the terms of the cat. Prussia dictated (Paris paid an indemnity, its forts and artillery were transferred to Prussian troops).
Results F.-P. wars:
1) the South Germans supported Prussia throughout the war, and after Prussia’s victory over France, the idea of German unity was revived and then put into practice;
2) the rise of national self-awareness in Germany;
3) After the victory at Sedan, the South German states began negotiations with Prussia about joining the North German Confederation;
4) Then another series of annexations to Prussia took place;
5) On December 10, 1870, the Reichstag of the North German Confederation, on the proposal of the Chancellor of the North German Confederation, Bismarck, renamed the North German Confederation into the German Empire;
6) On January 18, 1871, in the Palace of Versailles near Paris, Bismarck, in the presence of German princes, read the text of the proclamation of the Prussian king as German emperor.
Polit. features:
1) 25 states had different rights and unequal influence within the empire.
2) department. allotment the monarchs retained their selves in place. level, had influence through the appointment of representatives with the right of veto to the top. chamber of the German parliament.
Elections to the lower house (Reichstag) were held on a universal basis. Equal elect. rights for men;
3) democrat. The nature of the elections to the Reichstag is inconsistent. possible lower classes influence the management of the state; 4) real power was concentrated in the hands of the emperor.
Question #33
Related information.
He sought to unite all German lands under his rule, and the French Emperor Napoleon III tried to prevent this, not wanting to see another strong state in Europe, and even one neighboring France.
Reasons and reason for war
All that remained for the Prussian Chancellor to do to create a united Germany was to annex the South German states. But Bismarck was not going to limit himself to this: the Prussians were attracted by the French provinces of Alsace and Lorraine, rich in coal and iron ore, which were so necessary for German industrialists.
Thus, the reasons for the Franco-Prussian war were obvious, all that remained was to find a reason. Both sides actively searched for him, and he was soon found. In July 1870, the Spanish government, preoccupied with finding a candidate for the royal throne, which was left without an owner after the next revolution, turned to the relative of the Prussian king, Prince Leopold. Napoleon III, who did not want to see another crowned representative next door to France, began to negotiate with Prussia. The French ambassador managed to achieve success in this. But, as it turned out later, a provocation was hidden here. Bismarck composed a telegram to the French emperor about Prussia's renunciation of the Spanish throne in a rather offensive tone for the French, and even published it in newspapers. The result was predictable - the enraged Napoleon III declared war on Prussia.
Balance of power
The international situation in which the Franco-Prussian War began was more favorable for Prussia than for France. The states that were part of the French side took the side of Bismarck, but the French emperor was left without allies. Russia maintained a neutral position; diplomatic relations with Britain and Italy were hopelessly damaged thanks to the incompetent policies of Napoleon III. The only state that could enter the war on his side was Austria, but the Austrian government, which had recently been defeated in the war with Prussia, did not dare to get involved in a new battle with its recent enemy.
From the very first days, the Franco-Prussian war revealed the weaknesses of the French army. Firstly, its numbers were seriously inferior to the enemy - 570 thousand soldiers versus 1 million for the North German Confederation. The weapons were also worse. The only thing the French could be proud of was their faster rate of fire. But the most important thing was the lack of a clear plan of military action. It was compiled hastily, and much of it was unrealistic: both the timing of mobilization and the calculations for a split between the allies.
As for Prussia, the Franco-Prussian war, of course, did not take either the king or the chancellor by surprise. Its army was distinguished by discipline and excellent weapons, and was created on the basis of universal conscription. The dense network of railways in Germany made it possible to quickly transfer military units to the right place. And, of course, the Prussian command had a clear plan of action, developed long before the war.
Hostilities
In August 1870, the offensive began. The French corps were defeated one after another. On September 1, a battle began near the Sedan fortress, where Napoleon III was located. The French command was unable to avoid encirclement, and on top of that, the army suffered huge losses from cross-fire. As a result, the very next day Napoleon III was forced to surrender. Having captured 84 thousand people, the Prussians moved towards the French capital.
The news of the defeat at Sedan sparked an uprising in Paris. Already on September 4, a Republic was proclaimed in France. The new government began to form new armies. Thousands of volunteers took up arms, but the new authorities were unable to organize the country’s defense from the enemy. On October 27, Marshal Bazin’s huge army, numbering almost 200 thousand people, capitulated. According to historians, the marshal could well have repelled the Prussians, but chose to surrender.
