Classicism Classicism
Artistic style in European art XVII - early XIX centuries, one of the most important features of which was the appeal to the forms of ancient art as an ideal aesthetic standard. Continuing the traditions of the Renaissance (admiration for the ancient ideals of harmony and proportion, faith in the power of the human mind), classicism was also its original antithesis, since with the loss of Renaissance harmony, the unity of feeling and reason, the tendency to aesthetically experience the world as a harmonious whole was lost. Concepts such as society and personality, man and nature, elements and consciousness, in classicism are polarized and become mutually exclusive, which brings it closer (while maintaining all the fundamental ideological and stylistic differences) with the baroque, also imbued with the consciousness of the general discord generated by the crisis of Renaissance ideals. Typically, classicism of the 17th century is distinguished. and XVIII - early XIX centuries. (the latter in foreign art history is often called neoclassicism), but in the plastic arts the tendencies of classicism emerged already in the second half of the 16th century. in Italy - in the architectural theory and practice of Palladio, theoretical treatises of Vignola, S. Serlio; more consistently - in the works of J. P. Bellori (XVII century), as well as in the aesthetic standards of the academicians of the Bologna school. However, in the 17th century. classicism, which developed in intensely polemical interaction with the Baroque, only developed into a coherent stylistic system in French artistic culture. The classicism of the 18th century, which became a pan-European style, was predominantly formed in the bosom of French artistic culture. The principles of rationalism underlying the aesthetics of classicism (the same ones that determined the philosophical ideas of R. Descartes and Cartesianism) determined the view of a work of art as the fruit of reason and logic, triumphing over the chaos and fluidity of sensory life. In classicism, only what is enduring and timeless has aesthetic value. Attaching great importance to the social and educational function of art, classicism puts forward new ethical norms that shape the image of its heroes: resistance to the cruelty of fate and the vicissitudes of life, subordination of the personal to the general, passions - duty, reason, the supreme interests of society, the laws of the universe. Orientation towards a rational principle, towards enduring examples also determined the normative requirements of the aesthetics of classicism, the regulation of artistic rules, a strict hierarchy of genres - from “high” (historical, mythological, religious) to “low” or “small” (landscape, portrait, still life) ; each genre had strict content boundaries and clear formal characteristics. The consolidation of the theoretical doctrines of classicism was facilitated by the activities of the Royals founded in Paris. Academies - painting and sculpture (1648) and architecture (1671).
The architecture of classicism as a whole is characterized by a logical layout and geometric volumetric shape. The constant appeal of classicist architects to heritage ancient architecture implied not only the use of its individual motives and elements, but also the comprehension of the general laws of its architectonics. The basis of the architectural language of classicism was the order, in proportions and forms closer to antiquity than in the architecture of previous eras; in buildings it is used in such a way that it does not darken general structure structure, but becomes its subtle and restrained accompaniment. The interior of classicism is characterized by clarity of spatial divisions and softness of colors. By making extensive use of perspective effects in monumental and decorative painting, the masters of classicism fundamentally separated the illusory space from the real. The urban planning of classicism of the 17th century, genetically connected with the principles of the Renaissance and Baroque, actively developed (in the plans of fortified cities) the concept of an “ideal city” and created its own type of regular absolutist city-residence (Versailles). In the second half of the 18th century. New planning techniques are emerging that provide for the organic combination of urban development with elements of nature, the creation of open spaces that spatially merge with the street or embankment. The subtlety of laconic decor, the expediency of forms, and the inextricable connection with nature are inherent in the buildings (mainly country palaces and villas) of representatives of Palladianism in the 18th - early 19th centuries.
The tectonic clarity of the architecture of classicism corresponds to the clear delineation of plans in sculpture and painting. The plastic art of classicism, as a rule, is designed for a fixed point of view and is characterized by smoothness of forms. The moment of movement in the poses of the figures usually does not violate their plastic isolation and calm statuesqueness. In the painting of classicism, the main elements of form are line and chiaroscuro (especially in late classicism, when painting sometimes tends toward monochrome, and graphics toward pure linearity); local color clearly identifies objects and landscape plans (brown - for the near, green - for the middle, blue - for the distant), which brings the spatial composition of the painting closer to the composition of the stage area.
The founder and greatest master of classicism of the 17th century. There was a French artist N. Poussin, whose paintings are marked by the sublimity of their philosophical and ethical content, the harmony of rhythmic structure and color. High development in the painting of classicism of the 17th century. received an “ideal landscape” (Poussin, C. Lorrain, G. Duguay), which embodied the classicists’ dream of a “golden age” of humanity. The formation of classicism in French architecture is associated with the buildings of F. Mansart, marked by clarity of composition and order divisions. High examples of mature classicism in the architecture of the 17th century. - eastern façade of the Louvre (C. Perrault), works by L. Levo, F. Blondel. From the second half of the 17th century. French classicism incorporates some elements of Baroque architecture (the palace and park of Versailles - architects J. Hardouin-Mansart, A. Le Nôtre). In the XVII - early XVIII centuries. classicism was formed in the architecture of Holland (architects J. van Kampen, P. Post), which gave rise to a particularly restrained version of it, and in the “Palladian” architecture of England (architect I. Jones), where a national version was finally formed in the works of K. Wren and others English classicism. Cross connections with French and Dutch classicism, as well as with the early Baroque, were reflected in the short, brilliant flowering of classicism in the architecture of Sweden in the late 17th and early 18th centuries. (architect N. Tessin the Younger).
