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It's no secret that at the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries, Persia was an unusual mixture of old and new traditions, which were embodied in everyday life. Despite the introduction of the latest Western developments, harems, slaves and strange traditions could still be seen here. We invite you to look at photographs of that time, which are not at all like everything that you could imagine.

The last Shahs of the Qajar dynasty struggled to modernize the country. Engineers from Russia built the telegraph, the French trained the army, airplanes appeared in Tehran - at that moment the last word in technology. The pilots, of course, were daredevils, but the girl in the veil and dirty shoes, leaning on the plane in a businesslike way in this picture, looks no less dashing.

Shah Nasser ad-Din, who ruled Persia in the second half of the 19th century, was fond of photography from his youth. He set up his own photo studio in the palace and appointed Anton Sevryugin from Russia, who had a photo studio in Tehran, as the first court photographer. Sevryugin filmed the shah and the courtiers, but the path to the women's half of the palace was closed. Nasser ad-Din personally photographed his harem.

In Persia of those years, the telegraph, airplanes and cameras coexisted with medieval orders. Numerous wives and concubines of the nobility were served by eunuchs and slaves from Africa and the Caucasus. Slavery was banned only in 1929, after the overthrow of the Qajar dynasty.

The harem of Mozafereddin Shah, the son and successor of Nasser ad-Din, has nothing in common with the fantasies of Europeans who have read oriental tales. This is not a "Thousand and One Nights" - no half-naked girls and belly dancers. It looks more like a peaceful family portrait: women look decorously into the lens, mischievous children climbed under the table.

The daughter of Shah Nasser ad-Din, the round-faced beauty Akhtar ad-Daula, poses with the maids. In the second half of the 19th century, Persian ideas about beauty - both female and male - differed markedly from European ones. Noble girls did not seek to lose weight and flaunted lush eyebrows, and sometimes light facial hair.

A group of women with a goat in the andaruni (inner chambers) of the Shah's palace. The veils on their heads matched amazingly with miniskirts that would have caused a scandal in any European capital of the time.

The beloved concubine often appears in photographs taken by Nasser ad-Din, and each time in a new outfit - either in a Persian skirt, or in a European dress, or in a Japanese kimono. The girl was a Circassian beauty and, most likely, a slave.

The Shah's granddaughter Ismat al-Muluk and her relatives make faces in front of the camera. On Instagram, you won’t see anything like that, but in the 19th century, they didn’t joke with photos. For the shot to work, people had to sit motionless in front of the camera with a lean face for several minutes. But the law is not written for princesses, especially in those cases when their own grandfather is hiding under the cover of the cell.

Another photograph of Ismat is also not quite serious. She stands next to her sister, Fakhr al-Taj, while their father, the Shah's son-in-law, lies under a chair.

Next to the granddaughter of Shah Fakhr al-Taj, her mother, the daughter of Shah Nasser ad-Din Ismat ad-Daula, crouched on the bench.

Another granddaughter of the Shah - Ismat al-Muluk with a goat in her arms next to her husband.

Musicians and dances in the town of Selmas.

Despite the traditional clothes and head coverings, the girls in the girls' school study the most advanced science of the time, and the class is equipped with microscopes - an expensive pleasure.

Speaking about the modernization of Iran (Persia), it should be borne in mind that this state was geographically more distant from Western countries (it was more “eastern” not only geographically, but also socio-culturally) and, unlike the Ottoman Empire, did not have numerous and entrepreneurial bourgeois Christian communities (with the exception of the Armenians). Thus, the lack of numerous and well-established contacts with Western Europeans made it difficult to carry out modernization in this country.

Another important factor was the presence of a powerful influence on the government of the Shiite clergy, who had exceptional influence on the local population. On the other hand, Shiite Islam and the clergy did not potentially act as such an insurmountable obstacle to reforms in Iran. Shiism as a socially mobilizing factor in the country could play a key role, depending on the course of reforms, the possibility of a compromise between the authorities and the clergy, either towards their approval or categorical rejection. And this factor, as events showed, did not work in favor of the reformers.

At the beginning of the XIX century. Iran's rulers have become more sympathetic to European cultural influence and borrowings in the military-technical field. For influence on Iran, a sharp rivalry unfolded between the British and French military-political missions, in which the victory remained with the British. Iran's military defeats and territorial losses in the wars with Russia (1804-1813) and (1826-1828) pushed the country's leadership into the need for reforms. But the key role was played by the internal factor - the religious and social popular Babid uprising in 1848-1850.

In 1844, seid Ali-Mohammed declared himself the Bab, the "door" (or gate) through which the expected twelfth imam, as the messiah Mahdi, was about to descend to earth. Subsequently, he declared himself this imam and proclaimed a new radical social doctrine with pronounced egalitarian ideas. Despite the brutal suppression of this uprising, the anti-government banner of the Babis was picked up by Hussein Ali, who called himself Behaullah. He declared himself a supporter of non-violent actions and, having adopted many of the Western ideas, spoke out against wars, for tolerance, equality, and the redistribution of property into a kind of supranational global community. Despite the defeat, both Babism and Bahaism nonetheless paved the way for the necessary changes.

Mirza Tagi Khan, better known as Amir Nizam, became a convinced reformer and ideologist of Iranian reforms. In 1848 he was appointed the first vizier and then the first minister. Having visited the Ottoman Empire and Russia, he managed to convince Shah Nasr ed-Din (1848-1896) of the need for change.

First of all, the army was reorganized, the medieval orders, which were the most restrictive for the development of the state, were eliminated. State manufactories appeared, the higher school Darol-Fonun (House of Sciences) was founded, in which about 200 students studied. Young Iranians were sent abroad to study, and European teachers were invited to the country. Amir Nizam tried to limit the influence of the higher clergy on state affairs, which brought upon himself an irreconcilable conservative opposition led by the leader of the Tehran clergy.

The conservative clergy, together with the princes of the shah's house, were able to convince the shah of the destructiveness of Amir Nizam's reforms. The latter at the end of 1851 was removed from all posts, exiled and soon executed. Nevertheless, the reformist initiative of Amir Nizam did not disappear, he was picked up by Malkom Khan, who, being in the diplomatic service in France, even joined the Masonic Lodge. Returning to his homeland, Malkom Khan created in 1860 an educational and religious organization that resembled the Faramushkhane Masonic lodge in form, in which there were many high-ranking officials, including the son of the shah himself. This organization was engaged in propaganda under a religious cover (secular teaching in a religious society would not have been accepted at all) of the ideas and values ​​​​of the French Revolution: freedom of the individual and property, freedom of thought and religion, freedom of speech, press, assembly, equality of rights, etc. But the traditionalists and the conservative clergy did not doze off, they were able this time to convince the shah that the activity of this organization is destructive for the Islamic faith itself. As a result, in October 1861, Faramushkhane was dissolved, and Malkom Khan himself, very famous in the West, was sent into an honorary exile for diplomatic work.

The next attempt to reform the country was made in 1870 by the Shah's appointee, Prime Minister Hussein Khan. Carte blanche for the implementation of reforms was issued by the Shah himself, who repeatedly visited Russia and Europe and was personally convinced of the need for reforms. An administrative reform was carried out. Secular schools appeared. But the reforms basically consisted in the wide distribution of industrial and natural resources for monopoly development to the British and Russian capitalists. The events themselves were of a very superficial nature and did not affect the foundations of the existing system. But this time, even such cautious reforms aroused sharp opposition from the conservatives, primarily the clergy, and in 1880, under their pressure, the Shah dismissed Hussein Khan.