On other fronts, Bismarck was also lucky. As a result, on January 28, 1871, a truce was signed in Versailles. The Franco-Prussian War is over. There, in the palace of the French kings, it was proclaimed. Half a century will pass, and in the same hall the Germans will sign, after Germany is defeated in the First World War. But so far this was far from happening: in May of the same year, the parties signed a peace treaty, according to which France not only lost Alsace and Lorraine, but also a tidy sum of 5 billion francs. Thus, the Franco-Prussian War of 1870-1871. not only united Germany, but also significantly weakened France economically.
For secret defensive alliances (-):
Bavaria
Baden
Württemberg
Hesse-Darmstadt
Francois Achille Bazin
Patrice de MacMahon
Helmut Carl Bernhard von Moltke (The Elder)
139,000 dead and 143,000 wounded
52,313 dead and 89,732 injured
Franco-Prussian War- - military conflict between the empire of Napoleon III and Prussia, which was seeking European hegemony. The war, provoked by the Prussian Chancellor O. Bismarck and formally started by Napoleon III, ended with the defeat and collapse of the French Empire, as a result of which Prussia managed to transform the North German Confederation into a unified German Empire.
Main article: Luxembourg question
The most important thing in this passage is the instruction to “limit the size of military operations.” It belonged to Austria and kept her from intervening in the war on the side of France.
During the Franco-Prussian War, France, Austria-Hungary and Prussia tried to win Italy over to their side. But neither country was successful. France still held Rome and had a garrison in that city. The Italians wanted to unite their country, including Rome, but France did not allow this. France did not intend to withdraw its garrison from Rome, thereby losing a possible ally. Prussia feared that Italy might start a war with France, and tried in every possible way to achieve Italian neutrality in the outbreak of the war. Fearing the strengthening of Italy, Bismarck himself personally wrote to the King of Italy, Victor Emmanuel, asking him not to interfere in the war with France. On the Austrian side, although there were proposals for an alliance against Prussia, they did not have the same effect as Bismarck's words. The Prussian Chancellor managed to achieve neutrality from Italy in this war.
German artillerymen near Paris.
| Weapon | A country | Year of issue | Years of use | Length | Weight | Weight (charged) | Caliber | Rifling | Magazine capacity | Rate of fire | Initial bullet speed | Sighting range | Muzzle energy of a bullet |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Dreyse rifle, model 1849 | Prussia | - | 1422 mm | 4.1 kg | 4.7 kg | 15.43 mm | 4 right | manual chuck feed | 10 rounds per minute | 295 m/s | 600 m | 850-950 joules | |
| Chassepot rifle, model 66 | France | - | 1314 mm | 3.7 kg | 4.6 kg | 11.43 mm | 4 right | manual chuck feed | N/A | 405 m/s | 1200 m | 1100-1200 joules |
Chapter 30. Franco-Prussian War of 1870–1871
The war between France and Germany in 1870 marked the first time that improved rifled weapons were used by professional armies on both sides. Therefore, this war represents the only source from which one can understand what effect new weapons have on the actions of various branches of the military and the change in the relative importance of the branches of troops in the conduct of hostilities.
Both armies fought had numerous, well-armed and trained cavalry, although their ratio to infantry in both armies was smaller than in other wars. This happened due to an increase in the size of the armies themselves, rather than due to a reduction in cavalry forces.
The French cavalry consisted of 11 cuirassier and 1 carabinieri regiments, heavy or reserve cavalry, 13 dragoon and 9 uhlan regiments of line cavalry, 17 cavalry, 9 hussars and 3 spagis (local African cavalry) light cavalry. The guards and light cavalry regiments each had 6 squadrons, including 1 reserve. Other cavalry regiments had 4 field and 1 reserve squadron each. Two regiments were united into brigades, and 2 or 3 brigades made up a cavalry division. In wartime, the total number of cavalry was 40 thousand people.
Each corps, consisting of three or four infantry divisions, had a cavalry division attached to it, which was under the direct command of the corps commander, so that the commanders of the infantry divisions could not directly dispose of the cavalry. In the German army, one cavalry regiment was assigned to each infantry division.
French division commanders more than once felt the need for special and maneuverable cavalry units. This happened, for example, near Weissenburg, where General Abel Douhet, together with the 2nd Infantry Division of the 1st Corps, did not have a single platoon of cavalry to organize reconnaissance on his front. He occupied an advanced position, and the Prussian attack on him was unexpected and ended in heavy losses and withdrawal.