In the middle of the 18th century. the principles of classicism were transformed in the spirit of Enlightenment aesthetics. In architecture, the appeal to “naturalness” put forward the requirement for constructive justification of order elements of the composition, in the interior - the development of a flexible layout for a comfortable residential building. The ideal setting for the house was the landscape of an “English” park. Huge influence on the classicism of the 18th century. had a rapid development of archaeological knowledge about Greek and Roman antiquity (the splits of Herculaneum, Pompeii, etc.); The works of I. I. Winkelman, I. V. Goethe, and F. Militsiya made their contribution to the theory of classicism. In French classicism of the 18th century. new architectural types were defined: an exquisitely intimate mansion, a ceremonial public building, an open city square (architects J. A. Gabriel, J. J. Souflot). Civil pathos and lyricism were combined in the plastic arts of J. B. Pigalle, E. M. Falconet, J. A. Houdon, in the mythological painting of J. M. Vien, and in the decorative landscapes of Y. Robert. The eve of the Great French Revolution (1789-94) gave rise in architecture to a desire for austere simplicity, a bold search for the monumental geometricism of a new, orderless architecture (C. N. Ledoux, E. L. Bulle, J. J. Lequeu). These searches (also marked by the influence of the architectural etchings of G.B. Piranesi) served as the starting point for the later phase of classicism - Empire style. The painting of the revolutionary direction of French classicism is represented by the courageous drama of historical and portrait images of J. L. David. During the years of the empire of Napoleon I, magnificent representativeness in architecture grew (C. Percier, P. F. L. Fontaine, J. F. Chalgrin). The painting of late classicism, despite the appearance of individual major masters (J. O. D. Ingres), degenerates into official apologetic or sentimental-erotic salon art.
International center of classicism of the 18th - early 19th centuries. became Rome, where the academic tradition dominated in art with a combination of nobility of forms and cold, abstract idealization, not uncommon for academicism (German painter A. R. Mengs, Austrian landscape painter I. A. Koch, sculptors - Italian A. Canova, Dane B. Thorvaldsen) . For German classicism of the 18th - early 19th centuries. The architecture is characterized by the strict forms of the Palladian F. W. Erdmansdorff, the “heroic” Hellenism of K. G. Langhans, D. and F. Gilly. In the work of K. F. Schinkel - the pinnacle of late German classicism in architecture - the harsh monumentality of images is combined with the search for new functional solutions. IN fine arts German classicism, contemplative in spirit, includes portraits of A. and V. Tischbein, mythological cardboards by A. J. Carstens, plastic art by I. G. Shadov, K. D. Rauch; in decorative and applied arts - furniture by D. Roentgen. In English architecture of the 18th century. The Palladian movement, closely associated with the flourishing of country park estates (architects W. Kent, J. Payne, W. Chambers), dominated. The discoveries of ancient archeology were reflected in the special elegance of the order decoration of R. Adam's buildings. At the beginning of the 19th century. In English architecture, features of the Empire style appear (J. Soane). The national achievement of English classicism in architecture was high level cultures of design of residential estates and cities, bold urban planning initiatives in the spirit of the idea of a garden city (architects J. Wood, J. Wood the Younger, J. Nash). In other arts, the graphics and sculpture of J. Flaxman are closest to classicism, in decorative and applied arts - the ceramics of J. Wedgwood and the craftsmen of the Derby factory. In the XVIII - early XIX centuries. classicism is also established in Italy (architect G. Piermarini), Spain (architect X. de Villanueva), Belgium, countries of Eastern Europe, Scandinavia, in the USA (architects G. Jefferson, J. Hoban; painters B. West and J. S. Colley). At the end of the first third of the 19th century. the leading role of classicism is disappearing; in the second half of the 19th century. classicism is one of the pseudo-historical styles of eclecticism. At the same time, the artistic tradition of classicism comes to life in neoclassicism in the second half of the 19th - 20th centuries.
The heyday of Russian classicism dates back to last third XVIII - first third of the XIX centuries, although already beginning of XVIII V. marked by a creative appeal (in the architecture of St. Petersburg) to the urban planning experience of French classicism of the 17th century. (the principle of symmetrical-axial planning systems). Russian classicism embodied a new historical stage in the flowering of Russian secular culture, unprecedented for Russia in scope, national pathos and ideological content. Early Russian classicism in architecture (1760-70s; J. B. Vallin-Delamot, A. F. Kokorinov, Yu. M. Felten, K. I. Blank, A. Rinaldi) still retains plastic richness and dynamics forms inherent in Baroque and Rococo. The architects of the mature period of classicism (1770-90s; V.I. Bazhenov, M.F. Kazakov, I.E. Starov) created classical types of metropolitan palace-estate and large comfortable residential building, which became models in the widespread construction of suburban noble estates and in the new, ceremonial development of cities. The art of the ensemble in country park estates is a major national contribution of Russian classicism to world artistic culture. In estate construction, the Russian version of Palladianism arose (N. A. Lvov), and a new type of chamber palace emerged (C. Cameron, J. Quarenghi). A feature of Russian classicism in architecture is the unprecedented scale of organized state urban planning: regular plans for more than 400 cities were developed, ensembles of the centers of Kostroma, Poltava, Tver, Yaroslavl and other cities were formed; the practice of “regulating” urban plans, as a rule, consistently combined the principles of classicism with the historically established planning structure of the old Russian city. Turn of the XVIII-XIX centuries. marked by the largest urban development achievements in both capitals. A grandiose ensemble of the center of St. Petersburg took shape (A. N. Voronikhin, A. D. Zakharov, J. Thomas de Thomon, and later K. I. Rossi). “Classical Moscow” was formed on different urban planning principles, which was built during the period of its restoration and reconstruction after the fire of 1812 small mansions with cozy interiors. The principles of regularity here were consistently subordinated to the general pictorial freedom of the spatial structure of the city. The most prominent architects of late Moscow classicism are D. I. Gilardi, O. I. Bove, A. G. Grigoriev.