Reforms within the socio-political system almost stopped, but the government increasingly opened the way for foreign companies. At the end of the XIX century. the country was placed almost under the complete control of British and Russian capital. The country was flooded with cheap foreign manufactured goods, competition with which undermined local crafts and hampered the creation of a national industry. Actually, there was no national industry, it was replaced by foreign, mainly English industry. As a result, Iran has become a raw materials appendage of the European powers and a market for Western (including Russian) products. The British actually controlled the oil-rich south of the country, Russia consolidated its influence in the north of Iran. Both powers: Russia and Great Britain actively competed with each other in Iran. In fact, the country was turned into a semi-colony of two powers. Over 80% of the total trade turnover of Persia accounted for these two countries, and bilateral agreements provided for duty-free import or extremely low taxation of goods from these two countries. In general, the colonialism of Great Britain and Russia accelerated the decay of traditional relations in Iran, led to the emergence of the enlightenment movement of the Iranian intelligentsia and contributed to the awakening of national self-consciousness and the gradual formation of bourgeois ideology. The beginning of the disintegration of traditional social ties raised the question of the future of the country, aroused interest in the idea of ​​social progress in general and in the search for ways to further develop Iran, which had fallen into semi-colonial dependence. The enlightened Iranian elite became increasingly aware that trying to avoid Western innovations was a road to nowhere. The problem was how to combine the dominant traditional Shia worldview with the inevitability of the introduction of more secular (European) forms of life, so as not to finally turn into a colony? But this problem has not yet been resolved.

At the beginning of the 20th century, the socio-political situation in Iran was very tense. In opposition to the ruling regime were broad sections of the population: workers, the national bourgeoisie, feudal lords, and even part of the clergy. Dissatisfaction with the Shah's regime and the rule of foreigners resulted in the revolution of 1905-1911. The influence of an external factor, the revolution in Russia, immediately affected. In addition, many otkhodnik workers worked on earnings in Russia.

Under pressure from the revolutionary masses, the Shah signed a constitution and in 1906 opened the Majlis (parliament). In 1907, the Majlis legislated the basic civil rights and freedoms and created secular courts. Local self-government bodies, political, religious and professional clubs and organizations began to spring up everywhere. England and Russia, sensing a threat to their interests in Iran, took the side of the reaction, providing serious military assistance to the shah. When these measures did not help, in 1911, Russian troops in the north and British troops in the south entered Iran. In December 1911, a counter-revolutionary coup took place in the country, the Mejlis was dissolved, and all power again passed to the shah. However, the revolutionary turmoil with large episodes of civil war was not in vain, it paved the way for the possible modernization of Iranian society.

Often today we can hear a story about a country in the southwestern part of Asia called Persia. What country has now replaced it with Since 1935, Persia has officially become known as Iran.

In ancient times, this state was the center of a huge empire, the territory of which stretched from Egypt itself to the Indus River.

Geography

It is worth saying that at one time the state of Persia did not have clear boundaries. It is rather problematic to determine which country is now located on these lands. Even modern Iran is only approximately located on the territory of Ancient Persia. The fact is that in certain periods this empire was located in most of the world known at that time. But there were also worse years, when the territory of Persia was divided among themselves by local rulers who were hostile to each other.

The relief of most of the territory of present-day Persia is a high (1200 m) highland, which is crossed by a chain of stone ridges and individual peaks rising up to 5500 m. In the northern and western parts of this area are the Elbrus and Zagros mountain ranges. They are located in the form of the letter "V", framing the highlands.

West of Persia was Mesopotamia. This is the birthplace of the most ancient civilizations on Earth. At one time, the states of this empire largely influenced the culture of the still nascent country of Persia.

Story

Persia (Iran) is a country with a great past. Its history includes aggressive and defensive wars, uprisings and revolutions, as well as brutal suppression of all political speeches. But at the same time, Ancient Iran is the birthplace of the great people of that time, who led the art and culture of the country to flourish, and also built buildings of amazing beauty, the architecture of which still amazes us with its magnificence. The history of Persia has a large number of ruling dynasties. It is simply impossible to count them. Each of these dynasties introduced its own laws and rules, which no one simply dared to break.

Historical periods

Persia experienced a lot on the way of its formation. But the main milestones of its development are two periods. One is pre-Muslim and the other is Muslim. The Islamization of Ancient Iran was the cause of fundamental changes in its political, social and cultural sphere. However, this does not mean the disappearance of the old spiritual values. Not only were they not lost, but they also largely influenced the new culture that originated in the country at the turn of two historical periods. In addition, many pre-Muslim rituals and traditions have been preserved in Iran to this day.

Achaemenid rule

As a state, Ancient Iran began its existence with Cyrus II. This ruler became the founder of the Achaemenid dynasty, which was in power from 550 to 330 BC. BC e. Under Cyrus II, the two largest Indo-Asiatic tribes, the Persians and the Medes, were united for the first time. This was the period of the greatest power of Persia. Its territory extended to the Central and Indus Valley and Egypt. The most important archaeological and historical monument of the Achaemenid era are the ruins of the capital of Persia - Persepolis.

Here is the tomb of Cyrus II, as well as an inscription carved by Darius I on the Behistun rock. At one time, Persepolis was burned by Alexander the Great during his campaign to conquer Iran. It was the conqueror who put an end to the great Achaemenid Empire. Unfortunately, there is no written evidence of this era. They were destroyed by order of Alexander the Great.

Hellenistic period

From 330 to 224 BC e. Persia was in a state of decline. Along with the country, its culture also degraded. During this period, Ancient Iran was under the rule of the Greek Seleucid dynasty ruling at that time, being part of the state of the same name. The culture and language of Persia have changed. They were influenced by the Greeks. At the same time, Iranian culture did not die. She influenced the settlers from Hellas. But this happened only in those areas where there were no self-sufficient and large Greek communities.

Parthian Kingdom

Years passed, the power of the Greeks in Persia came to an end. The history of ancient Iran entered its new stage. The country became part of the Parthian kingdom. The Arshakid dynasty ruled here, considering themselves the descendants of the Achaemenids. These rulers liberated Persia from Greek rule and also protected it from Roman invasion and nomadic raids.

During this period, the Iranian folk epic was created, a large number of plots with heroic characters appeared. One of them was Rustem. This Iranian hero is in many ways similar to Hercules.

During the Parthian period, the feudal system was strengthened. This weakened Persia. As a result, it was conquered by the Sassanids. A new stage in the history of ancient Iran began.

Sassanid state

Between 224 and 226 AD. e. the last Parthian king Artaban V was overthrown from the throne. The power was seized by the Sassanid dynasty. During this period, the borders of Ancient Iran were not only restored, but also expanded to the western regions of China, including the Punjab and Transcaucasia. The dynasty waged a constant struggle with the Romans, and one of its representatives - Shapur I - even managed to capture their emperor Valerian. Constant wars were waged by the Sassanid dynasty with Byzantium.
During this period, cities developed in Persia, and the central government was strengthened. Then Zoroastrianism arose, which became the official religion of the country. In the era of the Sassanids, a four-stage system of the existing administrative division and the stratification of all strata of society into 4 estates were developed and approved.

In the era of the Sassanids, Christianity penetrated into Persia, which was negatively met by the Zoroastrian priests. At the same time, some other oppositional religious movements appeared. Among them are Mazdakism and Manichaeism.

The most famous representative of the Sassanid dynasty was Shah Khosrov I Anushirvan. The literal translation of his name means "with an immortal soul." His reign lasted from 531 to 579. Khosrow I was so famous that his fame survived for many centuries after the fall of the Sassanid dynasty. This ruler remained in the memory of posterity as a great reformer. Khosrow I showed great interest in philosophy and science. In some Iranian sources, there is even a comparison with Plato's "king-philosopher".