In addition to the cavalry divisions attached to the French corps, there was also a reserve cavalry corps of three divisions, totaling 48 squadrons, 30 cannons and 6 mitrailleuses (the French name for canister).
The cavalry's armament was as follows. Cuirassiers had broadswords and pistols, lancers had pikes, sabers and pistols, dragoons, rangers and hussars were equally armed with Chassepo carbines, which fired at 800 steps, and sabers. These units consisted of mounted riflemen, although they usually acted similarly to other mounted units, but if necessary they dismounted and fought on foot.
The cavalry of the North German Confederation (created in 1867 under the auspices of Prussia) consisted of 10 cuirassiers, 21 lancers, 21 dragoons, 18 hussars and 6 light regiments, a total of 76 regiments of 4 active squadrons and 1 reserve.
There were about 600 cavalry in the regiment. Each infantry division consisted of a cavalry regiment, the remaining regiments were consolidated into divisions and assigned to different armies; divisions, consisting of 2 brigades of 2 regiments, each had a horse battery. Cuirassiers and dragoons were considered heavy cavalry, all others were considered light cavalry. The total number of cavalry in the German army, including the South German troops, was 369 squadrons, or approximately 56 thousand people.
From the very beginning of the war of 1870, the superiority of the Germans in organization and in the art of warfare became obvious. The wars of the great Napoleon, followed by successes in the Crimean War, and even more clear achievements in Italy in 1859 (under Magenta and others) instilled in the French a belief in their invincibility, they rested on their laurels, not paying due attention to improvements in military affairs . The experience of the American Civil War taught the French nothing, they believed that the armies in the United States, recruited from ordinary people, not professional soldiers, could not teach anything to an army like the French, so the lessons of the American war had no value.
The French seem to have lost sight of the fact that four years of constant fighting with varying degrees of success can produce high-level soldiers whose practical knowledge of military affairs will be greater than if all their service and training in military affairs were carried out in peacetime.
Consequently, the French did not take advantage of the cavalry experience developed in America. Therefore, the guard and reconnaissance service of their cavalry turned out to be below any criticism, and their actions in battle, extremely brave and courageous, but equally thoughtless, led only to fruitless casualties at Vert and Sedan.
Nothing stands out more clearly in descriptions of the 1870 campaign than the ineptitude of the French in the performance of guard and reconnaissance services. It was completely neglected, as happened, for example, at Beaumont, or, as in other places, it was executed so carelessly that the French troops were repeatedly attacked by the enemy in their bivouacs in broad daylight and were taken by surprise.
Four years before the start of the Franco-Prussian War, the German cavalry had already dealt with the Austrian cavalry, whose reconnaissance and guard service was carried out equally ineffectively. Accordingly, the Germans became more bold in conducting reconnaissance, which was greatly facilitated by the inactivity of the French cavalry in such operations. From the very beginning of the campaign, the German cavalry brought much benefit to their army, both by reconnaissance and by tirelessly conducting long-range surveillance and reconnaissance of the enemy in all directions.
Thanks to constant impunity, German patrols walked behind the French lines and made bold and risky searches in small groups of cavalrymen, collecting and bringing back very important information regarding enemy positions and movements.
The careful training of German soldiers in peacetime and well-written instructions for the performance of basic duties now proved to be of extraordinary value to them, enabling them to perform admirably the service which had been entrusted to them in war.
On the night of June 23-24, a patrol of Prussian lancers penetrated the French lines and blew up the French railway viaduct at Saargemund. From that day on, the Prussian cavalry began to constantly demonstrate its superiority. On July 26, the Württemberg General Staff officer Count Zeppelin, together with 4 officers and 4 lower ranks, passed through the French forward posts located near Lauterburg and acted for 36 hours in the French rear, conducting reconnaissance. However, while resting at a small inn in Schirlenhof, south of Werth, 10 miles in rear of the French outposts, the group was unexpectedly attacked. Only Count Zeppelin managed to gallop away and bring back a large amount of information of extraordinary significance, on the basis of which a plan for the advancement of the Crown Prince's army was built a few days later.
