Any card has its own special language - special symbols. Geography studies all these designations, classifies them, and also develops new symbols to designate certain objects, phenomena and processes. Having a general understanding of conventional cartographic signs is useful for absolutely everyone. Such knowledge is not only interesting in itself, but will certainly be useful to you in real life.
This article is devoted to conventional signs in geography, which are used in the preparation of topographic, contour, thematic maps and large-scale terrain plans.
Just as our speech consists of letters, words and sentences, so any map includes a set of specific symbols. With their help, topographers transfer this or that terrain onto paper. Conventional signs in geography are a system of special graphic symbols used to designate specific objects, their properties and characteristics. This is a kind of “language” of the map, created artificially.
It is quite difficult to say exactly when the very first geographical maps appeared. On all continents of the planet, archaeologists find ancient primitive drawings on stones, bones or wood, created by primitive people. This is how they depicted the area in which they had to live, hunt and defend themselves from enemies.
Modern symbols on geographic maps display all the most important elements of the area: landforms, rivers and lakes, fields and forests, settlements, communication routes, country borders, etc. The larger the image scale, the more objects can be plotted on the map . For example, on a detailed plan of the area, as a rule, all wells and sources of drinking water are marked. At the same time, marking such objects on a map of a region or country would be stupid and impractical.
Geography is a science that is unusually closely related to history. Let's delve into it to find out what cartographic images looked like many centuries ago.
Thus, ancient medieval maps were characterized by an artistic representation of the area with the widespread use of drawings as symbols. Geography at that time was just beginning to develop as a scientific discipline, therefore, when compiling cartographic images, the scale and outlines (borders) of area objects were often distorted.
On the other hand, all the drawings on the old drawings and portolans were individual and completely understandable. But these days you have to use your memory to learn what certain symbols on geographical maps mean.
From about the second half of the 18th century, there was a tendency in European cartography towards a gradual transition from individual perspective drawings to more specific plan symbols. In parallel with this, a need arose for a more accurate display of distances and areas on geographic maps.
Topographic maps and terrain plans are distinguished by fairly large scales (from 1:100,000 or more). They are most often used in industry, agriculture, geological exploration, urban planning and tourism. Accordingly, the terrain on such maps should be displayed in as much detail and detail as possible.
For this purpose, a special system of graphic symbols was developed. In geography, it is also often called the “map legend.” For ease of reading and ease of memorization, many of these signs resemble the real appearance of the terrain objects they depict (from above or from the side). This system of cartographic symbols is standardized and mandatory for all enterprises that produce large-scale topographic maps.
The topic “Conventional signs” is studied in the school geography course in the 6th grade. To check the level of mastery of a given topic, students are often asked to write a short topographical story. Each of you probably wrote a similar “essay” at school. Sentences with symbols on geography look something like the photo below:
All symbols in cartography are usually divided into four groups:
Let's take a closer look at each of these groups of signs.
In cartography, scale signs are those that are used to fill in any area objects. It could be a field, a forest or an orchard. Using these symbols on the map, you can determine not only the type and location of a particular object, but also its actual size.
The boundaries of area objects on topographic maps and site plans can be depicted as solid lines (black, blue, brown or pink), dotted or simple dotted lines. Examples of large-scale cartographic symbols are presented below in the figure:
If a terrain feature cannot be depicted on the real scale of a plan or map, then non-scale symbols are used. We are talking about too small things, for example, a windmill, a sculptural monument, a rock outcrop, a spring or a well.
The exact location of such an object on the ground is determined by the main point of the symbol. For symmetrical signs this point is located in the center of the figure, for signs with a wide base - in the middle of the base, and for signs based on a right angle - at the apex of such an angle.
It is worth noting that objects expressed on maps by out-of-scale symbols serve as excellent landmarks on the ground. Examples of off-scale cartographic symbols are presented in the figure below:
Sometimes the so-called linear cartographic signs are included in a separate group. It is not difficult to guess that they are used to designate linearly extended objects on plans and maps - roads, boundaries of administrative units, railways, fords, etc. An interesting feature of linear designations: their length always corresponds to the scale of the map, but the width is significantly exaggerated.