The Sassanids were significantly weakened by constant wars with Rome. In 641, the country lost a major battle to the Arabs. The Sasanian stage of Iranian history ended with the death of the last representative of this dynasty, Yazdegerd III. Persia entered the Islamic period of its development.

Rule of local dynasties

The Arab caliphate gradually expanded to the east. At the same time, his central authority in Baghdad and Damascus could no longer maintain strict control over all the provinces. This led to the emergence of local dynasties in Iran. The first of these is the Tahirides. Its representatives ruled from 821 to 873. in Khorasan. This dynasty was replaced by the Saffarids. Their dominance in the territory of Khorasan, southern Iran and Herat lasted throughout the second half of the ninth century. Then the throne was seized by the Samanids. This dynasty proclaimed itself the descendants of the Parthian military leader Bahram Chubin. The Samanids held the throne for more than fifty years, having extended their power over large territories. The country of Iran during the years of their reign ran from the eastern outskirts of the highlands to the Aral Sea and the Zagros ridge. The center of the state was Bukhara.

A little later, two more clans ruled on the territory of Persia. In the second half of the tenth century, these were the Ziyarids. They controlled the territory of the coast of the Caspian Sea. The Ziyarids became famous for their patronage of art and literature. During the same period, the Bund dynasty was in power in central Iran. They conquered Baghdad and Force, Khuzistan and Kerman, Ray and Hamadan.

Local Iranian dynasties achieved power in the same way. They seized the throne, raising an armed rebellion.

Ghaznavid and Seljuk dynasties

Starting from the eighth century, Turkic nomadic tribes began to penetrate. Gradually, the way of life of this people became sedentary. New settlements sprang up. Alp-Tegin - one of the Turkic tribal leaders - began to serve the Sassanids. In 962, he took power and ruled over the newly created state, the capital of which was the city of Ghazni. Alp-Tegin founded a new dynasty. The Ghaznavits held power for a little over a hundred years. One of its representatives - Mahmud Gaznevi - kept the territory from Mesopotamia to India under vigilant control. The same ruler settled in Kharasan a tribe of Oghuz Turks. Subsequently, their leader Seljuk rebelled and overthrew the Ghaznavid dynasty. Rey was declared the capital of Iran.

The Seljuk dynasty belonged to the orthodox Muslims. She subjugated all the local rulers, but for many years she waged constant wars for her dominance.
During the years of the Seljukids' rule, architecture flourished. During the reign of the dynasty, hundreds of madrasas, mosques, public buildings and palaces were erected. But at the same time, the reign of the Seljukids was hampered by constant uprisings in the provinces, as well as invasions of other tribes of the Turks, who were moving towards the western lands. Constant wars weakened the state, and by the end of the first quarter of the twelfth century it began to disintegrate.

Mongol domination

The invasion of Genghis Khan's troops did not pass Iran either. The history of the country tells us that in 1219 this commander managed to capture Khorezm, and then, moving to the west, plundered Bukhara, Balkh, Samarkand, Nashapur and Merv.

His grandson, Hulagu Khan, again plunged into Iran in 1256 and, taking Baghdad by storm, destroyed the Abbas Caliphate. The conqueror took the title of ilkhan, becoming the ancestor of the Khulaguid dynasty. He and his successors adopted the religion, culture and way of life of the Iranian people. Over the years, the position of the Mongols in Persia began to weaken. They were forced to wage constant wars with feudal rulers and representatives of local dynasties.

Between 1380 and 1395 the territory of the Iranian Highlands was captured by Amir Timur (Tamerlane). He also conquered all the lands that were adjacent to the Mediterranean Sea. Descendants until 1506 kept the state of the Timurids. Further, it was subordinated to the Uzbek Sheibanid dynasty.

History of Iran from 15th to 18th centuries

Over the following centuries, wars for power continued to be waged in Persia. So, in the 15th century, the Ak-Koyundu and Kara-Aoyundu tribes fought among themselves. In 1502, Ismail I seized power. This monarch was the first representative of the Safavids, an Azerbaijani dynasty. During the reign of Ismail I and his successors, Iran revived its military power and became an economically prosperous country.

The Safavid state remained strong until the death of its last ruler, Abbas I, in 1629. In the east, the Uzbeks were expelled from Kharasan, and in the west, the Ottomans were defeated. Iran, whose map pointed to the impressive territories belonging to it, subjugated Georgia, Armenia and Azerbaijan. It existed within these boundaries until the nineteenth century.

On the territory of Persia, wars were fought against the Turks and Afghans, who sought to conquer the country. These were the times when the Afshar dynasty was in power. The southern lands of Iran from 1760 to 1779 were ruled by the dynasty founded by Zendov Kerim Khan. Then she was overthrown by the Turkic tribe of Qajars. Under the leadership of its leader, it conquered the lands of the entire Iranian highlands.

Qajar dynasty

At the very beginning of the nineteenth century, Iran lost the provinces that were located on the territory of modern Georgia, Armenia and Azerbaijan. This was the result of the fact that the Qajar dynasty was never able to create a strong state apparatus, a national army and a unified system of tax collection. The power of its representatives turned out to be too weak and could not resist the imperial desires of Russia and Great Britain. The lands of Afghanistan and Turkestan came under the control of these great powers in the second half of the nineteenth century. At the same time, Iran unwittingly began to serve as an arena for Russian-British confrontation.

The last of the Qajar family was a constitutional monarch. The dynasty was forced to adopt this main law under the pressure of the strikes held in the country. Two powers - Russia and Great Britain - opposed the constitutional regime of Iran. In 1907 they signed an agreement to partition Persia. Its northern part went to Russia. Great Britain exerted its influence in the southern lands. The central part of the country was left as a neutral zone.

Iran at the beginning of the 20th century

The Qajar dynasty was overthrown in a coup d'état. It was led by General Reza Khan. A new Pahlavi dynasty came to power. This name, which in Parthian means "noble, brave", was intended to emphasize the Iranian origin of the family.

During the reign of Reza Shah Pahlavi, Persia experienced its national revival. This was facilitated by numerous radical reforms carried out by the government. The beginning of industrialization was laid. Large investments were allocated for the development of industry. Highways and railways were built. The development and production of oil was actively carried out. Sharia courts have been replaced by legal proceedings. Thus, in the early 20th century, extensive modernization began in Persia.

In 1935, the state of Persia changed its name. Which country is now its successor? Iran. This is the ancient self-name of Persia, which means "the country of the Aryans" (the highest white race). After 1935, the pre-Islamic past began to revive. Small and large cities of Iran began to be renamed. They restored pre-Islamic monuments.

The overthrow of royal power

The last Shah of the Pahlavi dynasty came to the throne in 1941. His reign lasted for 38 years. In conducting his foreign policy, the shah was guided by the opinion of the United States. At the same time, he supported the pro-American regimes that existed in Oman, Somalia and Chad. One of the most prominent opponents of the Shah was the Islamic priest Kma Ruhollah Khomeini. He led revolutionary activities against the existing government.

In 1977, the US President forced the Shah to ease his repressions against the opposition. As a result, numerous parties of critics of the existing regime began to appear in Iran. The Islamic Revolution was being prepared. The activities carried out by the opposition aggravated the protest moods of the Iranian society, which opposed the country's domestic political course, the oppression of the church and foreign pro-American policy.

