Stairs. Entry group. Materials. Doors. Locks. Design

INORGANIC FIBERS are obtained on the basis of chemical elements (boron, metals), oxides (SiO 2, Al 2 O 3, ZrO 2), carbides (SiC, B 4 C), nitrides (AlN), mixtures of these compounds (for example, various oxides or carbides), as well as based on natural (basalt, etc.) or artificial ( silicate glass, see Glass fiber) silicates. The structure of most inorganic fibers is polycrystalline, while silicate fibers are amorphous. In terms of properties, whiskers of similar compounds are similar to inorganic fibers.

Oxide, silicate, and inorganic metal fibers are produced mainly by pressing the melt through dies, blowing the melt with hot gases, or stretching in a centrifugal field. Inorganic carbide and oxide fibers - by extrusion of finely dispersed oxides plasticized with polymers or fusible silicates, followed by sintering of particles of these compounds or heat treatment of organic (usually hydrated cellulose) fibers containing salts and other metal compounds. Carbide fibers are also obtained by reducing oxide fibers with carbon; boron and carbide - by gas-phase deposition on a substrate (tungsten or carbon filaments, strips of films). To improve the performance properties, inorganic fibers are modified by gas-phase deposition of surface (barrier) layers of more resistant substances.

Inorganic fibers are high-melting (the operating temperature of many inorganic fibers is up to 1500°C), non-hygroscopic, and stable in many aggressive environments; In an oxidizing environment, oxide fibers are most resistant, and carbide fibers are less resistant. Strength of inorganic fibers from 1-1.3 GPa (SiC, B 4 C) to 4-6 GPa (B, SiO 2), elastic modulus from 70-90 GPa (SiO 2, basalt) to 400-480 GPa (B, ZrO 2 , SiC). Carbide fibers have semiconducting properties.

Inorganic fibers and threads based on them are used as reinforcing components in composite materials having an organic (polymer), ceramic or metal matrix; as high-temperature thermal insulation materials. Filters for aggressive liquids and hot gases are made from quartz, oxide and metal fibers. Electrically conductive metal and silicon carbide fibers and threads are used in electrical engineering.

Lit.: Konkin A. A. Carbon and other heat-resistant fibrous materials. M., 1974; Katz S. M. High temperature thermal insulation materials. M., 1981; Fillers for polymer composite materials. M., 1981; Budnitsky G. A. Reinforcing fibers for composite materials // Chemical fibers. 1990. No. 2; Tsirlin A. M. Continuous inorganic fibers for composite materials. M., 1992.

Article by G.E. Krichevsky, Doctor of Technical Sciences, Professor, Honored Scientist of the Russian Federation

Introduction

Currently, the most developed countries are moving into the 6th technological order, and developing countries are catching up behind them. This way of life (post-industrial society) is based on new, breakthrough technologies and, above all, nano-, bio-, info-, cognitive-, and social technologies. This new paradigm for the development of civilization affects all areas of human practice and affects all technologies of previous orders. The latter do not disappear, but are significantly modified and modernized. But, most importantly, a qualitative change is the emergence of new technologies, their transition to a commercial level, the introduction of products of these technologies and modified traditional technologies into daily life civilized person (medicine, transport of all types, construction, clothing, home interior and accessories, sports, army, means of communication, etc.).

Krichevsky G.E. – Professor, Doctor of Technical Sciences, Honored Worker of the Russian Federation, UNESCO expert, academician of RIA and MIA, Laureate of the MSR State Prize, member of the Nanotechnological Society of Russia.

This tectonic, technological shift did not bypass the field of fiber production, without which not only the production of textiles of all types, but many technical products of traditional and non-traditional applications (composites, medical implants, displays, etc.) is not possible.

Story

The history of fibers is the history of humanity, from primitive existence to modern post-industrial society. Without clothing, home interior, without technical textiles, everyday life, culture, sports, science, technology, and medicine are unthinkable. But all types of textiles do not exist without fibers, which at the same time are only raw materials, but without which it is impossible to produce all types of textiles and other fiber-containing materials.

It is interesting to note that many thousands of years ago, from the end of the Paleolithic era (~ 10-12 thousand years BC) until the end of the 18th century, man used exclusively natural (plant and animal origin) fibers . And only the first industrial revolution (2nd technological structure - mid-19th century) and, of course, advances in science and, above all, chemistry and chemical technologies gave rise to the first generation of chemical fibers (cellulose hydrate - copper-ammonia and viscose). From that moment until the present time, the production of chemical fibers has developed extremely quickly in terms of quantity (overtaken the production of natural fibers in 100 years) and in a number of positions in terms of quality (significant improvement in consumer properties). The history of fibers is briefly presented in Table 1, from which it follows that the history of chemical fibers has gone through three stages, and the last one has not yet ended and the third, young generation of chemical fibers is going through its formation stage. A SMALL TERMINOLOGICAL DEVICE

There are discrepancies in Russian (formerly Soviet) and international terms. According to Soviet and Russian terminology, fibers are divided into natural (plant, animal) and chemical (artificial and synthetic).