Examples of linear cartographic symbols are presented in the figure below.
Perhaps the most informative is the group of explanatory symbols. With their help, additional characteristics of the depicted terrain objects are indicated. For example, a blue arrow in a river bed indicates the direction of its flow, and the number of transverse strokes on a railroad symbol corresponds to the number of tracks.
As a rule, maps and plans are labeled with the names of cities, towns, villages, mountain peaks, rivers and other geographical features. Explanatory symbols can be numeric or alphabetic. Letter designations are most often given in abbreviated form (for example, a ferry crossing is indicated as the abbreviation “par.”).
A contour map is a special type of geographic map intended for educational purposes. It contains only a coordinate grid and some elements of a geographical basis.
The set of symbols for contour maps in geography is not very wide. The very name of these maps is quite eloquent: to compile them, only contour marks of the boundaries of certain objects - countries, regions and regions - are used. Sometimes rivers and large cities are also marked on them (in the form of dots). By and large, a contour map is a “silent” map, which is precisely intended to fill its surface with certain conventional symbols.
Thematic maps are most often found in geography atlases. The symbols of such cards are extremely varied. They can be depicted as a color background, areas or so-called isolines. Diagrams and cartograms are often used. In general, each type of thematic map has its own set of specific symbols.
Let's start with the swamps. According to the degree of cross-country ability they are divided into
Passable: swamps through which infantry can move in any direction in summer, both in open and closed formations.
Difficult to pass: swamps through which infantry can move with considerable difficulty and only in open formations.
Impassable: not even one person can pass
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Sometimes you can come across a combination of symbols. For example, a wet meadow and swamps where hay is made are indicated by the signs swamp and meadow.
And for us, treasure hunters and amateur archaeologists, it is important to be able to correctly read a topographic map for correct and quick orientation on the ground. It’s okay when you search for antiquities in familiar areas. What if this is a foreign area or region? Old-timers in treasure hunting advise digging together, in a group. This way, you may be able to protect yourself from attacks from local residents and government officials. You will have fun in the company of like-minded people, and if anything unexpected happens, they will definitely help you. But if not one of you knows the decoding of the symbols on the topographic map, you are worthless. Running from side to side, frantically searching around at random for places to excavate - stupid, defiant, excessive fuss attracts negative attention.
And so, let's begin a detailed study of the symbols on your secret treasure map.
1. Multiple buildings.
2. Destroyed buildings.
3. Single building.
4. Destroyed building.
5. Working mines.
6. Closed mines.
7. Industrial enterprise (plant, factory).
8. Factory pipe.
9. Power plant.
10. Warehouse of fuels and lubricants.
11. The tower is either stone or metal.
12. Lightweight tower (from the corners).
13. Television and radio towers.
14. Distribution transformer.
15. Television or radio broadcasting center.
16. Airstrip for airplanes (airfield).
17. Forester's housing.
18. Geodetic point.
19. Railway.
20. Stone or brick fence (fence).
21. Spring.
22. Well of water (crane).
23. Wind well.
24. Ordinary well, log house.
25. Muslim cemetery.
26. Main locations of tents and yurts.
27. Electrical wires on wooden poles.
28. Electrical wires on concrete poles.
29. Engines powered by wind (power plants).
30. Windmills.
31. Peat extraction is large-scale.
32. Water mill.
33. Gas station.
34. Meteorological point.
35. Chapel.
36. Church (temple, cathedral).
37. Large cemetery.
38. Small cemetery.
39. Monuments, obelisks, memorials and memorials.
40. Beekeeping apiary.
41. Forest. The numbers in the numerators are the height, the denominators are the girth of the trunk, the number next to them is the distance between the trees. In front of the fractions, they can write what kind of forest: birch, maple, oak, or mixed.