The Islamic revolution began after the events of January 1978. It was then that the police shot down a demonstration of students who opposed a slanderous article about Khomeini published in the state newspaper. The unrest continued throughout the year. The Shah was forced to introduce martial law in the country. However, it was no longer possible to keep the situation under control. In January 1979, the Shah left Iran.
After his flight, a referendum was held in the country. As a result, on April 1, 1979, the Islamic Republic of Iran emerged. In December of the same year, the country's updated constitution saw the light of day. This document approved the supreme authority of Imam Khomeini, which, after his death, was to be transferred to his successor. The President of Iran, according to the constitution, stood at the head of political and civil power. Together with him, the country was ruled by the prime minister and an advisory council - the Mejlis. The President of Iran, by law, was the guarantor of the adopted constitution.

Iran today

Persia, known from time immemorial, is a very colorful state. What country today can so accurately correspond to the saying "the East is a delicate matter"? This is confirmed by the entire existence and development of the state in question.

The Islamic Republic of Iran, without any doubt, is unique in its identity. And this distinguishes it from others. The capital of the Republic is the city of Tehran. This is a huge metropolis, which is one of the largest in the world.

Iran is a unique country with a large number of sights, cultural monuments and its own way of life. The republic has 10% of the world's black gold reserves. It is thanks to its oil fields that it is in the top ten exporters of this natural resource.

Persia - what country is it now? Highly religious. More copies of the Holy Quran are published in its printing houses than in all other Muslim countries.

After the Islamic Revolution, the republic headed for universal literacy. The development of education here is going at an accelerated pace.

Iran under the rule of the Qajar dynasty

Iran entered the 19th century. a typical late medieval monarchy, characteristic of the countries of the Near and Middle East of this time. At the end of the XVIII century. after a long and bloody internecine struggle in Iran, a new, Qajar, dynasty was strengthened. Its founder was Agha Mohammad Khan, who, in the course of the struggle for power, managed to get the better of numerous contenders for the Shah's throne. His coronation in March 1795 marked the beginning of the rule of the Qajar dynasty, which continued in Iran until the 1920s. In 1796, Agha Mohammad Khan chose the small settlement of Tehran as his capital, gradually bringing most of Iran under his control. Agha Mohammad Khan's goal was to recreate Iran as a great empire that existed in antiquity.

After the assassination of the Shah as a result of a palace conspiracy in June 1797 and a fierce struggle for the throne, Agha Mohammad's nephew Fath Ali, who ruled Iran for more than thirty-five years, came to power. During his reign, in the fight against the separatism of local rulers and in the confrontation with the growing influence of Russia and Great Britain on internal Iranian affairs, a new dynasty was formed.

The process of defining state borders, forming the state apparatus, and establishing economic life under the Qajars stretched out for several decades and took place in the conditions of a wide expansion of European states and rivalry between them for the subjugation of Iran.

At the end of the XVIII century. The Near and Middle East is gaining special weight in international politics. Iran's favorable geographical position on the outskirts of India, Central Asia and the Caucasus determined its place in the acute political struggle of the European powers for influence and dominance in the Near and Middle East and Central Asia.

After the failure of the Egyptian campaign in 1798, Napoleon began to develop plans for a land campaign in India, hoping to use the territory of Iran for this. In order to counteract the plans of Napoleon, the British tried in every possible way to persuade the Shah to their side.

In January 1801, England signed political and commercial treaties with Iran. The political treaty had an anti-French, anti-Afghan and anti-Russian orientation. Under the trade agreement of 1801, the British were given great privileges.

At the beginning of the XIX century. there was a further aggravation of relations between Russia and Iran. After successful wars with Turkey and the annexation of Crimea, Russia intensified its policy in the Caucasus and set a course for the direct inclusion of Georgia, Armenia and the Transcaucasian Muslim khanates into the Russian Empire. On December 19, 1800, Paul I signed a manifesto on the annexation of Georgia to Russia. Alexander I, after accession to the throne, issued a "Manifesto on the approval of a new government in Georgia." The Shah's government of Iran tried by all means to return Georgia and the Muslim khanates of Transcaucasia under its rule. The Qajars regarded these territories as an integral part of Iran, and Russia's advance into the Transcaucasus was bound to bring it into conflict with Iran.

In 1804, the 1st Russian-Iranian war began, which lasted 9 years. Only on October 24, 1813, in the town of Gulistan, a peace treaty was signed between Russia and Iran, according to which Iran recognized the entry into the Russian Empire of Dagestan, Georgia, Imeretin, Guria, Mingrelia and Abkhazia, as well as the khanates - Karabakh, Shirvan, Derbent, Cuba , Baku and Talyshinsky.

The agreement confirmed the right of Russian and Persian merchants to freely navigate the Caspian Sea. For goods imported and exported from Iran for merchants of both countries, duties were set at a rate of 5%. At the same time, Article 5 of the Gulistan Treaty recorded the exclusive right of Russia to have a navy in the Caspian Sea.

The war with Napoleon temporarily weakened the Anglo-Russian rivalry in Iran, but it soon resumed with renewed vigor. The advance of Russia and England towards each other in Asia was the determining factor in the policy of the two powers towards Iran, which found itself between a rock and a hard place and was forced to constantly maneuver in order to survive in the face of growing political, military and economic pressure. The British constantly supported anti-Russian sentiments among the ruling elite of Iran and sought to strengthen their positions, using the Shah's desire for revenge in the fight against Russia.

On November 25, 1814, an Anglo-Iranian treaty was signed in Tehran, which obliged the Persian government to declare all alliances hostile to Great Britain concluded with European states that had lost their force, and also not to allow troops of European states that were in hostile relations with Great Britain to enter Iran.

Relying on the support of England, the Iranian government began to demand a revision of the Gulistan Treaty. To resolve disputed issues, an emergency embassy of A.P. was sent to Iran. Yermolov. The result of the negotiations was the creation in 1817 of a permanent Russian diplomatic mission in Iran. The Shah appointed the seat of the Russian mission to the city of Tabriz, the residence of the heir to the Iranian throne, Abbas Mirza, who was entrusted with the conduct of Iran's foreign relations. Improved relations with Iran contributed to the expansion of Iranian-Russian trade.

The recognition by Russia of the reigning house of the Qajars was of great political importance for the latter. Abbas Mirza, after receiving guarantees from Alexander I (an act of May 8, 1819) on assistance in the event of a struggle between pretenders to the Shah's throne, took an outwardly friendly position towards Russia. However, at the same time, Abbas Mirza sent his agents to the Shirvan and Karabakh khanates, which had departed to Russia under the Gulistan Treaty, as well as to Dagestan, where they campaigned for an armed uprising against the Russian authorities.

After the unsuccessful war with the Ottoman Empire in 1821–1823. the Iranian government, incited by the British diplomatic mission, went to aggravate relations with Russia. In the spring of 1826, the British began to pay Iran a military subsidy, provided for by the 1814 treaty. In Iran, the formation of regular infantry and cavalry continued with the help of English instructors, and intensive preparations were underway for a war with Russia.

On June 23, 1826, the Iranian clergy issued a fatwa on a holy war against Russia, and in July 1826, the Iranian army suddenly attacked the Russian troops. After a series of victories by the Russian army, the shah was forced to agree to all the conditions put forward by the Russian side.

February 10, 1828 in the village. Turkmanchae near Tabriz between Russia and Iran signed a peace treaty that ended the 2nd Russian-Iranian war. Under this treaty, the Erivan and Nakhichevan khanates became part of Russia. The border between Russia and Iran was the river. Arak. An indemnity of 20 million rubles was assigned to Iran. The priority right of Russia to have a military fleet on the Caspian Sea and freedom of navigation there for Russian ships was confirmed. The parties exchanged missions at the level of envoys, consular relations were established, Abbas Mirza was recognized as the heir to the Iranian throne.