Let’s ask ourselves the question “doesn’t everything that surrounds us consist of chemical elements and substances?” And therefore they are chemical and, therefore, natural fibers are also chemical. The remarkable Soviet scientists who proposed this term “chemical” were, first of all, chemist-technologists and put into this term the meaning that they are not produced by nature (biochemistry), but are produced by humans using chemical technologies. Chemical technology is placed in first place and dominates in this term.

International terminology denotes all artificial and synthetic fibers (polymers) in contrast to natural - not made by hands, as made by human hands (man-made) - manmade fibers. This definition is more correct from my point of view. With the development of polymer chemistry and fiber production technologies, terminology in this area also develops, becomes more precise, and becomes more complex. Terms such as polymer and non-polymer fibers, organic, inorganic, nano-sized fibers, fibers filled with nanoparticles obtained using genetic engineering, etc. are used.

Bringing terminology into line with advances in third-generation fiber production will continue; This needs to be monitored by both fiber producers and consumers in order to understand each other.

New, third generation of high-performance fibers (HEF)

Third generation fibers with such properties in foreign literature are called HEF - High Performance Fibers (HPF - High Performance Fibers) and, along with new polymer fibers, they include carbon, ceramic and new types of glass fibers.

The third, new generation of fibers began to form at the end of the 20th century and continues to develop in the 21st century, and is characterized by increased demands on their performance properties in traditional and new areas of application (aerospace, automotive, other modes of transport, medicine, sports, army , construction). These areas of application place increased demands on physical and mechanical properties, thermo-, fire-, bio-, chemical-, and radiation resistance.

It is not possible to fully satisfy this set of requirements with a range of natural and chemical fibers of the 1st and 2nd generation. Advances in the field of chemistry and physics of polymers and physics come to the rescue solid and production of VEV on this basis.

Polymers with new chemical structures and physical structures are emerging (synthesized) using new technologies. Establishing the relationship, cause-and-effect relationships between the chemistry, physics of fibers and their properties underlies the creation of 3rd generation fibers with predetermined properties and, above all, high tensile strength, resistance to friction, bending, pressure, elasticity, thermal and fire resistance.

As can be seen from Table 1, which presents the history of fibers, the development of fibers occurs in such a way that the previous types of fibers do not disappear when new ones appear, but continue to be used, but their importance decreases, and new ones increase. This is the law of historical dialectics and the transition of products from one technological structure to another with a change in priorities. All natural fibers, 1st and 2nd generation chemical fibers are still used, but new 3rd generation fibers are beginning to gain strength.

The production of synthetic fibers, fiber-forming polymers, like most modern organic low- and high-molecular substances, is based on oil and gas chemistry. The diagram in Figure 1 shows numerous products of primary and advanced processing of natural gas and oil, up to fiber-forming polymers, 2nd and 3rd generation fibers.

As you can see, plastics, films, fibers, medicines, dyes and other substances can be obtained from oil and natural gas through deep processing.

In Soviet times, all this was produced, and the USSR occupied the leading (2–5) places in the world in the production of fibers, dyes, and plastics. Unfortunately, at present, all of Europe and China use Russian gas and oil and produce many valuable products from our raw materials, including fibers.

Before the advent of chemical fibers, natural fibers (cotton) having strength characteristics of 0.1–0.4 N/tex and an elastic modulus of 2–5 N/tex were used in a number of technical fields.

The first viscose and acetate fibers had a strength no higher than natural ones (0.2–0.4 N/tex), but by the 60s of the 20th century it was possible to increase their strength to 0.6 N/tex and their elongation at break to 13% (due to modernization of classical technology).

An interesting solution was found in the case of Fortisan fiber: elastomeric acetate fiber was saponified to hydrated cellulose and a strength of 0.6 N/tex and a modulus of elasticity of 16 N/tex were achieved. This type of fiber lasted in the world market during the period 1939–1945.

High strength indicators are achieved not only due to the specific chemical structure of the polymer chains of fiber-forming polymers (aromatic polyamides, polybenzoxazoles, etc.), but also due to a special, ordered physical supramolecular structure (molding from a liquid crystalline state), due to high molecular weight (high total energy of intermolecular bonds), as in the case of a new type of polyethylene fiber.

Since modern ideas about destruction mechanisms polymer materials and fibers in particular comes down to the ratio of the strength of chemical bonds in the main chains of the polymer and intermolecular bonds between macromolecules (hydrogen, van der Waals, hydrophobic, ionic, etc.), then the game to increase strength goes on two fronts: high-strength single covalent bonds in the chain and high strength of the total intermolecular bonds between macromolecules.

Polyamide and polyester fibers came to the world market (Dupont) in 1938 and are still present on it, occupying a large niche in traditional textiles and in many areas of technology. Modern polyamide fibers have a strength of 0.5 N/tex and an elastic modulus of 2.5 N/tex; polyester fibers have similar strength and a higher elastic modulus of 10 N/tex.

It was impossible to further increase the strength properties of these fibers within the framework of existing technologies.

The synthesis and production of para-aramid fibers spun from a liquid crystalline state with strength characteristics (strength 2 n/tex and elastic modulus 80 n/tex) was started by DuPont in the 60s of the 20th century.

In the last decades of the last century, carbon fibers with a strength of ~ 5 hPa (~ 3 N/tex) and an elastic modulus of 800 hPa (~ 400 N/tex), new generation glass fibers (strength ~ 4 hPa, 1.6 N/tex), appeared. elastic modulus 90 hPa (35 N/tex), ceramic fibers (strength ~3 hPa, 1 N/tex), elastic modulus 400 hPa (~100 N/tex).