Meanwhile, the French cavalry was inactive. General Abel Douai, along with his 2nd Infantry Division, did not have any cavalry. When he was pushed forward into an exposed position at Weissenburg, he was suddenly attacked by the enemy and Douai was completely defeated during the advance of the German 3rd Army. This was the first Prussian success, and was followed two days later by a second, at Werth, where the French right wing also suffered seriously from the advancing Prussians. During these battles, the French fought bravely and courageously, but were attacked unexpectedly and by superior forces.
At the Battle of Werth, Michel's French cuirassier brigade, from the French right flank, attacked the Prussian left flank, which was advancing towards Morsbronn and threatened to bypass the French right flank. This brigade, numbering a thousand men, advanced on Morsbronn in three lines over difficult terrain.
Despite rifle fire, they bravely rushed forward to strike the Prussian infantry, preventing them from forming into battle formation. The Germans met the attack in the formation they were in, without having time to form a cohesive square that would have given them the opportunity to fire with enormous advantage.
Nevertheless, within a few minutes, as a result of heavy rifle fire, the cuirassiers suffered huge losses. Those who remained tried to continue the attack, but were captured, and only a few managed to break through and escape by roundabout routes. But these remnants of the brigade were also attacked by the Prussian hussar regiment.
As a result of this battle, Michel's brigade and the 6th Lancers regiment, which attacked along with it, were almost completely destroyed, only a few managed to break through to their own. The Prussian hussars lost 1 man killed, 23 were wounded, and 35 horses were damaged. Infantry losses were very insignificant.
Thanks to the sacrifice of a cavalry brigade, the French managed to gain time for the retreat of their right wing. The attack was carried out brilliantly and in perfect order: the horsemen rushed towards the enemy without hesitation or stoppage, and yet the fire of the infantry, which was conducted from needle guns, was sufficient to defeat them and almost completely destroy them, so that the infantry did not even need to line up in a square. In this war we will see other examples of how cavalry had little chance of success if it operated in the old way.
After the battles of Werth and Spichern, the French, discouraged by their defeats, were forced to quickly retreat in different directions, the right flank under the command of MacMahon retreated first to the south and then in a roundabout way to Chalons, and the rest of the army (Bazaine) retreated to Metz.
At the same time, the German cavalry performed so magnificently that it proved its enormous capabilities and the usefulness it could bring in combat, despite the very significant improvement in the quality of firearms. Although the chances of success for cavalry on the battlefield were greatly reduced, there were still ample opportunities for its use, which the Germans did, and very skillfully.
The German cavalry hurried to get one or two marches ahead of the main infantry corps, constantly keeping the enemy in sight, and, spreading far and wide over a long distance, formed an impenetrable curtain or veil that hid the movements of the main army, allowing the latter to be at peace with respect to possible attacks by the enemy . She was sure that she was securely covered in this way. All these duties were carried out in the most remarkable manner, with courage, energy and skill, showing the enormous advantages afforded by superior numbers and well-organized mounted troops.
At a time when the armies of most countries began to reduce the number of cavalry, having come to the conclusion that it had become less necessary, in the Prussian (and North German) army, on the contrary, it was strengthened rather than reduced, constantly remembering the enormous value of cavalry.
The units and cavalry units moved far forward practically concealed for the French generals all information about the positions and intentions of the Prussians. The patrols of lancers and hussars appeared everywhere, and under their curtain it was impossible to detect from which part of the moving curtain of horsemen the main forces would appear.
The German corps walked 20–30 miles (32–48 km) behind their cavalry units in safety, both while moving and during halts and bivouacs. Meanwhile, the German cavalry advanced, drove MacMahon south of Metz, overran the entire territory between the troops of MacMahon and Bazaine, and soon reached the Moselle.
They reached Nancy, the main city of Lorraine, and on August 12 the city was surrendered to 6 Uhlan regiments, which were soon joined by a larger number of other mounted units. Soon the Prussian cavalry occupied the entire Moselle line, spreading all the way to the fortifications of Metz. It was thanks to the daring and dashing actions of the German cavalry that McMahon's reinforcements were unable to join the main forces of the French army.
The Germans then crossed the Moselle at Pont-à-Mousson, and the whole great mass of cavalry advanced north to envelop the right flank of the French army at Metz. By this time it was clear that the French intended to retreat towards Verdun, and it was important to prevent, if possible, their advance.