Under an additional agreement to the Turkmanchay Treaty, Russian and Iranian merchants were granted the right to free trade in Iran and Russia. The treaty established the extraterritoriality of Russian subjects in Iran, and Russia secured the right of consular jurisdiction on the territory of Iran.

The treaty helped to strengthen Russia's influence in the Middle East and undermined British positions in Iran. It was especially important for the fate of the Armenian people: after the signing of the treaty, up to 140,000 Armenians moved to Transcaucasia from Turkey and Iran.

The Turkmanchay Treaty of 1828 put an end to the Russian-Iranian wars and the Iranian Shah's claims to Georgia, Armenia and the Transcaucasian khanates.

While the main forces of the Qajars on the western and northwestern borders of the state were sent to fight against Russia and the Ottoman Empire, the local rulers in the south and east of the country practically left the subordination of the central government, did not pay taxes and conducted a largely independent policy, using against the Qajars, the help of the British, the Central Asian khanates and the Afghan emirs.

After the signing of the Turkmenchay Treaty with Russia, Abbas Mirza took steps to restore the power of the Qajars in Yazd, Kerman and the province of Khorasan. Diplomatic and military activity of Abbas Mirza brought results, and during 1831-1832. he captured many fortresses and cities of Khorasan. The British mission in Iran was extremely disapproving and wary of Abbas Mirza's campaign in Khorasan. After the conclusion of the Turkmanchay Treaty, there was an Iranian-Russian rapprochement and strengthening of Iran's positions in Khorasan, which the British considered as an increase in Russia's influence in the region and tried to present it as a potential threat to their possessions in India.

The Iranian authorities were preparing for a campaign against Herat, which since the time of the Safavids and Nadir Shah considered their subject territory. However, on October 21, 1833, Abbas Mirza died, and soon, in 1834, Fath Ali Shah also died. A struggle for power began between the heirs to the throne, in which Abbas Mirza's son Mohammad Mirza won. He continued his attempts to strengthen the power of the Qajars in Khorasan, and in 1837 he undertook a campaign against Herat. This sharply aggravated relations between Iran and England, which sought to prevent Herat from falling under the rule of the Iranian Shah. Iran also refused to comply with the demands of the British to grant them the right of extraterritoriality. In this regard, England in November 1838 announced the severance of diplomatic relations with Iran.

Some time after the severance of diplomatic ties, Shah Mohammad Mirza sent his representative to London to negotiate the restoration of relations. In September 1839, the Foreign Secretary, Lord Palmerston, put forward a series of conditions under which Great Britain agreed to restore diplomatic relations with Iran. The most important of these demands were: the withdrawal of Iranian troops from the fortress of Gorian and other Afghan points; the conclusion of a trade treaty that would extend the capitulation regime to English subjects. In March 1841, Iran withdrew its troops from the Herat Khanate. Soon diplomatic relations between Iran and England were restored. On October 28, 1841, a trade agreement was signed in Tehran between the British government and the Shah's court.

Attention to Herat was again drawn in the mid-1950s, when England not only came close to conquering the markets of Iran, Afghanistan and Central Asia, but also made an attempt to establish its direct political dominance in the region.

The process of territorial unification of the state was completed mainly in the 30-40s of the 19th century, although the uncertainty of the state borders of Iran in some areas persisted until the 20th century, causing conflicts with the Ottoman Empire, Russia, the Central Asian khanates and Afghanistan. The determining factors in the formation of the state territory were not only the military forces of Iran and neighboring khanates or tribes, but the armed forces of European states - Russia and England, increased tendencies towards the creation of national states, the strength of international and bilateral treaties and agreements.

By the middle of the XIX century. a new system of administrative division began to take shape in the country. Iran was divided into 30 regions ( vilayets) and four provinces ( eyalats): Azerbaijan, Khorasan, Fars and Kerman. The provinces, in turn, were divided into counties ( boluk) and county ( mahalla). The smallest administrative unit was the village ( deh).

The first person in the state after the Shah was sadrazam, the head of the state apparatus, who had a great influence on the domestic and foreign policy of Iran. Often this position was occupied by talented officials who did not belong to the Qajar nobility. Sadrazam appointed himself three assistants: a financial manager ( mostoufi ol-mamalek), managing foreign and domestic policy ( monshi ol-mamalek) and commander-in-chief ( salar lashkar). After the reorganization of the army, carried out by Abbas Mirza, new commanders appeared - the commander of the regular army and the commander of the irregular troops. The provincial tax inspector was bridgefi, in every town - tahvildar who collected taxes through the village and guild elders.

Already in the first half of the XIX century. the "Europeanization" of the state apparatus began to take shape: sadrazam sometimes began to be called the prime minister, monchi ol-mamalek - the minister of foreign affairs, etc.

Enjoyed great influence kaem-makams, the first officials at the court of the heir in Tabriz, who became prime ministers after the accession of the heir to the throne.

At the head of the border regions was a military governor or governor ( beglerback or beylerbey, amir ol-omar). The administration of the regions included: the governor, the head of the Shiite clergy ( sheikh ol-islam, appointed from Tehran), Sharia judges ( Kazi and mullahs), sadr(He was in charge of the waqf property of the region), vizier(responsible for the receipt of taxes and subordinated to the grand vizier or sadrazam).

Judicial functions were in the hands of the Shiite clergy. Some criminal cases were considered on the basis of Sharia law. But since the shah had unlimited power, he was the supreme judge on all issues, and part of his power was transferred through the instances to various administrative persons - governors, etc. Representatives of the secular court - daruga and kedhoda rendered decisions, taking into account the opinion of religious judges - kaziev, ulemov, mullah. On the basis of customary law (adat), many minor disputes were resolved, especially among the tribes.

The army was irregular and not numerous in normal times. If necessary, tribal or city militias gathered, which disbanded after the end of the military campaign. When the Iranian army clashed with the Russian troops in Transcaucasia and suffered its first defeats, the Shah and his inner circle, primarily the heir to the throne, Abbas Mirza, came to the idea of ​​the need to restructure the military system of Iran according to the European model.

Regular troops were first trained by French, and then by English, Austrian and Italian officers. Amir was at the head of the regular army - Nizam, although the shah was considered the head of all the armed forces. However, the combat effectiveness of the Iranian army, even after the reorganization, was low, as evidenced by the numerous defeats in the wars against Russia and England.

The unsuccessful Herat campaign for Iran and the wars with the Ottoman Empire, as well as the inability of the Iranian army to quickly suppress the uprising of the Babis, forced the young Shah Nasser al-Din and his first minister Tagi Khan to reorganize the army once again. There is no doubt that the military reform carried out in the Ottoman Empire stimulated the reorganization of the Iranian army.

Tagi Khan introduced a new system of recruitment into the army, according to which each taxable unit (village, landowner, city, etc.) had to supply a certain number of soldiers, pay for the soldier's transportation to the place of collection and support his family. On the eve of the Anglo-Iranian War of 1856–1857 the Iranian army was still poorly trained and armed, it lacked discipline; there was no general staff, engineering troops. The regular cavalry was the best trained. The training of military engineers has just begun.

Such a "regular" army was completely incapacitated. Even the irregular cavalry militias of the tribes, led by their khans, were a more reliable and combat-ready military force.

In the first half of the XIX century. in Iran, the process of disintegration of patriarchal relations and the formation of a capitalist structure begins: signs of a political and economic crisis appear, waves of popular discontent roll over, attempts are made to carry out some reforms, and enlightenment is born.

