Illustration copyright Science Photo Library Image caption Schrödinger's paradox has been known for a long time, but it has not yet been possible to demonstrate it at the physical level.
The discovery of gravitational waves in space-time, as well as the first practical demonstration of the famous Schrödinger paradox, are included in the list of the largest achievements in physics for 2016, according to Physics World magazine.
It also includes the discovery of the first exoplanet in the closest star system to us.
Detection of gravitational waves, recognized biggest discovery year, was achieved by the LIGO scientific community, which involves more than 80 scientific institutes around the world.
The community uses several laboratories trying to detect deviations in the structure of space-time that occur when a powerful laser pulse passes through a vacuum tunnel.
The first signal they detected was the product of a collision between two black holes at a distance of more than a billion light years from Earth.
According to Hamish Johnston, editor of Physics World, which published the list of achievements, these observations were the first direct evidence of the existence of black holes.
Illustration copyright LIGO/T. Pyle/SCIENCE PHOTO LIBRARY Image caption Albert Einstein was the first to suggest the possibility of the existence of gravitational wavesOther major physics discoveries of the year include:
Shroedinger `s cat: Scientists have been puzzling over the mystery of Schrödinger's cat for many years. This is a thought experiment by Austrian scientist Erwin Schrödinger. The cat is in the box. The box contains a mechanism containing a radioactive atomic nucleus and a container of poisonous gas. The paradox is that an animal can be alive or dead at the same time. You can find out for sure only by opening the box. This means that opening the box highlights one of the cat's many states. But before the box is opened, the animal cannot be considered alive or dead - the cat can be in two states at the same time.
However, American and French physicists were for the first time able to track the state of a cat using the example internal device molecules, manifested in the simultaneous presence of the system in two quantum states.
To do this, specialists brought the molecules into an excited state using an X-ray laser (razer). Physicists compiled a video from the obtained diffraction patterns of high spatial and temporal resolution.
Compact "gravimeter": Scientists from the University of Glasgow have built a gravimeter that can very accurately measure gravity on Earth. This is a compact, accurate and inexpensive device. The device can be used in searching for minerals, in construction and in the study of volcanoes.
The closest exoplanet to us: Astronomers have discovered signs of the presence of a planet in the habitable zone in the Proxima Centauri system. This planet, called Proxima b, has a mass of only 1.3 more than Earth and may have liquid water on its surface.
Illustration copyright ESO/M.Kornmesser Image caption This is what the surface of the planet Proxima b might look likeQuantum entanglement: A group of physicists from the United States was able to demonstrate for the first time the effect of quantum mechanical entanglement using the example of a macroscopic mechanical system.
The development of experimental methods for studying quantum systems and testing techniques for entangling various kinds of objects should, according to physicists’ forecasts, lead to the emergence of fundamentally new computers.
Miracle material: Scientists were able to measure for the first time a property of the graphene material - the so-called negative refraction. This phenomenon can be used to create new types of optical devices, for example, extremely sensitive lenses and objectives.
Atomic clock: German physicists discovered the transmutation of the thorium-229 isotope, which could become the basis for the design of a new type of atomic clock. Such clocks will be much more stable than existing devices of this type.
Optics for microscopes: Scottish scientists from the University of Strathclyde created new type lenses for microscopes, called Mesolens. The new lenses have a large field of view and high resolution.
Illustration copyright Mesolens Image caption These structures in the brain of rats were recorded by a new microscope based on Mesolens lensesSuperfast computer: Austrian scientists have achieved major success in the development of quantum computers. They created a model of the fundamental interactions of elementary particles that can be used by prototype quantum computers.
Nuclear engine: Scientists from the University of Mainz in Germany have developed a prototype heat engine, which consists of one atom. It converts the difference in temperature into mechanical work, placing a single calcium ion in a funnel-shaped trap.
Within the framework of classical physics, research is constantly being carried out to further refine and develop the modern physical model of the world. Physics - be it macrophysics, microscopic physics or physics at the intersection of sciences - is constantly evolving, developing, and being supplemented with more and more new models, knowledge and discoveries.