Table 1 History of fibers

The 3rd generation of chemical fibers in foreign literature is called not only highly efficient (HEF), but also multifunctional and smart. All these and other names and terms are not precise, controversial, at least not scientific. Because all existing fibers, both natural and chemical, are, of course, to one degree or another, highly effective and multifunctional, and intelligent. Take, for example, natural fibers such as cotton, flax, and wool; not a single chemical fiber can surpass their high hygienic properties (they breathe, absorb sweat, and flax is still biologically active). All fibers have not one, but several functions (multifunctional). As you can see, the above terms are very conditional.

Physico-mechanical properties of VEV

Since the main areas of use of the new generation of fibers (cord for tires, composites for aircraft, rocket, automotive, construction) put forward high demands on the properties of fibers and, above all, on the physical and mechanical properties, we will dwell in more detail on these properties of HEVs.

What physical and mechanical properties are important for new areas of fiber use: tensile strength, abrasion strength, compressive strength, twisting strength. At the same time, it is important for fibers to withstand repeated (cyclic) deformation effects adequate to the operating conditions of products containing fibers. Figure 2 very clearly shows the difference in the requirements for physical and mechanical properties (tensile strength, elastic modulus) that three areas of use impose on fibers: traditional textiles, traditional technical textiles, new areas of application in technology.

As can be seen, the demands on the strength properties of fibers from new and traditional applications are increasing significantly, and this trend will continue as the areas of fiber use expand. A striking example is the space elevator, which is talked about not only by science fiction writers, but also by engineers. And this project can only be realized using ultra-strong cables made from 3rd generation nanofibers and spider silk type fibers (stronger than steel thread).

Figure 2

Explanations for Fig. 2: The modulus of elasticity and tensile strength are assessed in the same units. The elastic modulus is a measure of the rigidity of a material, characterized by its resistance to the development of elastic deformations. For fibers it is determined as the initial linear dependence between load and elongation. Den (denier) is a unit of measurement of the linear density of a thread (fiber) = mass of 1000 meters in g. Tex is a unit (non-system) of measurement of the linear density of a fiber (thread) = g/km.

Table 2 shows comparative characteristics of the physical and mechanical properties of various fibers, including VEV.

Table 2. Comparative characteristics of the physical and mechanical properties of various fibers

It should be borne in mind that physical and mechanical properties should be assessed not by one indicator, but at least by a combination of two indicators, i.e. strength and elasticity under various types of deformation effects.

Thus, according to the data in Table 2, steel thread wins in elasticity, but loses in specific density (very heavy). Taking into account all the indicators together, you can choose the areas of use of fibers. So the cable for a space elevator should not only be super strong, but also lightweight.

The fabric for a bulletproof vest must be light, elastic (drape) and capable of absorbing the kinetic energy of a bullet (depending on the burst energy, i.e. the ability to dissipate energy). The composite for racing cars must be impact-resistant and light at the same time; Seat belts must be made of high-strength fibers with high elasticity.

The requirements for the physical and mechanical characteristics of fibers, as a set or combination of two or more indicators, can be continued. This set of properties and factors is formulated by the user based on the operating conditions of products containing fibers. Let us trace the change in generations of fibers using the example of tire cord, the requirements for the physical and mechanical characteristics of which have been increasing all the time.

When the first automobiles appeared (1900), cotton yarn was used as tire cord; with the advent of hydrated cellulose viscose fibers in the period 1935–1955. they have completely replaced cotton. In turn, polyamide fibers (various types of nylon) replaced viscose fibers. But even classical polyamide fibers today do not meet the strength properties of the automotive industry, especially in the case of tires for heavy vehicles and aviation. Therefore, polyamide cord is now replaced by steel threads.

The maximum strength of commercial polyamide and polyester fibers reaches ~ 10 g/den (~ 1 GPa, ~ 1 N/tex). The combination of moderately high strength and elasticity provides high rupture energy (work of rupture) and high resistance to repeated shock deformation. However, these performance indicators of polyamide and polyester fibers do not meet the requirements of certain new applications of fibers.

For example, polyamide and polyester fibers, due to the high increase in stiffness at high strain rates, do not allow their use in anti-ballistic products.

At the same time, polyester fibers are very suitable for high-strength fishing gear (ropes, cables, nets, etc.), since they are characterized by relatively high strength and hydrophobicity (not wetted by water); ropes made of polyester fibers are used on drilling rigs to work at depths of up to 1000–2000 m, where they can withstand loads of up to 1.5 tons.

The combination of high strength and high modulus of elasticity is provided by three groups of high-energy materials: 1. based on aramids, high-molecular polyethylene, other linear polymers, carbon fibers; 2. inorganic fibers (glass, ceramic); 3. based on thermosetting polymers that form a three-dimensional network structure.

VEV based on linear polymers

The first group of VEVs are based on linear (1D dimensional) polymers and the simplest of them, polyethylene.

For materials made from linear polymers, back in 1930, Staudinger proposed an ideal model of a supramolecular structure that provides a high modulus of elasticity along the main chains (11000 kg/mm2) and only 45 kg/mm2 between macromolecules bound by van der Waals forces.