The main forces of the Germans were still far behind, although they were marching at a forced pace. The advanced cavalry was supposed to hold the enemy until the infantry corps arrived. On the morning of August 15, the German advanced cavalry units attacked the Metz-Verdun road and were able to delay the French retreat for almost 24 hours.
General Forton's cavalry division, which formed the vanguard of the French army, in this transition encountered Redern's brigade from the 5th Prussian cavalry division, which had a battery of horse artillery. This small detachment of Prussian cavalry fought bravely and delayed the movement of the entire southern column of the French army with artillery fire.
It is necessary to note the ineffectiveness and lack of initiative in the response by the French cavalry, since General Forton had a significant number of cavalrymen and could easily throw Redern’s small Prussian brigade out of the way, thereby ensuring the continuation of the movement. However, instead of advancing, he retreated to Vionville, and with this the fate of Bazaine's army was practically sealed.
The next day, after a difficult march, German infantry divisions began to approach one after another, the French attempts to resume the movement towards Verdun led to the battle of Mars-la-Tour and Vionville, which ended unsuccessfully for the French. The French retreated to Gravelotte, where the decisive battle took place. It led to Bazin being surrounded at Metz, where he finally surrendered.
In the midst of the battle on August 16 at Vionville there was a critical moment when the 6th French Corps under the command of Marshal Canrobert, initially outnumbering the Prussians, pressed with enormous force and threatened a decisive attack on the weary troops of Elfensleben and Flavigny.
Having neither infantry nor artillery in reserve, Elfensleben decided that his only hope was to mount a decisive attack with his entire cavalry, which was done. Admittedly, it seemed to be something of a last resort, since it was clear that all the soldiers would be sacrificed.
The brigade, consisting of 3 squadrons of the 7th Cuirassier Regiment and three from the 16th Uhlan Regiment, was commanded by General Bredov. He formed them in a single line, but due to a delay in the deployment of the 16th Lancers, the attack began in ledges. Under heavy artillery fire, they rushed forward, soon reached the guns, cut down the artillerymen with broadswords and sabers, and rushed at full speed further towards the infantry lines located in the rear. She met the attacking squadron with volleys of gunfire.
Nevertheless, the infantry lines were broken through, broadswords, sabers and pikes had a deadly effect, and several mitrailleuses were captured. Excited by success, carried away by the hot fury of the attack, the Germans could no longer unite or reorganize. And then the French cuirassiers of the 7th Cuirassier Regiment, along with lancers and spagis, suddenly attacked these cavalry, who were in disarray. In their hasty retreat they were poorly organized and suffered huge losses, but the sacrifice was duly made as they were able to delay a French attack that would otherwise have been fatal. It was the bravest attack of the war, the only one of its kind and to a certain extent successful.
Made later in the day to assist Wedel's infantry brigade, the attack by the 1st Prussian Dragoon Guards was not successful, and fire from the undisturbed French infantry drove them back with heavy casualties. Shortly after this, General von Barbie, with 6 regiments of cavalry on the Prussian left flank, attacked 10 regiments of French cavalry under the leadership of General Clerambault, who, strange as it may seem, met the attack by opening fire with carbines on the open plain. The Prussians, despising this fire, attacked with cold steel, and a short hand-to-hand battle soon began, ending in favor of the Germans, whose superiority and skill clearly dominated their enemy.
At the end of the battle, when it was already dark, an attack was made by the 6th Prussian Cavalry Division, when a brigade of hussars under the leadership of Rauch broke through several squares of French infantry. This happened thanks to the darkness, which hid the approach of the horsemen, and they were able to approach at close range. The fierce fire rained down on them from all the squares led to the rapid retreat of the division.
Almost only infantry and artillery took part in the battle of Gravelot - Saint-Privat, so we do not dwell on it.
In subsequent operations between 18 August and the Battle of Sedan, the contrast between the actions of the cavalry of the two armies became very clear. At the request of the French government, MacMahon was forced to begin an outflanking maneuver to try to rescue Bazin and link up with him.
This plan could only be carried out if it was carried out quickly, skillfully and secretly. The French cavalry had a real opportunity not only to regain their well-deserved reputation, but also to significantly help their army. However, they surprisingly consistently managed to fail on all counts, which is largely the fault of the commander-in-chief.