Unfortunately it doesn't exist today unified system or physical theory. All of them are correct and confirmed subject to certain conditions. For example, classical mechanics can be considered correct only if we apply it to objects significantly larger than elementary particles and moving slower than the speed of light. It is necessary to change these conditions and it comes into play quantum mechanics, not applicable to normal conditions.
The constant search for a model that unites all the main branches of physics and brings together all theories is an unattainable dream of scientists. However, we have the power to constantly refine the laws of nature, bring together disparate knowledge and, by combining it, create increasingly detailed models of the behavior of the world around us.
In this section of our portal you can get acquainted with the latest research in the field of classical physics. Research based on centuries-old knowledge of science will possibly lead to an understanding of individual phenomena, and this, in turn, will allow them to be used for the benefit of humanity.
Presented by us newest discoveries and ideas span theoretical, experimental and applied physics. There are several main areas of classical physics:
We will be glad if you present your ideas, discoveries and developments to the reader. Perhaps they will be of interest to specialists and the general reader. In addition, inventions and discoveries in the field of physics can be patented and become a source of income in the future.
In addition, we will try to introduce you to discoveries in the border areas of physics, physics at the intersection with other sciences, such as:
This list may expand as ideas and discoveries in different areas of physics are added to the catalogue. Come in, read and you will always be aware of the most interesting, and perhaps fateful discoveries for humanity.
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December is the time to take stock. The editors of the Vesti.Nauka project (nauka.vesti.ru) have selected for you the ten most interesting news that physicists have pleased us with in the past year.
New state of matter
The state of a substance called excitonium was theoretically predicted almost half a century ago, but it was only now possible to obtain it in experiment.
This state is associated with the formation of a Bose condensate from exciton quasiparticles, which are a pair of electron and hole. We have already explained what all these tricky words mean.
Polariton computer
This news came from Skolkovo. Skoltech scientists have implemented a fundamentally new computer operation scheme. It can be compared with the following method of finding the bottom point of a surface: do not engage in cumbersome calculations, but tip a glass of water over it. Only instead of a surface there was a field of the required configuration, and instead of water there were quasiparticles of polaritons. Our material will help you understand this quantum wisdom.
Quantum teleportation "Earth-satellite"
Quantum teleportation (transfer of a quantum state using entangled photons) is one of the most promising technologies of recent decades.
In 2017, Chinese physicists took a new step towards the quantum Internet. They were the first to teleport single photons from a satellite to Earth. The distance between “point A and point B” was 1,400 kilometers, and the signal was transmitted via a laser beam.
"Vesti.Nauka" reported the details of this outstanding achievement.
Metallic hydrogen
At the very beginning of 2017, exciting news came: physicists from Harvard University announced that they had managed to obtain stable metallic hydrogen.
Let us remind you that solid is called a metal if some of its electrons are not bound to atoms, but move freely throughout the crystal. It is theoretically predicted that at the most extreme pressures, hydrogen also transforms into a metallic form. In practice, such a state could only be recreated for a thousandth of a second.
And now Harvard scientists announced that they were able to create a stable sample. Stable metallic hydrogen is expected to persist under normal conditions. Moreover, the superconductor so desired by humanity will be when room temperature.
We talked about this high-profile experiment and the objections of skeptics.
Laser of record power
In the past year, a team of British and Czech scientists announced the successful testing of a record-breaking laser. The device, called "Bivoy" in honor of the strongman from Czech legends, develops an average power of one kilowatt.
This figure may seem modest, especially compared to its “brothers” of the laser, which produce up to 1015 watts. But such enormous values are achieved only in short pulses of radiation, which are emitted quite rarely. Due to the long pauses between pulses, the time-average power of such giants is small. So, in this parameter, “Bivoy” is really ahead of the rest.
We talked about where this “heroic strength” could be useful to humanity.