Figure 3. Ideal physical structure of a linear polymer according to Staudinger.

As you can see (Fig. 3), the strength of the structure is determined by the elongation and high orientation of the chains of macromolecules along the fiber axis.

The technology (state of the spinning solution and melt, drawing conditions) for the production of fibers must be designed in such a way that folds of macromolecules do not form. Fiber-forming polymers, with a certain chemical structure of macromolecules, already in solution form elongated, oriented structures combined into blocks (liquid crystals). When fibers are formed from such a state, reinforced by a high degree of elongation, a structure close to ideal according to Staudinger is formed (Fig. 3). This technology was first implemented by DuPont (USA) in the production of Kevlar fibers based on polyparaaramid and polyphenylene terephthalamide. In these high-strength fibers, the aromatic rings are linked by amide groups

The presence of cycles in the chain provides elasticity, and amide groups form intermolecular hydrogen bonds, which are responsible for tensile strength.

By similar technology(liquid crystalline state in solution, high degree of elongation during molding VEVs are produced from various polymers by different companies, in different countries under different trade names: Technora (Taijin, Japan), Vectran (Gelanese, USA), Tverlana, Terlon (USSR, Russia), Mogelan-HSt et al.

Carbon fibers and graphene layers

Large 2D-dimensional molecules do not exist in nature. Monofunctional molecules in reactions produce small molecules; bifunctional ones produce linear (1D-dimensional) polymers; three- or more functional reagents form 3D-dimensional, cross-linked network structures (thermoplastics). Only the specific geometry of the direction of the bonds that carbon atoms can form leads to layered molecules. Graphene, a hexonal, planar network of carbon atoms, is the first example of such a structure.

Carbon fibers are usually produced by high-temperature treatment (cracking) of organic fibers (cellulose, polyacrylonitrile) under tension. Strong, elastic fibers are obtained in which one-dimensional layers are oriented parallel to the fiber axis.

3D mesh structures

Polymers with a 3D network structure are usually called thermoplastics because they are formed in thermocatalytic condensation reactions of polyfunctional monomers.

3D thermoplastics can be produced in the form of fibers. Although heat-resistant, such fibers are not very strong. Examples of such fibers are fibers based on melamine-formaldehyde and phenol-aldehyde polymers*.

Inorganic 3D-dimensional mesh structures (glass and ceramic) and fibers based on them, as well as based on metal oxides and carbides, are characterized by high strength, elasticity, heat and fire resistance.

• The main polymer of wool fiber, keratin, is also a networked, sparsely cross-linked natural polymer. It has unique elastic-elastic properties (resistance to compression). Cross-linking of a linear cellulose polymer with rare cross-links gives the fiber and fabrics made from it resistance to creasing, which cellulose fibers do not initially possess. But at the same time, the tensile and abrasion strength decreases (~15%).

  Figures 4–10 show comparative physical and mechanical characteristics VEV.

Table 3 shows the main performance characteristics of natural and chemical fibers.

Figure 4. Load-elongation curves for conventional fibers and HEVs.

Figure 5. Relationship between specific strength and elastic modulus of HEV.

Figure 6. Dependence of mass strength on strength/volume for VEV.

Figure 8. Load-strain curves of a composite based on HEV in an epoxy matrix.

Figure 9. Breaking length in kilometers for VEV.

Figure 10. VEV. Main areas of use.

Table 3. Basic performance characteristics of natural and chemical fibers (Hearle).

continuation of table. 3

• – destruction; ** – softening; *** – for nylon 66, nylon 6 – 216°; **** – liquefaction;

***** – temperature range

Economics of VEV

In the 50s of the last century, polyamide and polyester fibers were literally a “miracle” for consumers who were hungry for an abundance of textile products with new properties. After the industrial development of fibers of this type by the world's largest chemical concern DuPont (USA), all the leading chemical companies in developed capitalist countries rushed after them and began producing similar fibers under different names.

Didn't stand aside chemical industry USSR, which focused on one type of polyamide fiber - nylon based on polycaproamide. This technology was exported from Germany for reparations in 1945. A prominent Soviet polymer scientist, Professor Zakhar Aleksandrovich Rogovin, took part in the dismantling of German factories that produced this fiber called perlon. He, together with a group of Soviet scientists and engineers, established the production of nylon at a number of factories in various cities USSR (Klin, Kalinin (Tver)).

Polyester fibers based on polyethylene terephthalate were produced on a large scale in the USSR under the trademark Lavsan - an abbreviation for the Laboratory of High Modulus Compounds of the Academy of Sciences. These two fibers became the main high-tonnage ones and still remain so in the world. These fibers are used very widely on their own or in mixtures with other fibers in both the clothing, home textile and technical sectors.

The world balance of fiber production and consumption in 2010 is shown in Figure 11.

Figure 11.

Figure 12.

Polyester. 2000 – 19.1 million tons;

2010 – 35 million tons;

2020 – 53.4 million tons.

Cotton. 2000 – 20 million tons;

2010 – 25 million tons;

2020 – 28 million tons.

Figure 13.

Figure 14.

Figure 15.

Figure 16.

Figure 17.

Figure 18.