In the fine arts, the development of Russian classicism is closely connected with the St. Petersburg Academy of Arts (founded in 1757). The sculpture of Russian classicism is represented by “heroic” monumental and decorative sculpture, constituting a finely thought-out synthesis with Empire architecture, monuments full of civic pathos, elegiacally enlightened tombstones, and easel sculpture (I. P. Prokofiev, F. G. Gordeev, M. I. Kozlovsky , I. P. Martos, F. F. Shchedrin, V. I. Demut-Malinovsky, S. S. Pimenov, I. I. Terebenev). Russian classicism in painting was most clearly manifested in works of historical and mythological genres (A. P. Losenko, G. I. Ugryumov, I. A. Akimov, A. I. Ivanov, A. E. Egorov, V. K. Shebuev, early A. A. Ivanov). Some features of classicism are also inherent in the subtly psychological sculptural portraits of F. I. Shubin, in painting - in the portraits of D. G. Levitsky, V. L. Borovikovsky, and in the landscapes of F. M. Matveev. In the decorative and applied arts of Russian classicism, artistic modeling and carving in architecture, bronze products, cast iron, porcelain, crystal, furniture, damask fabrics, etc. stand out. From the second third of the 19th century. For the fine art of Russian classicism, soulless, far-fetched academic schematism is becoming more and more characteristic, with which the masters of the democratic movement are fighting.
K. Lorrain. "Morning" ("Meeting of Jacob with Rachel"). 1666. Hermitage. Leningrad.
B. Thorvaldsen. "Jason." Marble. 1802 - 1803. Thorvaldson Museum. Copenhagen.
J. L. David. "Paris and Helen". 1788. Louvre. Paris.
Literature: N. N. Kovalenskaya, Russian classicism, M., 1964; Renaissance. Baroque. Classicism. The problem of styles in Western European art of the XV-XVII centuries, M., 1966; E. I. Rotenberg, Western European art of the 17th century, M., 1971; Artistic culture of the 18th century. Materials of a scientific conference, 1973, M., 1974; E. V. Nikolaev, Classical Moscow, M., 1975; Literary manifestos of Western European classicists, M., 1980; Dispute about the ancient and the new, (translated from French), M., 1985; Zeitier R., Klassizismus und Utopia, Stockh., 1954; Kaufmann E., Architecture in the age of Reason, Camb. (Mass.), 1955; Hautecoeur L., L"histoire de l"architecture classique en France, v. 1-7, P., 1943-57; Tapii V., Baroque et classicisme, 2nd edition, P., 1972; Greenhalgh M., The classical tradition in art, L., 1979.
Source: "Popular Art Encyclopedia." Ed. Polevoy V.M.; M.: Publishing house "Soviet Encyclopedia", 1986.)
classicism(from Latin classicus - exemplary), artistic style and direction in European art 17 - early. 19th century, an important feature of which was the appeal to the heritage of antiquity (Ancient Greece and Rome) as a norm and an ideal model. The aesthetics of classicism is characterized by rationalism, the desire to establish certain rules for creating a work, a strict hierarchy (subordination) of types and genres art. Architecture reigned in the synthesis of arts. Historical, religious and mythological paintings were considered high genres in painting, giving the viewer heroic examples to follow; the lowest - portrait, landscape, still life, everyday painting. Each genre was prescribed strict boundaries and clearly defined formal characteristics; mixing the sublime with the base, the tragic with the comic, the heroic with the ordinary was not allowed. Classicism is a style of oppositions. Its ideologists proclaimed the superiority of the public over the personal, reason over emotions, and a sense of duty over desires. Classical works are distinguished by laconicism, clear logic of design, balance compositions.
In the development of style, two periods are distinguished: classicism of the 17th century. and neoclassicism of the second sex. 18th – first third of the 19th century. In Russia, where until the reforms of Peter I the culture remained medieval, the style manifested itself only from the end. 18th century Therefore, in Russian art history, in contrast to Western art, classicism means Russian art of the 1760s–1830s.
Classicism of the 17th century. manifested itself mainly in France and established itself in confrontation with baroque. In the architecture of the building A. Palladio became a model for many masters. Classicist buildings are distinguished by the clarity of geometric shapes and clarity of layout, appeal to the motifs of ancient architecture, and above all to the order system (see Art. Architectural order). Architects are increasingly using post-beam structure, in buildings the symmetry of the composition was clearly revealed, straight lines were preferred to curved ones. The walls are treated as smooth surfaces painted in calm colors, laconic sculptural decor emphasizes structural elements(buildings by F. Mansar, eastern facade Louvre, created by C. Perrault; creativity of L. Levo, F. Blondel). From the second floor. 17th century French classicism incorporates more and more Baroque elements ( Versailles, architect J. Hardouin-Mansart and others, park layout - A. Lenotre).
The sculpture is dominated by balanced, closed, laconic volumes, usually designed for a fixed point of view; the carefully polished surface shines with a cool shine (F. Girardon, A. Coisevoux).
The establishment of the Royal Academy of Architecture (1671) and the Royal Academy of Painting and Sculpture (1648) in Paris contributed to the consolidation of the principles of classicism. The latter was headed by C. Lebrun, from 1662 the first painter of Louis XIV to paint the Gallery of Mirrors Palace of Versailles(1678–84). In painting, the primacy of line over color was recognized, clear drawing and statuesque forms were valued; preference was given to local (pure, unmixed) colors. The classicist system that developed at the Academy served to develop plots and allegories, glorifying the monarch (“the sun king” was associated with the god of light and patron of the arts Apollo). The most outstanding classicist painters are N. Poussin and K. Lorrain connected their life and work with Rome. Poussin interprets ancient history as a collection of heroic deeds; in the late period, the role of epically majestic landscapes increased in his paintings. Compatriot Lorrain created ideal landscapes in which the dream of a golden age came to life - an era of happy harmony between man and nature.
The emergence of neoclassicism in the 1760s. occurred in opposition to style rococo. The style was formed under the influence of ideas Enlightenment. In its development, three main periods can be distinguished: early (1760–80), mature (1780–1800) and late (1800–30), otherwise called style empire style, which developed simultaneously with romanticism. Neoclassicism became an international style, spreading in Europe and America. It was most vividly embodied in the art of Great Britain, France and Russia. In the formation of style played a significant role archaeological finds in the ancient Roman cities of Herculaneum and Pompeii. Pompeian motifs frescoes and items arts and crafts began to be widely used by artists. The formation of the style was also influenced by the works of the German art historian I. I. Winkelman, who considered the most important qualities of ancient art to be “noble simplicity and calm grandeur.”