Colliding photons at the Large Hadron Collider
The collision of two photons, or, as experts say, the scattering of light by light, is a classical effect that is theoretically described in many quantum physics textbooks. But it has not yet been possible to observe it experimentally, at least “in its pure form,” without the mediation of mesons.
Photon interaction at room temperature
Photons have many different ways to interact with each other, and this is the science called nonlinear optics. And if the scattering of light by light was observed only recently, the Kerr effect has long been familiar to experimenters.
However, in 2017, it was reproduced for the first time for individual photons at room temperature. We talked in detail about this interesting phenomenon, which in some sense can also be called a “collision of particles of light,” and about the technological prospects that open up in connection with it.
Time Crystal
In empty space, no point is different from another. In a crystal, everything is different: there is a repeating structure called a crystal lattice. Are similar structures possible that, without energy expenditure, are repeated not in space, but in time?
As another year ends, it's time to once again sit down, fold our hands, take a deep breath, and look at some of the scientific headlines that we may not have previously paid attention to. Scientists are constantly creating new developments in various areas, such as nanotechnology, gene therapy or quantum physics, and this always opens up new horizons.
The titles of scientific articles increasingly resemble the titles of stories from science fiction magazines. Considering what 2017 brought us, we can only look forward to what the new year, 2018, will bring.
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Scientists have created temporal crystals for which the laws of time symmetry do not apply.
According to the first law of thermodynamics, the creation of a perpetual motion machine that will work without an additional source of energy is impossible. However, earlier this year, physicists were able to create structures called temporal crystals, which call this thesis into question.
Temporal crystals act as the first real examples a new state of matter called "nonequilibrium", in which the atoms have a variable temperature and are never in thermal equilibrium together. Temporal crystals have an atomic structure that repeats not only in space but also in time, allowing them to maintain constant vibrations without gaining energy. This happens even in the stationary state, which is the lowest energy state where movement is theoretically impossible because it requires energy.
So do time crystals break the laws of physics? Strictly speaking, no. The law of conservation of energy only works in systems with time symmetry, which implies that the laws of physics are the same everywhere and always. However, temporal crystals violate the laws of symmetry of time and space. And not only them. Magnets are also sometimes considered natural asymmetrical objects because they have a north and south pole.
Another reason time crystals do not violate the laws of thermodynamics is that they are not completely isolated. Sometimes they need to be “nudged” - that is, given an external impulse, after receiving which they will begin to change their states again and again. It is possible that in the future these crystals will be found wide application in the field of transmission and storage of information in quantum systems. They could play a crucial role in quantum computing.
"Live" dragonfly wings
The Merriam-Webster Encyclopedia states that a wing is a movable appendage of feathers or membrane used by birds, insects and bats for the flight. It shouldn't be alive, but entomologists at the University of Kiel in Germany have made some startling discoveries that suggest otherwise - at least for some dragonflies.
Insects breathe using the tracheal system. Air enters the body through openings called spiracles. It then passes through a complex network of tracheae, which deliver air to all the cells of the body. However, the wings themselves consist almost entirely of dead tissue, which dries and becomes translucent or covered in colored patterns. The areas of dead tissue are veined and these are the only components of the wing that are part of the respiratory system.
However, when entomologist Rainer Guillermo Ferreira looked at the wing of a male Zenithoptera dragonfly through an electron microscope, he saw tiny, branched tracheal tubes. This was the first time something like this had been seen in an insect's wing. Determining whether this physiological feature is unique to this species or perhaps occurs in other dragonflies or even other insects will require much research. It is even possible that this is a single mutation. The presence of abundant oxygen supplies may explain the vibrant, complex blue patterns found on the wings of the Zenithoptera dragonfly, which contain no blue pigment.
Ancient tick with dinosaur blood inside
Of course, this made people immediately think of the Jurassic Park scenario and the possibility of using blood to recreate dinosaurs. Unfortunately, this will not happen in the near future, because it is impossible to extract DNA samples from the found pieces of amber. The debate about how long a DNA molecule can last is still ongoing, but even the most optimistic estimates and the most optimal conditions their lifespan is no more than several million years.