Before moving on to the economics of VEV, let’s say how the pricing and investment policy for the production of polyamide and polyester fibers was built. At the beginning (30–40s of the 20th century) polyamide and polyester fibers were several times more expensive than natural cotton and even wool fibers. It’s hard to believe now, when the picture is the opposite and corresponds to the real cost of production of these fibers. But this was an absolutely correct pricing policy, typical for the beginning of a potentially mass product entering the market. This pricing policy allows significant income to be allocated to subsequent research on the development and improvement of the production of new types of fibers, including VEV. Currently, polyamide and polyester fibers are produced by many companies in many countries in large quantities. Such competition and large runs of these fibers have led to prices quite close to cost.

Different, more a difficult situation in the case of the VEV economy. DuPont, starting research in the field of aromatic polyamides, which led to the creation of Kevlar fiber from them (based on n-polyaramid), initially focused them on the tire cord market.

The appearance of heavy and high-speed cars and heavy aircraft required high-strength cord; Not only cotton and viscose fiber did not meet these requirements, but also much stronger polyamide and polyester fibers.

Increasing the strength of the cord proportionally increased the service life of the tires (“mileage”) and saved the consumption of fibers for the production of cord.

Kevlar and other high-strength EVs are used for specialty tires (racing cars, heavy trailers). Due to the specifics of the market for their consumption, VEVs are produced to order in small batches, by a small number of manufacturers using a much more complex technology (multistage synthesis, expensive raw materials, complex molding technology, high extraction ratio, exotic solvents, low speeds molding) and, of course, at high prices. But those areas of technology in which HEVs are used (aircraft and rocket production) can afford to consume fibers at high prices, which are unacceptable in the case of the production of clothing and home textiles.

The production of the most used wind turbines reaches ~ 10 thousand tons per year, highly specialized ones - 100 tons per year or less (Fig. 19).

Figure 19.

The exception is HEVs based on high molecular weight polyethylene, since both the raw material (ethylene) and the polymer are produced using a well-known, relatively simple technology. It is only necessary at the polymerization stage to ensure the formation of a polymer with a high molecular weight, which determines the excellent physical and mechanical characteristics of this type of fiber. Prices on the world market for high-energy fibers are high, but vary greatly and depend on many factors (fiber fineness, strength, type of yarn, etc.) and market conditions (raw materials). Therefore, in different sources we find large fluctuations in prices (Table 4). So for carbon fibers the price ranges from 18 DS/kg to 10,000 DS/kg.

It is much more difficult to predict the dynamics of price changes for VEVs than for large-tonnage traditional fibers (tens of millions of tons are produced per year), and investing in large-scale production of VEVs is a very risky business. The most capacious market for VEVs is the production and consumption of a new generation of composite materials, catalyzing work to improve the technology for the production of VEVs.

So far, new factories are not being built for the production of VEVs, but they are produced at existing factories on special pilot installations and lines.

Of course, the army, sports, medicine (implants), construction and, of course, aviation and aeronautics are real and potential users of VEVs. Thus, a 100 kg reduction in aircraft weight due to a new generation of lightweight and durable composites reduces annual fuel costs by 20,000 DS per aircraft.

For any innovation there is a risk of investment, but without risk there is no success. It is only in a student project that a business plan can be accurately calculated. Paper will endure anything.

The founder of the world famous automobile company Honda, Soichiro Honda, said well about this: “Remember, success can be achieved with repeated many times trial and error. Actual success is the result of 1% of your work and 99% of your failures.” Of course, this is hyperbole, but not far from the truth.

Table 4 Prices for various VEVs in comparison with polyester technical fiber

continued table 4

Production modern species fibers (polyester, polyamide, acrylic, polypropylene and, of course, VEV) in the Russian Federation is extremely justified from the point of view of the huge reserves of natural raw materials (oil, gas) for the production of fibers and their great need for the modernization of a significant number of industries (oil, gas processing , textile, shipbuilding, automotive industry). Half of the world (excluding the USA, Canada, Latin America) uses our raw materials to make all this and sell it to us with high added value. The production of new generation chemical fibers can play the role of a locomotive for the development of the domestic industry, becoming one of important factors national security of the Russian Federation.

References:

• G.E. Krichevsky. Nano-, bio-, chemical technologies and the production of a new generation of fibers, textiles and clothing. M., publishing house "Izvestia", 2011, 528 p.
• High Performance Fibers. Hearle J.W.S. (ed.). Woodhead Publishing Ltd, 2010, p.329.

Military textiles. Edited by E Wilusz, US Army Natick Soldier Center, USA. Woodhead Publishing Series in Textiles. 2008, 362 rub.

• PCI Fibers. Fiber Economics in an Ever Changing World Outlook Conference. www.usifi.com/…look_2011pdf

Abbreviation for fiber names

Related materials

• “Other materials of the Author on our website”:

In addition to those already listed, there are fibers from natural inorganic compounds. They are divided into natural and chemical.

Natural inorganic fibers include asbestos, a fine-fibered silicate mineral. Asbestos fibers are fire-resistant (the melting point of asbestos reaches 1500° C), alkali- and acid-resistant, and non-thermal.

Elementary asbestos fibers are combined into technical fibers, which serve as the basis for threads used for technical purposes and in the production of fabrics for special clothing that can withstand high temperatures and open fire.