In Great Britain, where back in the first third of the 18th century. architects showed interest in antiquity and the heritage of A. Palladio, the transition to neoclassicism was smooth and natural (W. Kent, J. Payne, W. Chambers). One of the founders of the style was Robert Adam, who worked with his brother James (Cadlestone Hall Castle, 1759–85). Adam's style was clearly manifested in interior design, where he used light and sophisticated ornamentation in the spirit of Pompeian frescoes and ancient Greek vase paintings(The Etruscan Room at Osterley Park Mansion, London, 1761–79). D. Wedgwood's enterprises produced ceramic tableware, decorative linings for furniture, and other decorations in the classicist style, which received European recognition. The relief models for Wedgwood were made by the sculptor and draftsman D. Flaxman.
In France, the architect J. A. Gabriel created, in the spirit of early neoclassicism, both chamber buildings, lyrical in mood ("Petit Trianon" in Versailles, 1762–68), and a new ensemble of Place Louis XV (now Concorde) in Paris, which acquired an unprecedented openness. The Church of St. Genevieve (1758–90; in the late 18th century it was turned into the Pantheon), erected by J. J. Soufflot, has a Greek cross in plan, is crowned with a huge dome and more academically and dryly reproduces ancient forms. In French sculpture of the 18th century. elements of neoclassicism appear in individual works of E. Falcone, in tombstones and busts of A. Houdon. Closer to neoclassicism are the works of O. Pazhu (Portrait of Du Barry, 1773; monument to J. L. L. Buffon, 1776), in the beginning. 19th century – D. A. Chaudet and J. Shinard, who created a type of ceremonial bust with a base in the form herms. The most significant master of French neoclassicism and Empire painting was J.L. David. The ethical ideal in David's historical paintings was distinguished by severity and uncompromisingness. In “The Oath of the Horatii” (1784), the features of late classicism acquired the clarity of a plastic formula.
Russian classicism expressed itself most fully in architecture, sculpture and historical painting. Architectural works of the transition period from Rococo to Classicism include buildings St. Petersburg Academy of Arts(1764–88) A. F. Kokorinova and J. B. Vallin-Delamot and the Marble Palace (1768–1785) A. Rinaldi. Early classicism is represented by the names of V.I. Bazhenova and M.F. Kazakova. Many of Bazhenov’s projects remained unfulfilled, but the master’s architectural and urban planning ideas had a significant influence on the formation of the classicism style. A distinctive feature of Bazhenov’s buildings was the subtle use of national traditions and the ability to organically incorporate classicist structures into the existing buildings. The Pashkov House (1784–86) is an example of a typical Moscow noble mansion, which has preserved the features of a country estate. The purest examples of the style are the Senate building in the Moscow Kremlin (1776–87) and the Dolgoruky House (1784–90s). in Moscow, erected by Kazakov. The early stage of classicism in Russia was focused primarily on the architectural experience of France; later, the heritage of antiquity and A. Palladio (N. A. Lvov; D. Quarenghi) began to play a significant role. Mature classicism developed in the work of I.E. Starova(Tauride Palace, 1783–89) and D. Quarenghi (Alexandrovsky Palace in Tsarskoe Selo, 1792–96). In Empire architecture the beginning. 19th century architects strive for ensemble solutions.
The uniqueness of Russian classicist sculpture is that in the works of most masters (F. I. Shubin, I. P. Prokofiev, F. G. Gordeev, F. F. Shchedrin, V. I. Demut-Malinovsky, S. S. Pimenov , I.I. Terebeneva) classicism was closely intertwined with the trends of Baroque and Rococo. The ideals of classicism were expressed more clearly in monumental and decorative sculpture than in easel sculpture. Classicism found its purest expression in the works of I.P. Martos, who created high examples of classicism in the genre of tombstones (S. S. Volkonskaya, M. P. Sobakina; both - 1782). M.I. Kozlovsky, in the monument to A.V. Suvorov on the Champ de Mars in St. Petersburg, presented the Russian commander as a mighty ancient hero with a sword in his hands, wearing armor and a helmet.
In painting, the ideals of classicism were most consistently expressed by the masters of historical paintings (A.P. Losenko and his students I.A. Akimov and P.I. Sokolov), in whose works plots of ancient history and mythology predominate. At the turn of the 18th–19th centuries. interest in national history is increasing (G.I. Ugryumov).
The principles of classicism as a set of formal techniques continued to be used throughout the 19th century. representatives academicism.
Among artistic styles, classicism, which became widespread in the advanced countries of the world in the period from the 17th to the beginning of the 19th century, is of no small importance. He became the heir to the ideas of the Enlightenment and manifested himself in almost all types of European and Russian art. He often came into conflict with the Baroque, especially at the stage of its formation in France.
Each country has its own age of classicism. It first developed in France - back in the 17th century, and a little later - in England and Holland. In Germany and Russia, the direction was established closer to the middle of the 18th century, when the time of neoclassicism had already begun in other countries. But this is not so significant. Another thing is more important: this direction became the first serious system in the field of culture, which laid the foundations for its further development.
The name comes from the Latin word classicus, which means “exemplary”. The main principle was manifested in the appeal to the traditions of antiquity. They were perceived as the norm to which one should strive. The authors of the works were attracted by such qualities as simplicity and clarity of form, conciseness, rigor and harmony in everything. This applied to any works created during the period of classicism: literary, musical, pictorial, architectural. Each creator sought to find his place for everything, clear and strictly defined.
All types of art were characterized by the following features that help to understand what classicism is:
Analysis of individual types of art helps to understand how the style of “classicism” was embodied in each of them.