But while the mite, named Deinocrotondraculi (“Terrible Dracula”), did not help restore the dinosaurs, it is still a highly unusual find. We now know not only that feathered dinosaurs had ancient mites, but also that they even infested dinosaur nests.
Modification of adult genes
Today, the pinnacle of gene therapy is “clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats,” or CRISPR. The family of DNA sequences that currently form the basis of CRISPR-Cas9 technology could theoretically change a person's DNA forever.
In 2017 Genetic Engineering took a decisive leap forward after a team from the Proteomics Research Center in Beijing announced that it had successfully used CRISPR-Cas9 to eliminate disease-causing mutations in viable human embryos. Another team, from the Francis Crick Institute in London, took the opposite route and for the first time used this technology to deliberately create mutations in human embryos. In particular, they “turned off” a gene that promotes the development of embryos into blastocysts.
Research has shown that CRISPR-Cas9 technology works - and quite successfully. However, this has sparked intense ethical debate about how far to go with this technology. Theoretically, this could lead to "designer babies" who could be intellectually, athletically and physical characteristics according to the characteristics set by the parents.
Ethics aside, research went even further this November when CRISPR-Cas9 was tested in an adult for the first time. Brad Maddoo, 44, from California, suffers from Hunter syndrome, an incurable disease that could eventually leave him in a wheelchair. He was injected with billions of copies of the corrective gene. It will take several months before it can be determined whether the procedure was successful.
What came first - the sponge or the ctenophores?
A new scientific report, which was published in 2017, should once and for all put an end to the long-standing debate about the origins of animals. According to the study, sponges are the “sisters” of all animals in the world. This is due to the fact that sponges were the first group to separate during evolution from the primitive common ancestor of all animals. This happened approximately 750 million years ago.
Previously, there had been heated debate that centered on two main candidates: the aforementioned sponges and marine invertebrates called ctenophores. While sponges are simple creatures that sit on the ocean floor and feed by passing and filtering water through their bodies, ctenophores are more complex. They resemble a jellyfish, are able to move in water, can create light patterns and have the simplest nervous system. The question of which of them was the first is the question of what our common ancestor looked like. This counts the most important point in tracing the history of our evolution.
While the study's findings boldly proclaimed the matter settled, just a few months earlier another study had been published suggesting that our evolutionary "sisters" were ctenophores. Consequently, it is too early to say whether the latest results can be considered reliable enough to quell any doubts.
Raccoons pass an ancient intelligence test
In the sixth century BC, the ancient Greek writer Aesop wrote or collected many fables that are now known as Aesop's Fables. Among them was a fable called “The Crow and the Jug,” which describes how a thirsty crow threw pebbles into a jug to raise the water level so that it could finally drink.
Several thousand years later, scientists realized that this fable describes good way animal intelligence testing. Experiments showed that experimental animals understood cause and effect. Crows, like their relatives, rooks and jays, confirmed the truth of the fable. Monkeys also passed the test, and raccoons were added to the list this year.
During the Aesop's fable test, eight raccoons were given containers of water with marshmallows floating on the surface. The water level was too low to reach him. Two of the subjects successfully threw stones into the container to raise the water level and get what they wanted.
Other test subjects found their own creative solutions that the researchers never expected. One of the raccoons, instead of throwing stones into the container, climbed onto the container and began to swing from side to side on it until it overturned. In another test, using floating and sinking marbles instead of stones, experts hoped that raccoons would use the sinking marbles and discard the floating ones. Instead, some animals began repeatedly dipping the floating ball into the water until a rising wave washed the marshmallow pieces against the side, making them easier to remove.
Physicists have created the first topological laser
Physicists at the University of California at San Diego claim to have created a new type of laser - a “topological” laser, the beam of which can take on any complex shape without scattering light. The device works based on the concept of topological insulators (materials that are dielectrics inside their volume, but conduct current along the surface), which received Nobel Prize in physics in 2016.