42. Coniferous forest.
43. Forest cut down.
44. Rare forest.
45. Overgrown bushes.
46. Salt marshes are impassable.
47. Passable salt marshes.
48. Impenetrable swamps with vegetation. If there are three lines (as in the picture) - moss. If there are two lines - grass. A bush represents reeds or reeds.
49. Fruit garden.
50. Dry or burnt forest.
51. Reed or reed.
52. Forest felled by a storm (hurricane, tornado).
53. Tall grass stand.
54. Meadow vegetation, less than one meter in height.
55. Young trees.
56. Gullies and pits.
57. Mounds.
58. Absolute altitude.
59. Stones.
60. Cave.
61. Indication of a ford on the river. The first digit in the denominator is the depth, the second is the length. In the numerator, the first is the type of soil (T - hard), the second is the speed of the river flow.
62. Terricons.
63. Lime burning.
Topographic maps and plans depict various terrain objects: the outlines of settlements, gardens, vegetable gardens, lakes, rivers, road lines, power transmission lines. The collection of these objects is called situation. The situation is depicted conventional signs.
Standard symbols, mandatory for all institutions and organizations preparing topographic maps and plans, are established by the Federal Service of Geodesy and Cartography of the Russian Federation and are published either separately for each scale or for a group of scales.
Conventional signs are divided into five groups:
1. Area symbols(Fig. 22) are used to fill the areas of objects (for example, arable land, forests, lakes, meadows); they consist of a sign of the boundary of an object (a dotted line or a thin solid line) and images or conventional coloring that fill it; for example, symbol 1 shows a birch forest; numbers (20/0.18) *4 characterize the tree stand, (m): numerator - height, denominator - trunk thickness, 4 - distance between trees.
Rice. 22. Area symbols:
1 - forest; 2 - cutting; 3 - meadow; 4 - vegetable garden; 5 - arable land; 6 - orchard.
2. Linear symbols(Fig. 23) show objects of a linear nature (roads, rivers, communication lines, power transmission lines), the length of which is expressed on a given scale. The conventional images show various characteristics of objects; for example, on highway 7 (m) the following are shown: the width of the carriageway is 8 and the width of the entire road is 12; on single-track railway 8: +1,800 - embankment height, - 2,900 - excavation depth.
Rice. 23. Linear symbols
7 - highway; 8 - railway; 9 - communication line; 10 - power line; 11 - main pipeline (gas).
3. Off-scale symbols(Fig. 24) are used to depict objects whose dimensions are not expressed at a given map or plan scale (bridges, kilometer posts, wells, geodetic points). As a rule, off-scale signs determine the location of objects, but their size cannot be judged from them. The signs give various characteristics, for example, the length of 17 m and the width of 3 m of wooden bridge 12, elevation 393,500 points of the geodetic network 16.
Rice. 24. Off-scale symbols
12 - wooden bridge; 13 - windmill; 14 - plant, factory;
15 - kilometer pole, 16 - geodetic network point
4. Explanatory symbols are digital and alphabetic inscriptions characterizing objects, for example, the depth and speed of river flows, load capacity and width of bridges, forest species, average height and thickness of trees, width of highways. These signs are placed on the main areal, linear, and non-scale ones.
5. Special symbols(Fig. 25) are established by the relevant departments of the national economy; they are used to draw up specialized maps and plans of this industry, for example, signs for survey plans of oil and gas fields - oil field structures and installations, wells, field pipelines.
Rice. 25. Special symbols
17 - route; 18 - water supply; 19 - sewerage; 20 - water intake column; 21 - fountain
To give a map or plan greater clarity, colors are used to depict various elements: for rivers, lakes, canals, wetlands - blue; forests and gardens - green; highways - red; improved dirt roads - orange. The rest of the situation is shown in black. On survey plans, underground communications (pipelines, cables) are colored.
Terrain called a set of irregularities on the physical surface of the Earth.