The most correct decision would be to concentrate all the cavalry on the right flank, so that, having set up a line of posts with supports, make it a curtain behind which the army would secretly carry out its movements. Failure to detect French movements for one or two days would undoubtedly increase their chances of success. Instead, part of the cavalry marched at the head of the columns, part equally on both flanks, and part was distributed among the corps. At first, at least half of the reserve cavalry was placed on the right flank, but on August 25 it was drawn towards Le Chene, and thus the right flank was left without cover precisely in the direction from which the greatest danger threatened; Bonnemann's reserve division was constantly moving on the extreme left flank, where it was impossible to expect an attack. Thus, during the entire further movement, the French army was covered only by cavalry units attached to the corps.
The result was as could be expected: the Germans soon discovered the movements and understood the French plan, after which their entire army turned to the right and rushed towards them. An impenetrable curtain of cavalry, spreading far and wide around, hid the movements of the Germans. And soon huge masses of German infantry came close to the flank and rear of the French columns, moving blindly, neglecting simple precautions.
First, on August 30, the Germans attacked the 5th French corps of General Falla, who was bivouacked north of Beaumont. For some unknown reason, the French completely neglected precautions and did not send cavalry to reconnoiter the forests south of Beaumont. There was an inexplicable miss, since the French had every reason to believe that the attack was most likely to come from this direction.
The Prussians, moving under the cover of the forests, came close to the camp and were able to clearly see how the French troops were preparing food and calmly resting, completely unaware of the danger that threatened them. German artillery shells burst unexpectedly among the French, the first sign of an attack that was boldly launched and proved completely successful. The French artillery did not even have time to harness their horses, so their guns were captured along with all their tents, baggage and supplies.
What happened became a prologue to the final defeat at Sedan. In this last battle of the Empire, the cavalry again proved that it had not lost the courage that had always distinguished the French soldier. At the end of the battle, General Ducrot decided to make a desperate attempt to delay the enemy with a large mass of cavalry, and then fight his way out with the infantry coming behind.
General Marguerite, together with the reserve cavalry division, was to attack and break through the enemy position, then turn right and crush the enemy in that direction. Bonnemann's 2nd Reserve Cavalry Division was to support this attack, with several mounted regiments of the 12th Corps acting as reserves.
The cavalry moved forward to attack, it rolled like a tornado and seemed to crush the Prussian infantry. The charging cavalry soon broke through the line of skirmishers and rushed forward towards the German battalions, who deployed in closed lines and met them with a deadly hail of bullets from needle rifles.
The attacks were repeated with brilliant courage. The cavalry bravely rushed forward, but they were mowed down in such numbers that along the entire front of the Prussian lines there were piles of dead and dying men and horses. This entire operation was a futile and terrible sacrifice of brave men.
“In this campaign, I believe, the question of cavalry attacking infantry armed with breech-loading rifles was finally settled. Under whatever circumstances such an attack was carried out - by the 8th and 9th French cuirassier regiments at Werth, the 7th Prussian at Vionville on August 16, or by the two French light cavalry brigades on the left flank at Sedan - the result was the same, the attacks resulted in horrific casualties, without any clear result.
General Sheridan was an attentive witness to the four charges of the French light horse at Sedan, and gave me the most detailed account of them. I examined the scene of the attack most carefully only 30 hours later, when the dead soldiers and horses lying everywhere had not yet been removed, so I was able to form an accurate picture, as if I myself had witnessed the attack.
The first attack, carried out by the 1st French Hussars, took place under the most favorable conditions possible and was, moreover, very skillfully organized. As soon as the Prussian riflemen, walking in front of the main infantry corps, entered the hill behind which the hussars were waiting, they immediately walked around the hill until they found themselves in the rear and on the right flank of the riflemen. In this way they passed before they were noticed, and then they attacked in the most valiant manner, attacking the whole line.
However, even under such favorable circumstances, the attack did not achieve the result that should have been discussed. The Germans immediately formed groups and opened fire; the few who fled to the rear, about 25 or 30 people, were cut down.
The fire from these clumsy little Prussian squares inflicted heavy losses on the hussars. The two squadrons attacking from behind wisely deviated and returned under the cover of the hill. Those who broke through the Prussian lines were killed, wounded or captured. Everything that happened did not delay the advance of the Prussian infantry even for 5 minutes.