In this type of art, classicism was defined as a special direction in which the desire to re-educate with words was clearly expressed. The authors of works of art believed in a happy future where justice, freedom of all citizens, and equality would prevail. It meant, first of all, liberation from all types of oppression, including religious and monarchical. Classicism in literature necessarily required compliance with three unities: action (no more than one storyline), time (all events fit within a day), place (there was no movement in space). More recognition in this style was given to J. Molière, Voltaire (France), L. Gibbon (England), M. Twain, D. Fonvizin, M. Lomonosov (Russia).
The new artistic direction established itself in Russian art later than in other countries - closer to the middle of the 18th century - and occupied a leading position until the first third of the 19th century. Russian classicism, unlike Western European classicism, relied more on national traditions. This is where his originality manifested itself.
Initially it came to architecture, where it reached highest altitudes. This was due to the construction of a new capital and the growth of Russian cities. The achievement of the architects was the creation of majestic palaces, comfortable residential buildings, and country estates of the nobility. The creation deserves special attention architectural ensembles in the city center, which fully make it clear what classicism is. These are, for example, the buildings of Tsarskoe Selo (A. Rinaldi), the Alexander Nevsky Lavra (I. Starov), the Spit of Vasilievsky Island (J. de Thomon) in St. Petersburg and many others.
The pinnacle of the architects’ activity can be called the construction of the Marble Palace according to the design of A. Rinaldi, in the decoration of which natural stone was used for the first time.
No less famous is Petrodvorets (A. Schlüter, V. Rastrelli), which is an example of landscape art. Numerous buildings, fountains, sculptures, the layout itself - everything amazes with its proportionality and cleanliness of execution.
The development of classicism in Russian literature deserves special attention. Its founders were V. Trediakovsky, A. Kantemir, A. Sumarokov.
However, the greatest contribution to the development of the concept of what classicism is was made by the poet and scientist M. Lomonosov. He developed a system of three styles, which determined the requirements for writing works of art, and created a model of a solemn message - an ode, which was most popular in the literature of the second half of the 18th century.
The traditions of classicism were fully manifested in the plays of D. Fonvizin, especially in the comedy “The Minor”. In addition to the mandatory observance of the three unities and the cult of reason, the features of Russian comedy include the following points:
Works of the era of classicism in general became the most important component in the development of world art.
Details Category: Variety of styles and movements in art and their features Published 03/05/2015 10:28 Views: 11470"Class!" - we talk about what causes us admiration or corresponds to our positive assessment of an object or phenomenon.
Translated from Latin the word classicus and means "exemplary".
Classicismnamed the artistic style and aesthetic direction in European culture of the 17th-19th centuries.
What about as a sample? Classicism developed canons according to which any work of art should be built. Canon- this is a certain norm, a set artistic techniques or rules mandatory in a certain era.
Classicism is a strict movement in art; it was only interested in the essential, eternal, typical; accidental signs or manifestations were not interesting to classicism.
In this sense, classicism performed the educational functions of art.
Buildings of the Senate and Synod in St. Petersburg. Architect K. Rossi
Is it good or bad when there are canons in art? When is it possible to do this and nothing else? Don't rush to a negative conclusion! The canons made it possible to streamline the work of a certain type of art, give direction, show examples and sweep away everything that is insignificant and not deep.
But canons cannot be an eternal, unchanging guide to creativity - at some point they become obsolete. This is what happened at the beginning of the 20th century. in the visual arts and in music: norms that had been rooted for several centuries had become obsolete and were torn apart.
However, we have already gotten ahead of ourselves. Let's return to classicism and take a closer look at the hierarchy of classicism genres. Let's just say that classicism as a specific movement was formed in France in the 17th century. The peculiarity of French classicism was that it affirmed the personality of man as the highest value of existence. In many ways, classicism relied on ancient art, seeing in it an ideal aesthetic model.
Classicism established a strict hierarchy of genres, which are divided into high and low. Each genre has certain characteristics, which should not be mixed.
Let's consider the hierarchy of genres using examples of various types of art.
Nicolas Boileau is considered the largest theoretician of classicism, but the founder is François Malherbe, who carried out the reform French and verse and developed poetic canons. N. Boileau expressed his views on the theory of classicism in the poetic treatise “Poetic Art”.
Bust of Nicolas Boileau by F. Girardon. Paris, Louvre
In dramaturgy it was necessary to observe three unities: unity of time (the action must take place over one day), unity of place (in one place) and unity of action (the work must have one storyline). The leading representatives of classicism in drama were the French tragedians Corneille and Racine. The main idea of their work was the conflict between public duty and personal passions.
The goal of classicism is to change the world for the better.
In Russia, the emergence and development of classicism is associated primarily with the name of M.V. Lomonosov.
M. V. Lomonosov at the monument “1000th anniversary of Russia” in Veliky Novgorod. Sculptors M.O. Mikeshin, I.N. Schroeder, architect V.A. Hartmann
He carried out a reform of Russian verse and developed the theory of the “three calms”.
The doctrine of three styles, i.e. the classification of styles in rhetoric and poetics, distinguishing high, middle and low (simple) styles, has been known for a long time. It was used in ancient Roman, medieval and modern European literature.
But Lomonosov used the doctrine of three styles to build a stylistic system Russian language and Russian literature. Three “styles” according to Lomonosov:
1. Tall – solemn, majestic. Genres: ode, heroic poems, tragedies.
2. Intermediate – elegies, dramas, satires, eclogues, friendly essays.
3. Low - comedies, letters, songs, fables.
Classicism in Russia developed under the influence of the Enlightenment: ideas of equality and justice. Therefore, in Russian classicism a mandatory author's assessment of historical reality was usually assumed. We find this in the comedies of D.I. Fonvizin, satires by A.D. Kantemir, fables by A.P. Sumarokova, I.I. Khemnitser, ode M.V. Lomonosov, G.R. Derzhavina.