Chemical inorganic fibers are divided into glass fibers (silicon) and metal-containing ones.

Silicon fibers, or glass fibers, are made from molten glass in the form of filaments with a diameter of 3-100 microns and very long length. In addition to them, staple fiberglass with a diameter of 0.1-20 microns and a length of 10-500 mm is produced. Fiberglass is nonflammable, chemical-resistant, and has electrical, heat, and sound insulation properties. It is used for the production of tapes, fabrics, meshes, non-woven fabrics, fibrous canvas, cotton wool for technical needs in various sectors of the country's economy.

Metal artificial fibers are produced in the form of threads by gradually stretching (drawing) metal wire. This is how copper, steel, silver, and gold threads are obtained. Aluminum threads are made by cutting flat aluminum tape (foil) into thin strips. Metal threads can be given different colors by applying colored varnishes to them. To give greater strength to metal threads, they are entwined with silk or cotton threads. When the threads are covered with a thin protective synthetic film, transparent or colored, combined metal threads are obtained - metlon, lurex, alunit.

The following types of metal threads are produced: rounded metal thread; flat thread in the form of a ribbon - flattened; twisted thread - tinsel; rolled meat twisted with silk or cotton thread - stranded.

In addition to metal ones, metallized threads are produced, which are narrow ribbons of films with a metal coating. Unlike metal ones, metallized threads are more elastic and fusible.

Metallic and metallized threads are used to produce fabrics and knitwear for evening dresses, gold embroidery, as well as for decorative finishing fabrics, knitwear and piece goods.

End of work -

This topic belongs to the section:

General information about fibers. Classification of fibers. Basic properties of fibers and their dimensional characteristics

In the production of garments, a wide variety of materials are used. different materials these are fabrics, knitwear, non-woven materials, natural and artificial.. knowledge of the structure of these materials, the ability to determine their properties, understand... the largest volume in the clothing industry is made up of products made from textile materials..

If you need additional material on this topic, or you did not find what you were looking for, we recommend using the search in our database of works:

What will we do with the received material:

If this material was useful to you, you can save it to your page on social networks:

All topics in this section:

Lecture 1
Introduction. Fibrous materials 1. Goals and objectives of the course “Materials Science of Garment Production”. 2. General information oh in

Cotton fiber
Cotton is the fiber that covers the seeds. annual plant cotton Cotton is a heat-loving plant that consumes a large number of moisture. Grows in hot areas. Izv

Natural fibers of animal origin
The main substance that makes up natural fibers of animal origin (wool and silk) are animal proteins synthesized in nature - keratin and fibroin. Difference in molecular structure

Natural silk
Natural silk is the name given to thin continuous threads secreted by the glands of silkworm caterpillars when curling the cocoon before pupation. The main industrial value is the silk of domesticated mulberry

B. Chemical fibers
The idea of ​​​​creating chemical fibers was realized at the end of the 19th century. thanks to the development of chemistry. The prototype for the process of producing chemical fibers was the formation of silkworm thread

Man-made fibers
Artificial fibers include fibers made from cellulose and its derivatives. These are viscose, triacetate, acetate fibers and their modifications. Viscose fiber is produced from celluloses

Synthetic fibers
Polyamide fibers. Nylon fiber, which is most widely used, is obtained from coal and oil processing products. Under a microscope, polyamide fibers are

Types of textile threads
The basic element of fabric or knitted fabric is thread. According to their structure, textile threads are divided into yarn, complex threads and monofilaments. These threads are called primary

Basic Spinning Processes
The fibrous mass of natural fibers, after collection and primary processing, enters the spinning mill. Here, relatively short fibers are used to produce a continuous, strong thread - yarn. This p

Weaving production
Fabric is a textile fabric formed by interlacing two mutually perpendicular systems of threads on a loom. The process of creating fabric is called weaving

Fabric finishing
Fabrics removed from the loom are called gray cloth or gray cloth. They contain various impurities and contaminants, have an unsightly appearance and are unsuitable for the manufacture of garments.

Cotton fabrics
During cleaning and preparation, cotton fabrics are subjected to acceptance and sorting, singeing, desizing, bleaching (bleaching), mercerization, and napping. Cleaning and

Linen fabrics
Cleaning and preparation of linen fabrics is usually carried out in the same way as in cotton production, but more carefully, repeating the operations several times. This is due to the fact that flaxseed

Wool fabrics
Woolen fabrics are divided into combed (firestone) and cloth. They differ from each other in appearance. Combed fabrics are thin, with a clear weave pattern. Cloth - more thick

Natural silk
Cleaning and preparation of natural silk is carried out in the following order: acceptance and sorting, singeing, boiling, bleaching, revitalizing bleached fabrics. When when

Chemical fiber fabrics
Fabrics made from artificial and synthetic fibers do not have natural impurities. They may contain mainly easily washable substances, such as dressing, soap, mineral oil, etc. Eye method

Fibrous composition of fabrics
For the manufacture of clothing, fabrics made from natural (wool, silk, cotton, linen), artificial (viscose, polynose, acetate, copper-ammonium, etc.), synthetic (lavsa) are used.