Subsequent attacks by the 1st, 3rd and 4th African Regiments and the 6th Cavalry Regiment ended in nothing, although they were carried out in the most valiant and stubborn manner. The Prussians simply waited for them, forming a line until the horsemen approached to within 140 meters. There was a pointless massacre without any success. The hillside was literally covered with the dead bodies of the horsemen and their small gray Arabian horses. These two brigades, consisting of five regiments, probably lost about 350 men killed, not counting the wounded and prisoners. It is impossible to imagine a greater shame.
General Sheridan assured me that the horsemen behaved in the most gallant manner, charging again and again after the signals to charge.
Until the last minute they were sheltered from enemy fire, carefully equipped, skillfully and bravely directed. The length of the attack did not exceed 350–370 meters, and yet the result was the complete destruction of the cavalry without any success.
It is with great pain that I have to talk about this. A friend of mine, whom I knew in Africa ten years ago, with the rank of major, commanded two squadrons of one of the regiments. He showed me a list of his two squadrons with marks on it next to the names of the soldiers. It turned out that out of 216 people who went into battle, fifty-eight returned. Moreover, they were under gunfire for no more than a quarter of an hour.”
After the Battle of Sedan, the war mainly focused on two sieges - Paris and Metz. At the same time, the cavalry provided excellent service in maintaining lines of communication and covering operations. During the action in some French provinces several cases involving cavalry occurred, but all of them were of a local scale.
So, during the battle of Amiens, several German squadrons attacked a naval battalion and captured several cannons. At Orleans the 4th Hussars and at Soigny the 11th Lancers also captured French guns. These minor successes achieved on the battlefield are not at all comparable to the enormous mass of cavalry, numbering almost 70 thousand, that the Germans fielded in this war.
At the beginning of the Siege of Paris, the French organized small guerrilla corps called Frantirieres (French Free Rifles). When they became numerous, the Prussian lancers could no longer move freely over considerable distances, but were almost always accompanied by battalions of infantry, moving with them to clear villages, forests and generally closed places, preventing the popular movement of these voluntary skirmishers, who fought with extraordinary bravery.
All of the above indisputably proves that the significant successes achieved by the Prussian cavalry at the beginning of the war should be attributed rather to the inaction of the French cavalry or its improper use, but not at all to the superiority in armament or organization of the famous lancers.
The system of attaching cavalry to infantry naturally deprived the cavalry of mobility. As a result, the cavalry lost its inherent qualities, which disappeared the moment the cavalry was attached to the infantry.
A careful study of the use of cavalry during the American Civil War would have shown the Germans that if their cavalry had been armed with rifles or carbines, they would have been able to do equally well or better what they did in the early period of the war, and later fight successfully. against the French free shooters.
In America, mounted riflemen constantly captured cities and villages, even occupied by infantry and artillery. The "house guards" (local militias), the same type of troops as the French Free Fusiliers, could never prevent the rapid advance of the Southern cavalry, who would probably laugh at the idea that they could be delayed and stopped, and that they need to be given infantry for the duration of their raids.
From this point of view, the experience of the Franco-German war is noteworthy, since the brilliant successes of the Prussian cavalry at the beginning of the campaign may have led to the expectation that they might be embarrassed by such undisciplined and irregular troops as the free skirmishers. What happened was the most striking lesson that the war since Sedan gave to a cavalry officer, and requires little thought than to identify the weak point and try to find an antidote.
This turned out to be the last great war, from which we can draw instructions for the actions of cavalry in the future. At the time I wrote this book there was a war going on between Turkey and Serbia, of which only vague and inaccurate descriptions can be gathered from the public press. So it is impossible at present to say whether any positive experience can really be drawn from the fighting that took place there. As far as we have been able to discover, the horsemen did not have a significant influence. The following passage, quoted from a newspaper, if true, clearly shows the value of the revolver and is therefore worthy of attention:
“During the Battle of Zaichar, the Serbian officer, Captain Frasanovic, showed himself in an extraordinary way. He took his saber in his teeth and his revolver in his hand, rushed through the Turkish half-battalion, grabbed the banner and carried it away, leaving behind a dead or wounded Turk with each shot.”
Here we will finish the historical essay dedicated to the cavalry and its service. We have traced its formation from the foggy period of the most distant Antiquity through all the changes and vicissitudes of the intervening centuries down to the present time. We hope that we have been able to clarify for the reader the gradual development of cavalry to its modern state. Let us now endeavor to complete our labors worthily, in order to decide, in the light of the experience of the past and the knowledge of the present, what may be considered the best system of organizing, equipping and employing cavalry in a future war.
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