At the end of the 18th century. The tendency to see art as the main force for educating a person has intensified. In this regard, the literary movement sentimentalism emerged, in which feeling (and not reason) was declared to be the main thing in human nature. The French writer Jean-Jacques Rousseau called for being closer to nature and naturalness. This call was followed by the Russian writer N.M. Karamzin – let’s remember his famous “Poor Liza”!
But works in the direction of classicism were also created in the 19th century. For example, “Woe from Wit” by A.S. Griboedova. Although this comedy already contains elements of romanticism and realism.
Since the definition of “classicism” is translated as “exemplary,” then some kind of example is natural for it. And supporters of classicism saw it in ancient art. This was the highest example. There was also reliance on the traditions of the High Renaissance, which also saw its model in antiquity. The art of classicism reflected the ideas of a harmonious structure of society, but reflected conflicts between the individual and society, ideal and reality, feelings and reason, which indicate the complexity of the art of classicism.
The artistic forms of classicism are characterized by strict organization, balance, clarity and harmony of images. The plot should develop logically, the composition of the plot should be clear and balanced, the volume should be clear, the role of color should be subordinated with the help of chiaroscuro, and the use of local colors. This is what N. Poussin wrote, for example.
N. Poussin “Self-Portrait” (1649)
French artist who stood at the origins of classicism painting. Almost all of his paintings were created on historical and mythological subjects. His compositions are always clear and rhythmic.
N. Poussin “Dance to the Music of Time” (circa 1638)
The painting depicts an allegorical round dance of Life. Circling in it (from left to right): Pleasure, Diligence, Wealth, Poverty. Next to the double-headed stone statue of the Roman god Janus sits a baby, letting bubble- a symbol of fast-flowing human life. The young face of the two-faced Janus looks to the future, and the old face looks to the past. The winged, gray-bearded old man, to whose music the round dance spins, is Father Time. At his feet sits a baby holding an hourglass, reminiscent of the rapid movement of time.
The chariot of the sun god Apollo rushes across the sky, accompanied by the goddesses of the seasons. Aurora, goddess of the dawn, flies ahead of the chariot, scattering flowers along her path.
V. Borovikovsky “Portrait of G.R. Derzhavin", State Tretyakov Gallery
The artist captured in the portrait a man whom he knew well and whose opinion he valued. This is a traditional ceremonial portrait for classicism. Derzhavin is a senator, a member of the Russian Academy, a statesman, his uniform and awards speak about this.
But at the same time, he is also a renowned poet, passionate about creativity, educational ideals and social life. This is indicated by a desk littered with manuscripts; luxury ink set; shelves with books in the background.
The image of G. R. Derzhavin is recognizable. But his inner world is not shown. Rousseau's ideas, which were already actively discussed in society, have not yet appeared in the work of V. Borovikovsky, this will happen later.
In the 19th century Classical painting entered a period of crisis and became a force holding back the development of art. Artists, preserving the language of classicism, begin to turn to romantic subjects. Among Russian artists, first of all, this is Karl Bryullov. His work occurred at a time when works that were classical in form were filled with the spirit of romanticism; this combination was called academicism. In the middle of the 19th century. The younger generation, gravitating toward realism, began to rebel, represented in France by the Courbet circle, and in Russia by the Wanderers.
The sculpture of the era of classicism also considered antiquity as a model. This was also facilitated by archaeological excavations of ancient cities, as a result of which many Hellenistic sculptures became known.
Classicism reached its highest embodiment in the works of Antonio Canova.
A. Canova “Self-portrait” (1792)
Italian sculptor, representative of classicism in European sculpture. The largest collections of his works are in the Paris Louvre and the St. Petersburg Hermitage.
A. Canova “The Three Graces”. St. Petersburg, Hermitage
The sculpture group "Three Graces" belongs to late period creativity of Antonio Canova. The sculptor embodied his ideas about beauty in the images of the Graces - ancient goddesses personifying feminine beauty and charm. The composition of this sculpture is unusual: the graces stand side by side, the two outermost ones face each other (and not the viewer) and the friend standing in the center. All three slender female figures merged in an embrace, they are united by an interlacing of arms and a scarf falling from the hand of one of the graces. Canova's composition is compact and balanced.
In Russia, the aesthetics of classicism include Fedot Shubin, Mikhail Kozlovsky, Boris Orlovsky, Ivan Martos.
Fedot Ivanovich Shubin(1740-1805) worked mainly with marble, sometimes turning to bronze. Most of his sculptural portraits are executed in the form of busts: busts of Vice-Chancellor A. M. Golitsyn, Count P. A. Rumyantsev-Zadunaisky, Potemkin-Tavrichesky, M. V. Lomonosov, Paul I, P. V. Zavadovsky, a statue of Catherine II -legislators and others.
F. Shubin. Bust of Paul I
Shubin is also known as a decorator; he created 58 marble historical portraits for the Chesme Palace, 42 sculptures for the Marble Palace, etc. He was also a master bone carver of Kholmogory carved bones.
In the era of classicism, public monuments became widespread, in which military valor and the wisdom of statesmen were idealized. But in the ancient tradition it was customary to depict models naked, but moral norms modern to classicism did not allow this. That is why figures began to be depicted in the form of naked ancient gods: for example, Suvorov - in the form of Mars. Later they began to be depicted in antique togas.
Monument to Kutuzov in St. Petersburg in front of the Kazan Cathedral. Sculptor B.I. Orlovsky, architect K.A. Tone
Late, Empire classicism is represented by the Danish sculptor Bertel Thorvaldsen.
B. Thorvaldsen. Monument to Nicolaus Copernicus in Warsaw
The architecture of classicism was also focused on the forms of ancient architecture as standards of harmony, simplicity, rigor, logical clarity and monumentality. The basis of the architectural language of classicism was the order, in proportions and forms close to antiquity. Order– a type of architectural composition that uses certain elements. Includes a system of proportions, prescribes the composition and shape of elements, as well as their relative position. Classicism is characterized by symmetrical axial compositions, restraint of decorative decoration, and a regular system of city planning.