Methods for determining the fiber composition of fabrics
Organoleptic is a method in which the fibrous composition of tissues is determined using the senses - vision, smell, touch. Evaluate the appearance of the fabric, its softness, creaseability

Weaving fabrics
The location of the warp and weft threads relative to each other and their relationship determine the structure of the fabric. It should be emphasized that the structure of fabrics is influenced by: the type and structure of the warp and weft threads

Fabric finishing
The finishing that gives fabrics a marketable appearance affects such properties as thickness, stiffness, drapability, creasing, breathability, water resistance, shine, shrinkage, fire resistance

Fabric density
Density is an essential indicator of tissue structure. Density determines the weight, wear resistance, breathability, heat-shielding properties, rigidity, and drapability of fabrics. Each of

Phases of tissue structure
When weaving, the warp and weft threads mutually bend each other, resulting in a wavy arrangement. the degree of bending of the warp and weft threads depends on their thickness and rigidity, type

Fabric surface structure
Depending on the structure front side fabrics are divided into smooth, pile, fleecy and felted. Smooth fabrics are those that have a clear weave pattern (calico, chintz, satin). In the process of

Properties of fabrics
Plan: Geometric properties Mechanical properties Physical properties Technological properties Fabrics made from threads and yarns of various types

Geometric properties
These include the length of the fabric, its width, thickness and weight. The length of the fabric is determined by measuring it in the direction of the warp threads. When laying fabric before cutting, the length of the piece

Mechanical properties
During the use of clothing, as well as during processing, fabrics are exposed to various mechanical stress. Under these influences, tissues stretch, bend, and experience friction.

Physical properties
The physical properties of fabrics are divided into hygienic, heat-protective, optical and electrical. Hygienic properties are considered to be the properties of fabrics that significantly affect whom

Wear resistance of fabric
The wear resistance of fabrics is characterized by their ability to withstand destructive factors. In the process of using garments, they are affected by light, sun, moisture, stretching, compression, torsion

Technological properties of fabrics
During the production process and during the use of clothing, such properties of fabrics appear that must be taken into account when designing clothing. These properties significantly influence technologically

Padding materials
5. Adhesive materials. 1. RANGE OF FABRICS Based on the type of raw material, the entire range of fabrics is divided into cotton, linen, wool and silk. Silk includes

Adhesive materials
Semi-rigid interlining fabric with dotted polyethylene coating is a cotton fabric (calico or madapolam) coated on one side with high pressure polyethylene powder

Selection of materials for garments
In the production of garments, a variety of materials are used: fabrics, knitted and non-woven fabrics, duplicated, film materials, natural and artificial fur, natural and artificial

Product quality
In the manufacture of clothing and other garments, fabrics, knitted and non-woven fabrics, film materials, artificial leather and fur. The entire collection of these materials is called assortment

Quality of clothing materials
To make good clothes you need to use high quality materials. What is quality? Product quality is understood as a combination of properties that characterize the degree of suitability

Grade of materials
All materials on final stage production is subject to control. At the same time, the quality level of the material is assessed and the grade of each piece is established. A variety is a gradation of product quality

Fabric grade
Great importance has a definition of fabric grade. The fabric grade is determined by a comprehensive method for assessing the quality level. At the same time, deviations of indicators of physical and mechanical properties from the norms,

Defects in the appearance of fabrics
defect Type of defect Description Stage of production at which the defect Zaso occurs

), their oxides (Si, Al or Zr), carbides (Si or B), nitrides (Al), etc., as well as from mixtures of these compounds, for example. diff. oxides or carbides. see also Glass fiber, Metal fibers, Asbestos.

Production methods: spunbonding from the melt; blowing the melt with hot inert gases or air, as well as in a centrifugal field (this method produces fibers from fusible silicates, for example, quartz and basalt, from metals and certain metal oxides); growing monocrystalline fibers from melts; molding from inorganic polymers with the last heat treatment (oxide fibers are obtained); extrusion of finely dispersed oxides plasticized with polymers or fusible silicates. their sintering; thermal processing org. (usually cellulose) fibers containing or other compounds. metals (oxide and carbide fibers are obtained, and if the process is carried out in a reducing environment, metal fibers are obtained); oxide fibers with carbon or the transformation of carbon fibers into carbide; gas-phase on a substrate - on threads, strips of films (for example, boron and carbide fibers are obtained by deposition on a tungsten or carbon thread).

Mn. types of N. v. modified by applying surface (barrier) layers, ch. arr. gas-phase deposition, which allows increasing their performance. properties (for example, with a carbide surface coating).

Most N. century. are polycrystalline. structure, silicate fibers - usually amorphous. Non-ferrous materials obtained by gas-phase deposition are characterized by layered heterogeneity. structure, and for fibers obtained by sintering, the presence of a large number. Fur. St. N. century. are given in the table. The more porous the structure of the fibers (for example, those obtained by extrusion with afterbirth, sintering), the lower their density and fur. St. N.v. stable in plural aggressive environments, non-hygroscopic. B oxidize environment max. resistant oxide fibers, to a lesser extent carbide. Carbide fibers have semiconductor properties, their electrical conductivity increases with increasing temperature.

BASIC PROPERTIES OF SOME TYPES HIGH STRENGTH INORGANIC FIBERS OF THE SPECIFIED COMPOSITION *

* Inorg. fibers used for thermal insulation and manufacturing of filter materials, have more low fur. St.