Typically, lasers use ring resonators to amplify light. They are more efficient than resonators with sharp corners. This time, however, the research team created a topological cavity using a photonic crystal as a mirror. In particular, two photonic crystals with different topologies were used, one of which was a star-shaped cell in a square lattice, and the other was a triangular lattice with cylindrical air holes. Team member Boubacar Kante compared them to a bagel and a pretzel: although they are both breads with holes, the different number of holes makes them different.
Once the crystals are in the right place, the beam takes on the desired shape. This system is controlled using magnetic field. It allows you to change the direction in which the light is emitted, thereby creating a luminous flux. Direct practical use This can increase the speed of optical communication. However, in the future this is seen as a step forward in the creation of optical computers.
Scientists have discovered excitonium
Physicists around the world reacted with great enthusiasm to the discovery new form matter called excitonium. This form is a condensate of quasiparticles, excitons, which are the bound state of a free electron and an electron hole, which is formed as a result of the molecule losing an electron. What's more, Harvard theoretical physicist Burt Halperin predicted the existence of excitonium back in the 1960s, and scientists have been trying to prove him right (or wrong) ever since.
Like many major scientific discoveries, there was a fair amount of chance in this discovery. The University of Illinois research team that discovered excitonium was actually mastering new technology, called electron beam energy loss spectroscopy (M-EELS), designed specifically for exciton identification. However, the discovery took place when the researchers were only conducting calibration tests. One team member walked into the room while everyone else was watching their screens. They said they had detected a "light plasmon", a precursor to excitonic condensation.
Study leader Professor Peter Abbamont compared this discovery to the Higgs boson - it will not have direct use in real life, but shows that our current understanding of quantum mechanics is on the right track.
Scientists have created nanorobots that kill cancer
Researchers at Durham University claim to have created nanorobots that can identify cancer cells and kill them in just 60 seconds. In a successful trial conducted at the university, it took tiny robots one to three minutes to penetrate the outer membrane of a prostate cancer cell and immediately destroy it.
Nanorobots are 50,000 times smaller than the diameter of a human hair. They are activated by light and rotate at two to three million revolutions per second to be able to penetrate the cell membrane. When they reach their target, they can either destroy it or introduce a useful therapeutic agent into it.
Until now, nanorobots have been tested only on individual cells, but encouraging results have prompted scientists to move on to experiments on microorganisms and small fish. The further goal is to move on to rodents and then to humans.
Interstellar asteroid could be an alien spacecraft
It's only been a couple of months since astronomers happily announced the discovery of the first interstellar object flying through solar system, an asteroid called 'Oumuamua. Since then, they have observed many strange things happening to this celestial body. Sometimes it behaved so unusually that scientists believe that the object may turn out to be an alien spaceship.
First of all, its shape is alarming. 'Oumuamua is cigar-shaped with a length-to-diameter ratio of ten to one, which has never been seen in any observed asteroid. At first, scientists thought it was a comet, but then realized it was not because the object did not leave a tail behind it as it approached the Sun. Moreover, some experts argue that the speed of the object's rotation should have destroyed any normal asteroid. One gets the impression that it was specially created for interstellar travel.
But if it is created artificially, then what could it be? Some say it is an alien probe, others believe it could be a spaceship whose engines have failed and is now floating through space. In any case, participants in programs such as SETI and BreakthroughListen believe that 'Oumuamua requires further study, so they aim their telescopes at it and listen for any radio signals.
While the alien hypothesis has not been confirmed in any way, the initial SETI observations led nowhere. Many researchers remain pessimistic about the chances that the object could be created by aliens, but in any case, research will continue.
Studying physics means studying the Universe. More precisely, how the Universe works. Without a doubt, physics is the most interesting branch of science, since the Universe is much more complex than it seems, and it contains everything that exists. The world is a very strange place sometimes, and you might have to be a real enthusiast to share in our joy about this list. Here are ten of the most amazing discoveries in the latest physics, which made many, many scientists scratch their heads not for years but for decades.