Iran, which has retained the idea of ​​its former greatness and power, is faced with more developed socio-economic, military, political and cultural states and suffers defeats. He is forced to make humiliating concessions, takes hard failures, painfully adapts to new conditions, looks for the causes of the plight and ways to overcome medieval backwardness. In Iran, some illusions had not yet disappeared, hopes were alive to defend their political and economic independence, to preserve the Shiite ideology, the Sharia traditional social structure, culture and way of life. Events in the middle of the 19th century forced many Iranians to more realistically assess the situation in the Middle East and the possibilities of Iran itself. Since that time, a qualitatively new period in the history of the Iranian state begins.

In the second quarter of the XIX century. new trends are noted in the socio-economic development of Iran in connection with the import of Western European goods, the penetration of much more productive and strong Western European industrial capital, and the beginning of the transformation of Iran into a sales market and a source of raw materials for European countries.

At the beginning of the XIX century. about a third of the land suitable for cultivation belonged to the state. The Qajars sought to create a large fund of state lands, considering state ownership of land and the shah's right to dispose of the land fund as the most important economic basis for the political centralization of Iran.

However, most of the land remained private property. Relatively independent of the Shah's power were the waqf lands, which were controlled by the Shiite and partly Sunni clergy.

Since the 1930s and 1940s there has been an increase in private land ownership. The relationship between state and private property began to change: the influence of capitalist Europe began to strongly affect, and the growth in demand for agricultural raw materials and prices for it on the world market forced large landowners to become more active, to establish tighter control over the peasants. Merchants, officers, higher clergy, wealthy townspeople rushed into agriculture. The principle of private ownership of land was officially recognized by the law of 1843.

Until the middle of the XIX century. in Iran, a stable social structure, characteristic of medieval society, was preserved. Since the 1940s, we can talk about the beginning of the loosening of this structure, the emergence of new socio-economic ties.

Four main groups of the population of Iran can be distinguished, which differed greatly from each other in economic and legal status: the ruling class - persons associated with the court, the capital and provincial (civil and military) administration, which has hereditary land property granted by the Qajars; urban class groups - merchants, merchants, artisans, as well as the clergy; peasantry; nomads.

The bulk of large landowners were tribal khans, owners of hereditary and title lands, and officials of the provincial administration. In general, this social group was quite stable.

There was no serfdom in Iran, but this did not prevent the most severe exploitation of the peasants and the neglect of the tax-paying population: artisans and townspeople.

The position of the Shiite clergy in Iran during the 19th century. has changed. Under Fath Ali Shah, the desire of the Shiite clergy to participate more actively in the political life of the country became noticeable. Under Mohammad Mirza Shah, the positions of the clergy were further strengthened. And later, Amir Kabir repeatedly openly stated that throughout Iran, the clergy yearn for political power and interference in state affairs.

The relationship between the clergy and the authorities was complex, and along with the fact that the clergy often opposed all sorts of "European" innovations that threatened the traditional foundations of society, it was often the only force capable of protecting the people from the arbitrariness of the authorities and therefore enjoyed the respect and trust of the people. The clergy had a decisive influence on the entire system of views, traditions and foundations of Iranian society.

From the second half of the XIX century. in Iran, the development of capitalist relations begins and, as a result, the growth of Iranian cities. The role of the city in the life of the country begins to grow: the city becomes the center of a new culture; creates new political, trade, economic and intellectual communities; contributes to the creation of new forms of power.

Political power in the city belonged to the bureaucratic layers. They essentially dominated economic life, collecting taxes from the townspeople, taking part in urban, wholesale, caravan and transit trade, regulating production and trade, influencing pricing, etc.

A significant and influential social group in an Iranian city in the first half of the 19th century. was the merchant class. Basically, foreign and domestic trade was concentrated in his hands. A feature of the Iranian merchants was a close relationship with large landowners and the clergy. The Shah's treasury and individual dignitaries were also active participants in trade.

Iran's foreign trade was not fully controlled by the Tehran government. The local authorities of the provinces had the right to determine the terms of trade. Iran traded mainly with its neighbors: the Ottoman Empire, Russia, the Khanate of Bukhara, Afghanistan, India and the Arab principalities. European goods were imported to Iran not only by Iranian and European merchants, but also by Turkish, Indian and Arab ones.

In many branches of handicraft production, the functions of producer and seller were combined in one person. The craftsman-merchant remained almost the most prominent figure in Iranian bazaars, especially in small towns. Wage labor was used quite widely both in the city and in the countryside. In cities, another part of the population stood out, the so-called declassed elements ( loot). They played a prominent role in almost all urban uprisings. In 1815, Tehran's looters, instigated by Sheikh ol-Islam, defeated the Armenian quarter. The city lower classes were used by the Shiite clergy during the defeat of the Russian mission in 1829.

At the end of the XVIII - beginning of the XIX century. there were relatively many slaves in Iran, mostly Christians and Negroes. Those captured were usually turned into slaves. Despite the signing of treaties on the prohibition of the slave trade in the Persian Gulf (1845, 1847), it continued in Sistan and Balochistan.

The non-Muslim population of Iran - Christians (mainly Armenians and Assyrians), Parsis (Hebras, Zoroastrians), Jews - occupied a humiliated position. National-religious minorities tried to stay compact, resorting, if necessary, to the protection of their religious community. Armenians, Jews, Assyrians and Parsis made up an insignificant percentage of the total population and did not have a noticeable impact on the political and cultural life of Iran.

In the 50s of the XIX century. 9 million people lived in Iran. The tax was imposed on 3 million settled inhabitants and 3 million nomads. According to Sharia, 10% of the deductions to the treasury from any type of income were considered traditional and legal, and in wartime - 25-30%. In reality, however, no one adhered to these rules, and taxes were determined by the governor of the province, and then laid out in smaller administrative units. Mutual responsibility was maintained in the payment of taxes from the countryside and senfa(workshops), although there was a tendency towards more individual taxation.

Some provincial governors systematically refused to pay taxes to the treasury, and the rulers of a number of regions, such as Bandar Abbas, did not want to pay taxes to the Iranian government at all, considering themselves independent from Iran. Tax arrears were common.

Under the Qajars, the practice of issuing barats (orders) to receive a tax from any region or part of it as a salary for officials began to be practiced more and more widely. The collection of taxes was farmed out, which testified to the underdevelopment of the tax system, as well as the inability of the state to ensure the collection of tax by officials (the bureaucracy at that time was small).

By the middle of the XIX century. In Iran, there are significant changes in socio-economic life associated with the penetration of Western European, primarily English, capital.

The importation of cheap foreign goods had a devastating effect on Iranian craft and industry, which could not withstand foreign competition. The government did nothing to protect local producers, especially the textile industry. Wide-ranging commercial crisis of 1836–1837 in Iran led to the ruin of many Iranian merchants, they were forced out of foreign trade by foreign trading houses.

The penetration of foreign capital into the country also worsened the situation of the peasants. Economic bondage grew. If in Europe loans were given at 3-6% per annum, then in Iran - at 30-100%. Many peasants went to work in the cities and joined the ranks of the urban poor.

The protests and discontent of the peasants often merged with the indignation of ruined merchants and artisans. In general, the deterioration in the material situation of the masses created a broad social basis for anti-government protests, which took the form of religious movements in Iran.

The Babid speeches of the middle of the 19th century posed a particular danger to the authorities. (named after the ideological leader of the Baba movement). Babid movements took place under egalitarian slogans. Most of the participants in the movement were small artisans, merchants, peasants and Islamic clergy. They advocated the abolition of taxes, private property, the equality of women, the introduction of community property. Spontaneous and scattered Babid protests were brutally suppressed by the authorities.