N.v. and reinforcing threads in structures. materials having org., ceramic. or metallic matrix. N.v. (except boron) are used to produce fibrous or composite-fibrous (with inorganic or organic matrix) high-temperature porous thermal insulation. materials; they can be used for a long time at temperatures up to 1000-1500°C. From quartz and oxide N. century. manufacture filters for aggressive liquids and hot gases. Electrically conductive silicon carbide fibers and threads are used in electrical engineering.

Lit.: Konkin A. A., Carbon and other heat-resistant fibrous materials, M., 1974; Kats S.M., High-temperature heat-insulating materials

terials, M., 1981; Fillers for polymer composite materials, trans. from English, M., 1981. K. E. Perepelkin.

Chemical encyclopedia. - M.: Soviet Encyclopedia. Ed. I. L. Knunyants. 1988 .

See what "INORGANIC FIBERS" are in other dictionaries:

They have an inorganic main chains and do not contain org. side radicals. The main chains are built from covalent or ionic covalent bonds; in some N. points, the chain of ionic covalent bonds can be interrupted by single coordination junctions. character...... Chemical encyclopedia

Obtained from metals (for example, Al, Cu, Au, Ag, Mo, W) and alloys (brass, steel, refractory, for example nichrome). They are polycrystalline. structure (about monocrystalline structures, see Whisker crystals). They produce fibers, monofilaments (thin wires) ... Chemical encyclopedia

heat resistant fibers- Synthetic fibers suitable for use in air at temperatures exceeding the thermal stability limits of conventional textile fibers. Obtained by molding from solutions of aromatic polyamides (see polyamide... ... Textile glossary

Quartz fibers (threads)- inorganic heat-resistant (high temperature-resistant) fibers (threads) with high dielectric, acoustic, optical, chemical properties. The listed properties determine wide application. K.N. in nuclear, aviation... Encyclopedia of fashion and clothing

Inorganic materials- – materials from inanimate, inorganic nature: stone, ores, salts, etc. These materials are ubiquitous. They are non-flammable and are used for the production of mineral binders, metals, concrete fillers, mineral fibers, etc.... ... Encyclopedia of terms, definitions and explanations of building materials

Substances or materials that are added to polymer compositions. materials (e.g. plastics, rubbers, adhesives, sealants, compounds, paint and varnish materials) for the purpose of modifying the operating St. in, facilitating processing, as well as reducing them ... Chemical encyclopedia

Polymer- (Polymer) Definition of polymer, types of polymerization, synthetic polymers Information about the definition of polymer, types of polymerization, synthetic polymers Contents Contents Definition Historical background Science of Polymerization Types ... ... Investor Encyclopedia

index- 01 GENERAL PROVISIONS. TERMINOLOGY. STANDARDIZATION. DOCUMENTATION 01.020 Terminology (principles and coordination) 01.040 Dictionaries 01.040.01 General provisions. Terminology. Standardization. Documentation (Dictionaries) 01.040.03 Services. Organization of companies... ... International Organization for Standardization (ISO) standards

MUSCLES- MUSCLES. I. Histology. Generally morphologically, the tissue of the contractile substance is characterized by the presence of differentiation of its specific elements in the protoplasm. fibrillar structure; the latter are spatially oriented in the direction of their reduction and... ...

LEATHER- (integumentum commune), a complex organ that makes up the outer layer of the entire body and performs a number of functions, namely: protecting the body from harmful external influences, participation in thermoregulation and metabolism, perception of irritations coming from outside.… … Great Medical Encyclopedia

In addition to those already listed, there are fibers made from natural inorganic compounds. They are divided into natural and chemical.

Natural inorganic fibers include asbestos, a fine-fibered silicate mineral. Asbestos fibers are fire-resistant (the melting point of asbestos reaches 1500° C), alkali- and acid-resistant, and non-thermal.

Elementary asbestos fibers are combined into technical fibers, which serve as the basis for threads used for technical purposes and in the production of fabrics for special clothing that can withstand high temperatures and open fire.

Chemical inorganic fibers are divided into glass fibers (silicon) and metal-containing ones.

Silicon fibers, or glass fibers, are made from molten glass in the form of elementary fibers with a diameter of 3-100 microns and very long lengths. In addition to them, staple fiberglass with a diameter of 0.1-20 microns and a length of 10-500 mm is produced. Fiberglass is nonflammable, chemical-resistant, and has electrical, heat, and sound insulation properties. It is used for the production of tapes, fabrics, meshes, non-woven fabrics, fibrous canvas, cotton wool for technical needs in various sectors of the country's economy.

Metal artificial fibers are produced in the form of threads by gradually stretching (drawing) metal wire. This is how copper, steel, silver, and gold threads are obtained. Aluminum threads are made by cutting flat aluminum tape (foil) into thin strips. Metal threads can be given different colors by applying colored varnishes to them. To give greater strength to metal threads, they are entwined with silk or cotton threads. When the threads are covered with a thin protective synthetic film, transparent or colored, combined metal threads are obtained - metlon, lurex, alunit.

The following types of metal threads are produced: rounded metal thread; flat thread in the form of a ribbon - flattened; twisted thread - tinsel; rolled meat twisted with silk or cotton thread - stranded.