London mansion Osterley Park. Architect Robert Adam
In Russia, representatives of classicism in architecture were V.I. Bazhenov, Karl Rossi, Andrey Voronikhin and Andreyan Zakharov.
Carl Bartalomeo-Rossi(1775-1849) - Russian architect of Italian origin, author of many buildings and architectural ensembles in St. Petersburg and its environs.
The outstanding architectural and urban planning skills of Russia are embodied in the ensembles of the Mikhailovsky Palace with the adjacent garden and square (1819-1825), Palace Square with a grandiose arched General Staff building and a triumphal arch (1819-1829), Senate Square with the buildings of the Senate and Synod (1829-1834), Alexandrinskaya Square with the buildings of the Alexandrinsky Theater (1827-1832), the new building of the Imperial Public Library and two homogeneous extended buildings of Teatralnaya Street (now Architect Rossi Street).
The General Staff Building on Palace Square
The concept of classicism in music is associated with the works of Haydn, Mozart and Beethoven, who are called the Viennese classics. It was they who determined the direction of the further development of European music.
Thomas Hardy "Portrait of Joseph Haydn" (1792)
Barbara Kraft "Posthumous Portrait of Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart" (1819)
Karl Stieler "Portrait of Ludwig van Beethoven" (1820)
The aesthetics of classicism, based on confidence in the rationality and harmony of the world order, embodied these same principles in music. What was required of her was: balance of parts of the work, careful finishing of details, development of the basic canons of musical form. During this period, the sonata form was finally formed, and the classical composition of the sonata and symphony parts was determined.
Of course, the path of music to classicism was not simple and unambiguous. There was the first stage of classicism - the Renaissance of the 17th century. Some musicologists even consider the Baroque period as a particular manifestation of classicism. Thus, the work of I.S. can also be classified as classicism. Bach, G. Handel, K. Gluck with his reform operas. But the highest achievements of classicism in music are still associated with the work of representatives of the Viennese classical school: J. Haydn, W. A. Mozart and L. van Beethoven.
It is necessary to distinguish between concepts "music of classicism" And "classical music". The concept of “classical music” is much broader. It includes not only the music of the classical era, but also the music of the past in general, which has stood the test of time and is recognized as exemplary.
The definition of classicism (from the Latin classicus - exemplary) is an artistic style and movement in the art of Europe in the 17th - 19th centuries. It is based on the ideas of rationalism, the main goal of which is to educate the public on the basis of a certain ideal, model, which is similar to modernism. Culture served as such an example. ancient world. The rules and canons of classicism were of paramount importance; they had to be observed by all artists working within the framework of this direction and style.
Classicism, as a style, replaced the lush and pompous exterior. By the end of the 17th century, European society was imbued with the ideas of enlightenment, which was reflected in the culture and art. The attention of architects and sculptors was attracted by the rigor, simplicity, clarity and conciseness of ancient culture, in particular ancient Greek. , architecture became the subject of imitation and borrowing.
As a movement, classicism embraced all types of art: painting, music, literature, architecture.
Classicism, the main goal of which is to educate the public on the basis of a certain ideal and compliance with all generally accepted canons, is completely opposite, which denied all the rules and was a rebellion against any artistic tradition in any direction.
This is a direction characteristic only of Russian architecture. Most of the historical buildings of St. Petersburg and Moscow, Yaroslavl, Pskov are made in provincial classicism. Its origins date back to the period of the Golden Age. Classic representatives of architectural structures made in the style of classicism: Kazan Cathedral, St. Nicholas Cossack Cathedral, etc.
In its development, classicism went through 3 periods, which can be listed as follows:
The photo shows the Arc de Triomphe in Paris - a striking example of classicism.
Characteristics of classics in all areas of creativity:
Majesty and harmony, grace and luxury - these are the main distinctive features classicism. These features were later reflected in interiors in the style.
Significant style features:
A feature of the Russian classic style was calm rectangular shapes, restrained and at the same time diverse decorative design, precise proportions, decent appearance, harmony and taste.
The external signs of classicism in architecture are clearly expressed; they can be identified at the first glance at the building.
The interior of the premises of the classicism era contains nobility, restraint and harmony. However, all interior items do not look like museum exhibits, but only emphasize the subtle artistic taste and respectability of the owner.
The room has the correct shape, filled with an atmosphere of nobility, comfort, warmth, and exquisite luxury; not overloaded with details.
The central place in interior decoration is occupied by natural materials, mainly valuable types of wood, marble, stone, silk.
Antique motifs are often used in the decor of the room: meanders, festoons, laurel garlands, strings of pearls. Expensive textiles are used for decoration, including tapestries, taffeta and velvet.
Furniture from the Classical era is distinguished by its quality and respectability, made of expensive materials, mainly valuable wood. It is noteworthy that the texture of wood acts not only as a material, but also as decorative element. Furniture items are made by hand, decorated with carvings, gilding, inlay, precious stones and metals. But the form is simple: strict lines, clear proportions. The dining room tables and chairs are made with elegant carved legs. The dishes are porcelain, thin, almost transparent, with a pattern and gilding. A secretary with a cubic body on high legs was considered one of the most important attributes of furniture.
Classicism turned to the fundamentals of ancient architecture, using not only elements and motifs, but also patterns in design. The basis of the architectural language is the order with its strict symmetry, proportionality of the created composition, regularity of layout and clarity of volumetric form.
Classicism is the complete opposite with its pretentiousness and decorative excesses.
Unfortified palaces and garden and park ensembles were created, which became the basis of the French garden with its straightened alleys, trimmed lawns in the shape of cones and balls. Typical details of classicism are accented stairs, classic antique decor, a dome in public buildings.
Late classicism (Empire style) acquires military symbols (“ Triumphal Arch" in France). In Russia it is canon architectural style classicism can be called St. Petersburg, in Europe - these are Helsinki, Warsaw, Dublin, Edinburgh.