The Babid movement was the result of the aggravation of social contradictions in Iran, which were intensified as a result of the penetration of foreign capital into the country. The most far-sighted part of the ruling class understood the need to change the status quo.

Northern Iran - Azerbaijan, Gilan, Mazandaran, more closely connected with the European market, felt the need to reorganize the economy and management earlier than others.

For the first time under the Qajars, by the middle of the 19th century. Opposition to the Shah's autocracy begins to take shape on the basis of enlightenment and reformism, which were developed in the second half of the 19th century. It is also important to note the manifestation of political self-consciousness among some representatives of the propertied classes, who put forward demands for improved public administration, law enforcement, "justice", as well as the development of the economy and culture. The ideas of modernizing society penetrated Iran as a result of expanding contacts with Europeans, familiarization with the achievements of European life and culture, and also under the influence of reforms (the so-called "tanzimat") in the neighboring Ottoman Empire.

The most active supporter of reforms in Iran was Mirza Tagi Khan.

Amir Kabir

Mirza Mohammad Tagi Khan Farahani (1808-01/09/1852). Mohammad Tagi was the son of Mahmud Kurban Karbalai, a cook in the family of the ruler of Persian Iraq - Isa Farahani. After the appointment of Isa Farahani to the post of kay-maqam under the heir to the throne Abbas-Mirza, the family of M.K. Mohammad Tagi was brought up together with the children and grandchildren of Kaem-maqam, from childhood he was acquainted with the heir to the throne and the future Shah Nasser ad-Din.

Tagi Khan's personal qualities - natural intelligence, education, hard work, the ability to do clerical work, organizational skills, support for the kaem-maqam and the heir contributed to his promotion. Tagi Khan became an official in the office of the heir Abbas Mirza in Tabriz. In 1829 he visited St. Petersburg as part of the "excusatory" embassy of Khosrov Mirza.

Tagi Khan in 1831 became the deputy commander of the army of the heir in Azerbaijan, received the title of khan. In 1843, he was appointed to the post of amir-nezam (commander) of the heir's army.

Family ties also provided Tagi Khan with the support he needed; he was married to one of the daughters of Fath Ali Shah, the sister of Nasser ad-Din. Mirza Tagi Khan in 1843–1847 led the Iranian mission in Erzurum in determining the borders with Turkey. Communicating with Europeans who worked in the delimitation commission, living for a long time in Turkey and visiting Russia, as well as holding the highest administrative and military posts under the heir to the throne in Azerbaijan, Mirza Tagi Khan acquired the necessary experience and knowledge in governing the country.

Having ascended the throne in 1848, Nasser al-Din Shah appointed Tagi Khan as Sadr Azam (Prime Minister) and gave him the title "Amir Kabir" ("Great Emir"). Tagi Khan received unlimited rights to govern the country.

During his short tenure as first vizier (1848-1851), Mirza Tagi Khan tried to introduce reforms to strengthen the power of the central government and limit the influence of foreign powers, mainly England. First of all, he took up the reorganization of the army, led the fight against the indiscipline of military units and their commanders, with the theft of government money intended to pay salaries to soldiers.

At the same time, in an effort to somewhat defuse the discontent of the peasants, Mirza Tagi Khan made an attempt to limit the exploitation of the peasants by the khans. The project developed by him established the size of the duties of the peasants in favor of the khans. This measure, as well as other reform projects of Mirza Tagi Khan, was supposed to strengthen the power of the central government, which was necessary to suppress popular uprisings, rebellions of recalcitrant khans, as well as to repel pressure on Iran from foreign powers.

Among other statesmen of Iran, Mirza Tagi Khan was the most resolute opponent of the strengthening of British influence in the country. He tried to prevent the enslavement of Iran by foreign powers and sought to restore Iran's actual independence in foreign and domestic affairs.

For three years, Mirza Tagi Khan was the de facto ruler of Iran and laid the foundation for comprehensive reforms that would renew the country. In 1849, he founded the school-lyceum Dar ol-fonun (House of Science) and invited a group of European specialists who taught medicine, pharmacology, natural sciences, engineering, geology, and military science. Prominent Iranian politicians, diplomats, and educators subsequently emerged from among the graduates of Dar ol-fonun.

All sorts of circles and societies began to operate in the country, serving the goals of education, the development of private schools. In February 1851, in Tehran, under the leadership and with the active participation of Tagi Khan, the newspaper “Ruzname-ye vakaye-ye ettefaki-ye” was founded, which was an official publication and served as a guide for civil servants. A significant place in the newspaper was occupied by materials from the foreign press, covering the problems of politics, economics and culture.

Amir Kabir was convinced of the need to create a European-type industry in Iran. On his initiative, two sugar factories, factories for the manufacture of weapons and cannons, a spinning factory, factories for the production of crystal, coarse calico and cloth were built. One of the foundations of his economic policy was the encouragement and development of private industry.

For the successful implementation of the reforms, Mirza Tagi Khan severely limited the power of the clergy, preventing them from interfering in state affairs. He believed that in the presence of a strong position of the clergy, no reforms were possible.

Amir Kabir made changes to the judicial system. He limited the competence of Sharia courts. Court cases of representatives of religious minorities were not to fall under the jurisdiction of Sharia courts and were immediately transferred to secular courts. An instruction was sent to all provincial governors according to which religious minorities should enjoy full freedom of worship and their rights should be protected on the basis of absolute justice.

In the short period of his reign, Mirza Tagi Khan, despite the restrictions that had existed for centuries and the opposition he received from all sides, carried out various reforms. However, his activities, attempts to limit the power and financial possibilities of the ruling elite caused dissatisfaction with the court and the clergy.

A conspiracy developed against Amir Kabir, in which the British embassy played an active role. As a result of palace intrigues in November 1851, Tagi Khan was stripped of all titles and titles, removed from all positions, and was soon killed by order of the Shah.

From the second half of the XIX century. the struggle of the great powers for Iran intensifies. This struggle developed most sharply between England and Russia, first in Central Asia, and then in Iran itself.

An integral part of the colonial policy, which was carried out in the middle of the XIX century. Great Britain, became the Anglo-Iranian War of 1856–1857 However, as a result of this war, England received practically no concessions from Iran, its influence was weakened, and anti-English sentiments sharply increased in the country. At the same time, the positions of Russia, France and, to some extent, the United States strengthened in Iran. The war showed the weakness of the Qajar state and facilitated the further penetration of foreign capital into Iran. Taking advantage of the military and political weakening of the country, the Western powers imposed a number of unequal treaties on Iran and created fertile ground for obtaining concessions, monopolies and all sorts of privileges, which turned Iran into a powerhouse at the end of the 19th century. to a dependent country.

One of the first spheres of activity of foreign capital in Iran was telegraph concessions. Agreements on them were signed in 1862,1865, and in 1872 the Telegraph was completely under the control of the "Indo-European Company". The Persian government was given a third of the income from the operation of the line passing through Iranian territory, and a preferential rate for sending telegrams. Of the nine main telegraph lines, only two were controlled by the Iranian government, two more were operated by the Russians, and the rest by the British. The telegraph service, operated by British officials and guarded by Persian guards on the payroll of the British government, was a tool for increasing British influence in Iran.

Since the beginning of the 1970s, the struggle between Russia and Britain for concessions for the construction of highways and railways in Iran has intensified. This construction was of economic and strategic importance.