It turns out that if you move at the speed of light, time will completely freeze in place? This is true. But before you try to become immortal, keep in mind that moving at the speed of light is impossible unless you are lucky enough to be born of light. From a technical point of view, moving at the speed of light would require an infinite amount of energy.
Quantum mechanics is essentially the study of physics at microscopic scales, such as the behavior of subatomic particles. These types of particles are incredibly small, but extremely important because they form building blocks everything in the Universe. You can think of them as tiny, spinning, electrically charged balls. Without unnecessary complications.
So we have two electrons (subatomic particles with a negative charge). is a special process that binds these particles in such a way that they become identical (have the same spin and charge). When this happens, the electrons become identical from that point on. This means that if you change one of them - say, change the spin - the second one will react immediately. Regardless of where he is. Even if you don't touch it. The influence of this process is amazing - you understand that in theory this information (in in this case, spin direction) can be teleported anywhere in the universe.
No matter how strange it may sound, this has been proven repeatedly. Although light has no mass, its path depends on things that have mass - like the sun. So if light from a distant star passes close enough to another star, it will go around it. How does this affect us? It’s simple: perhaps the stars we see are in completely different places. Remember the next time you look at the stars: it could all just be a trick of the light.
In fact, the amount of total mass in the Universe is much greater than the total mass we can count. Physicists had to search for an explanation for this, and the result was a theory that included dark matter - a mysterious substance that does not emit light and accounts for approximately 95% of the mass in the Universe. Although the existence of dark matter has not been formally proven (because we cannot observe it), the evidence is overwhelming for dark matter and it must exist in some form.
But that did not happen. In fact, the expansion of our Universe is happening faster and faster as time goes on. And it's strange. This means that space is constantly growing. The only one possible way explain this - dark matter, or rather dark energy, which causes this constant acceleration. What is dark energy? To you .
The explanation for this phenomenon is quite fascinating and involves the fact that the mass of an object increases as it approaches the speed of light (even if time slows down). The proof is quite complicated, so you can just take my word for it. Look at atomic bombs, which convert fairly small amounts of matter into powerful bursts of energy.
Seriously. It sounds funny, but there is concrete evidence that light is a wave and light is a particle. Light is both. Simultaneously. Not some kind of intermediary between two states, but precisely both. We are back in the realm of quantum mechanics, and in quantum mechanics the Universe loves this way and not otherwise.
You think that space itself is empty. This assumption is quite reasonable - that’s what space, space, is for. But the Universe does not tolerate emptiness, therefore, in space, in space, in emptiness, particles are constantly born and die. They are called virtual, but in fact they are real, and this has been proven. They exist for a fraction of a second, but that's long enough to break some fundamental laws of physics. Scientists call this phenomenon "quantum foam" because it closely resembles the gas bubbles in a carbonated soft drink.
The double slit experiment is just an incredibly simple and mysterious experiment. This is what it is. Scientists place a screen with two slits against a wall and shoot a beam of light through the slit so we can see where it will hit the wall. Since light is a wave, it will create a certain diffraction pattern and you will see streaks of light scattered throughout the wall. Although there were two gaps.
But the particles should react differently - flying through two slits, they should leave two stripes on the wall strictly opposite the slits. And if light is a particle, why doesn't it exhibit this behavior? The answer is that light will exhibit this behavior - but only if we want it to. As a wave, light will travel through both slits at the same time, but as a particle, it will travel through only one. All we need to turn light into a particle is to measure each particle of light (photon) that passes through the slit. Imagine a camera that photographs every photon that passes through a slit. The same photon cannot fly through another slit without being a wave. The interference pattern on the wall will be simple: two stripes of light. We physically change the results of an event simply by measuring them, by observing them.
This is called the "observer effect". And while that's a nice way to end this article, it doesn't even scratch the surface of the absolutely incredible things physicists are finding. There are a bunch of variations of the double slit experiment that are even crazier and more interesting. You can look for them only if you are not afraid that quantum mechanics will suck you in.