In the era of classicism, public monuments embodying military valor and the wisdom of statesmen became widespread. Moreover, the main solution for the sculptors was the model of depicting famous figures in the image of ancient gods (for example, Suvorov - in the form of Mars). It has become popular among individuals to commission sculptors tombstones to perpetuate their names. In general, the sculptures of the era are characterized by calmness, restraint of gestures, dispassionate expressions, and purity of lines.
Interest in antiquity in clothing began to manifest itself in the 80s of the 18th century. This was especially evident in the women's costume. A new ideal of beauty emerged in Europe, celebrating the natural form and beautiful feminine lines. The finest smooth fabrics in light colors, especially white, have come into fashion.
Women's dresses lost frames, padding and petticoats and took the form of long, pleated tunics, cut at the sides and tied with a belt under the bust. They were worn over flesh-colored tights. Sandals with ribbons served as footwear. Hairstyles have been copied since antiquity. Powder, which was used to cover the face, hands, and décolleté, is still in fashion.
Accessories included either muslin turbans decorated with feathers, Turkish scarves or Kashmiri shawls.
From the beginning of the 19th century, formal dresses began to be sewn with trains and a deep neckline. And in everyday dresses, the neckline was covered with a lace scarf. The hairstyle gradually changes, and the powder goes out of use. Fashion includes short-cropped hair, curled into curls, tied with a gold ribbon or decorated with a crown of flowers.
Men's fashion developed under the influence of the British. English cloth tailcoats, redingotes (outerwear resembling a frock coat), jabots and cuffs are becoming popular. It was in the era of classicism that men's ties came into fashion.
In painting, classicism is also characterized by restraint and severity. The main elements of form are line and light and shade. Local color emphasizes the plasticity of objects and figures and divides the spatial plan of the picture. The greatest master of the 17th century. – Lorraine Claude, famous for his “ideal landscapes.” Civil pathos and lyricism were combined in the “decorative landscapes” of the French painter Jacques Louis David (18th century). Among Russian artists one can single out Karl Bryullov, who combined classicism with (19th century).
Classicism in music is associated with such great names as Mozart, Beethoven and Haydn, who determined the further development of musical art.
The literature of the classical era promoted reason conquering feelings. The conflict between duty and passions is the basis of the plot of a literary work, where a person is constantly in tension and must choose what decision to make. Language reform was carried out in many countries and the foundations of poetic art were laid. Leading representatives of the direction are Francois Malherbe, Corneille, Racine. The main compositional principle of the work is the unity of time, place and action.
In Russia, classicism develops under the auspices of the Enlightenment, the main ideas of which were equality and justice. The most brilliant author of literature of the era of Russian classicism is M. Lomonosov, who laid the foundations of versification. The main genre was comedy and satire. Fonvizin and Kantemir worked in this direction.
The “Golden Age” is considered the era of classicism for theatrical art, which developed very dynamically and was improved. The theater was quite professional, and the actor on stage did not just act, but lived, experienced, while remaining himself. The theatrical style was proclaimed the art of declamation.
Ideas from the era of classicism are successfully used in modern design. It retains nobility and elegance, beauty and grandeur. The main features are wall paintings, drapery, stucco, furniture made of natural wood. There are few decorations, but they are all luxurious: mirrors, paintings, massive chandeliers. In general, the style still characterizes the owner as a respectable, far from poor person.
Later, another appears, which marked the arrival of a new era - this. became a combination of several modern styles, which include not only classical, but also baroque (in painting), ancient culture, and the Renaissance.
What is Classicism?
Classicism is an artistic movement that developed in European literature of the 17th century, which is based on the recognition of ancient art as the highest example, ideal, and the works of antiquity as the artistic norm. Aesthetics is based on the principle of rationalism and “imitation of nature.” Cult of the mind. A work of art is organized as an artificial, logically constructed whole. Strict plot and compositional organization, schematism. Human characters are depicted in a straightforward manner; positive and negative heroes are contrasted. Actively addressing social and civil issues. Emphasized objectivity of the narrative. Strict hierarchy of genres. High: tragedy, epic, ode. Low: comedy, satire, fable. Mixing high and low genres is not allowed. The leading genre is tragedy.
Classicism entered the history of literature as a concept at the end of the 19th and beginning of the 20th centuries. Its main features were determined in accordance with the dramatic theory of the 17th century and with the main ideas of N. Boileau's treatise Poetic Art (1674). Classicism was considered as a movement oriented towards ancient art. The definition of classicism emphasized, first of all, the desire for clarity and precision of expression, comparison to ancient models and strict adherence to rules. In the era of classicism, the principles of three unities were mandatory (unity of time, unity of place, unity of action), which became symbol three rules that determine the organization of artistic time, artistic space and events in drama. Classicism owes its longevity to the fact that the writers of this movement understood their own creativity not as a way of personal self-expression, but as the norm of true art, addressed to the universal, unchangeable, to beautiful nature as a permanent category. Strict selection, harmony of composition, a set of specific themes, motives, the material of reality, which became the object of artistic reflection in the word, were for classic writers an attempt to aesthetically overcome contradictions real life. The poetry of classicism strives for clarity of meaning and simplicity of stylistic expression. Although prose genres such as aphorisms (maxims) and characters are actively developing in classicism, dramatic works and the theater itself are of particular importance, capable of brightly and organically performing both moralizing and entertaining functions.
The collective aesthetic norm of classicism is the category of good taste, developed by the so-called good society. The taste of classicism prefers brevity to verbosity, pretentiousness and complexity of expression - clarity and simplicity, extravagant - decency. The basic law of classicism is artistic verisimilitude, which depicts things and people as they should be according to moral standards, and not as they are in reality. Characters in classicism are built on the identification of one dominant trait, which should turn them into universal human types.
The requirements put forward by classicism for simplicity and clarity of style, semantic content of images, a sense of proportion and norms in the construction, plot and plot of works still retain their aesthetic relevance.