On July 25, 1872, an agreement was signed with the English financier Y. Reiter on a concession for the construction of the Trans-Iranian railway from the Caspian Sea to the Persian Gulf for a period of 70 years. Reuther received such privileges that, according to Lord Curzon, this concession represented an unprecedented and most extraordinary fact of the complete sale of all the wealth of the state to foreigners.

The concession agreement provoked a sharp protest from the tsarist government. During the stay of Nasser ad-Din Shah in St. Petersburg in the autumn. In 1873, the question of the abolition of the concession was actually resolved. On December 5, 1873, the Shah terminated the concession agreement with Reuter. The tsarist government decided to take the railway construction initiative into its own hands in order to undermine the influence of the British.

In 1887, contrary to the interests of the country's economic development, the Shah's government, under pressure from Russian diplomacy, gave a written commitment not to allow the construction of railways and the use of waterways without prior consultation with the Russian government. In 1890, a Russian-Iranian agreement was officially signed that railways in Iran would not be built for 10 years. Construction was actually frozen for almost 30 years. The absence of railways delayed the economic development of the country for a long time.

At the end of the XIX century. The British obtained permission to build a number of highways. In January 1889, an agreement was signed with the son of Y. Reiter on opening a bank in Iran and granting a concession for a period of 60 years. On October 23, 1889, the Shahinshah Bank began operations in Tehran. Soon bank branches were opened in many cities and regions of Iran. By issuing paper money, this bank concentrated in its hands a large amount of silver, which was exported from the country, which contributed to the depreciation of the Iranian currency and inflation.

To regulate artificially created inflation, the bank provided loans to the Shah's government and thereby increased Iran's debt obligations to England. The British used the methods of monetary regulation to limit the national sovereignty of Iran through inflationary mechanisms, combined with a system of government international borrowing.

The economic penetration of Russian capital into Iran proceeded primarily through the expansion of trade and the creation of Russian enterprises in the country. The largest commercial and industrial enterprise was the fishing industry of the Lionozovs. Other prominent Russian concessionaires in Iran were the well-known entrepreneurs, the Polyakov brothers. In November 1890 L.S. Polyakov obtained from the Shah a concession to organize insurance and transport business throughout Iran for a period of 75 years. This concession gave Russia great privileges in the construction of highways and wheel roads not only in the north of the country, but also throughout Iran.

One of the most important Russian concessions in Iran was the establishment of the Accounting and Loan Bank. The bank took over the financing of the transport business. In a relatively short period of 15 years (1895–1910), Russia invested about 21 million rubles in road construction in Iran. The opening of a Russian bank in Tehran testified to the activation of the economic policy of the tsarist government, designed to conquer the Persian market and oust the British rival from Iran.

The most important factor by which England and Russia tried to strengthen their positions in Iran at the end of the 19th and beginning of the 20th centuries were loans provided to the government of Iran. In 1898, an English bank demanded from the Shah's government the immediate payment of previously issued loans. Iran was forced to turn to Russia for financial assistance. In the same year, a loan of 150 thousand rubles was issued to Iran. In 1900, Russia provided Iran with a loan of 22.5 million rubles for a period of 75 years. The acquisition of foreign loans caused protests among the population of the country.

In 1908, huge oil reserves were discovered in the Meydan-Naftun area, and already in April 1909, the Anglo-Iranian Oil Company was formed in London. This company began to play a decisive role in the enslavement and robbery of Iran by British capital in the first half of the 20th century.

In addition to English and Russian concessions, the Shah's government granted a number of concessions to representatives of other European states: Belgium, France, Greece.

Simultaneously with the strengthening of Iran's economic dependence, the process of its political subjugation by foreign powers, primarily Great Britain and Russia, took place.

The strengthening of British influence caused serious concern to the tsarist government, which did not have sufficient material resources to effectively economically resist England in Iran. Therefore, along with economic measures, the tsarist government also resorted to military-political ones.

The Cossack brigade played an important role in strengthening and spreading Russian influence in Iran. During the second trip of Nasser ad-Din Shah to Europe in 1878, the tsarist government managed to persuade the shah to create a Persian Cossack brigade modeled on Russian Cossack regiments for the personal protection of the shah and his family. According to the charter of the brigade, it was headed by the shah, which significantly increased its prestige and put it in a privileged position in the Iranian army.

The Russian government had a strong position in Tehran. It exercised its political influence in Iran through the Shah's central government and was therefore interested in strengthening the Shah's power. The tsarist authorities used consular missions, the Accounting and Loan Bank, concession enterprises and other opportunities to achieve their goals.

The British ruling circles, who competed in Iran with Russia, were interested in weakening the power of the Iranian government, following their principle of "divide and rule." They supported the fragmentation of the country and the separatism of the tribal khans.

At the end of the XIX century. England repeatedly sent its troops into the territory of Iran and seized significant areas on the eastern border, capturing Eastern Balochistan and part of Sistan. These seizures were carried out under the guise of the activities of the so-called demarcation commissions. Baloch sardars, tribal leaders, received regular subsidies and weapons from the British. They did not pay taxes to the Iranian authorities and openly refused to obey them.

The British established their dominance in the Persian Gulf. Under the pretext of fighting pirates and the slave trade, the Persian Gulf was occupied by the British naval forces.

In order to establish political influence in Iran, the British used not only their political representatives, consuls, but also branches of the Shahinshah Bank, an oil company, a shipping company, and English missionaries who were in many cities of Central and Southern Iran.

By the beginning of the XX century. Iran had already largely lost its national independence and on the eve of the revolution of 1905-1911. became essentially a dependent country from England and tsarist Russia. At the same time, contacts with Europeans contributed to the penetration of modernization ideas into Iranian society and the adoption of some formal institutions of European culture.

Nasser ad-Din Shah made three trips abroad - to Russia and Europe (in 1873, 1878 and 1889). After these trips, he introduced some innovations in the state apparatus of the country, which boiled down to the external Europeanization of the government and the Shah's court. New ministries were established - internal affairs, justice, education, post and telegraph; several secular schools were founded according to the European model for the sons of the local nobility; some Europeanization of the clothes of the courtiers was carried out. An attempt was made to limit the judicial power of the higher clergy.

The reforms carried out by the Shah did not yield significant results, but they contributed to a change in the socio-political situation in the country in the last third of the 19th century.

By this time, the Iranian intelligentsia enters the political scene of Iran. In her midst, the ideas of nationalism and enlightenment spread. Iranian educators, whose prominent representatives were Malkom Khan, Zayn al-Abedin Maragei and others, advocated political reforms, the introduction of constitutional government, and the modernization of the country. Their activities played an important role in the formation of the national identity of the Iranian people and the development of the opposition movement in the country. The opposition's increased pressure on the government, the radicalization of its political program, the weakness and inefficiency of the monarchical regime led to the Iranian Revolution of 1905–1911. Its rapid development, the scale of events were unpredictable. The government and the Mejlis turned out to be practically incapacitated, the central government weakened, and separatist sentiments noticeably strengthened. In 1907, England and Russia concluded an agreement on dividing Iran into "spheres of influence". Allied troops began the occupation of the country and assisted in the suppression of the revolution. They were never completely withdrawn from Iran until the outbreak of the First World War, their presence later became one of the reasons for the transformation of neutral Iran into an arena of armed clashes between the forces of the Entente and the Triple Alliance.

3.3. The oldest Chinese solar eclipse under Emperor Zhong Kang at the beginning of the Xia Dynasty occurred on September 1, 1644 AD. e., in the year of the accession of the Manchurian dynasty in China It is believed that the oldest and most famous Chinese solar eclipse occurred, no less, in the XX