Depending on the nature of the relief, the terrain is divided into mountainous, hilly, and flat. All the variety of landforms is usually reduced to the following basic forms (Fig. 26):
Rice. 26. Basic landforms
1. Mountain - a dome-shaped or conical elevation of the earth's surface. Main elements of the mountain:
a) apex - the highest part, ending either in an almost horizontal platform called a plateau, or a sharp peak;
b) slopes or slopes diverging from the top in all directions;
c) sole - the base of the hill, where the slopes pass into the surrounding plain.
The small mountain is called hill or fell; artificial hill called mound.
2. Basin- a cup-shaped, concave part of the earth's surface, or unevenness opposite the mountain.
In the basin there are:
a) bottom - the lowest part (usually a horizontal platform);
b) cheeks - lateral slopes diverging from the bottom in all directions;
c) margin - the border of the cheeks, where the basin passes into the surrounding plain. The small basin is called depression or hole.
3. Ridge- a hill elongated in one direction and formed by two opposite slopes. The line where the stingrays meet is called ridge axis or watershed line. The descending parts of the spine line are called passes.
4. Hollow- a recess extended in one direction; shape opposite to the ridge. In the hollow there are two slopes and a thalweg, or water connecting line, which often serves as the bed of a stream or river.
A large wide hollow with a slightly inclined thalweg is called valley; a narrow ravine with steep slopes that quickly descend and a thalweg cutting through the ridge is called gorge or gorge. If it is located in a plain, it is called ravine. A small hollow with almost vertical slopes is called beam, rut or gulley.
5. Saddle- a meeting place of two or more opposite hills, or opposite valleys.
6. Ledge or terrace- an almost horizontal platform on the slope of a ridge or mountain.
The top of the mountain, the bottom of the basin, the lowest point of the saddle are characteristic relief points.
The watershed and thalweg represent characteristic relief lines.
Currently, for large-scale plans, only two methods of depicting the relief are accepted: signing marks and drawing contours.
Horizontally called a closed curved line of terrain, all points of which have the same height above sea level or above a conventional level surface.
Horizontal lines are formed like this (Fig. 27). Let the hill be washed by the surface of the sea with an elevation equal to zero. The curve formed by the intersection of the water surface with a hill will be a horizontal line with an elevation equal to zero. If we mentally dissect a mountain, for example, by two level surfaces with a distance between them h = 10 m, then the traces of the section of the hill with these surfaces will give horizontal lines with marks of 10 and 20 m. If we project the traces of the section of these surfaces onto a horizontal plane in a reduced form, we will obtain a plan of the hill in horizontals.
Rice. 27. Image of the relief with horizontal lines
On the horizontal plan, the elevations and depressions have the same appearance. To distinguish a hill from a depression, short strokes are placed in the downward direction of the slope perpendicular to the horizontal lines - slope indicators. These strokes are called berg strokes. Lowering and raising the terrain can be established and the signatures of contour lines on the plan. An image of the main relief forms is presented in Figure 28.
In cases where the elements of the slope are not reflected by the section of the main horizontal lines, half-horizontals and quarter-horizontals are drawn on the plan at the height of half and a quarter of the main section.
For example, the protrusion and the bottom of the slope of a hill are not reflected by the main horizontal lines. The drawn semi-horizontal reflects the protrusion, and the quarter-horizontal reflects the bottom of the slope.
Rice. 28. Representation of the main forms of relief with horizontal lines
The main horizontal lines are drawn with thin solid lines in brown ink, semi-horizontal - broken lines, quarter horizontal - short dash-dotted line (Fig. 27). For greater clarity and convenience of counting, some horizontal lines are thickened. With a section height of 0.5 and 1 m, thicken each horizontal line that is a multiple of 5 m (5, 10, 115, 120 m, etc.), when cross-sectioning the relief through 2.5 m - horizontal lines that are multiples of 10 m (10, 20 , 100 m, etc.), with a section of 5 m, thicken the horizontal lines, multiples of 25 m.
To determine the height of the relief in the gaps of thickened and some other contours, their marks are signed. In this case, the bases of the numbers of the horizontal marks are placed in the direction of lowering the slope.
"Plan of the area. Conventional signs"
6th grade
Today we are starting to study a new topic “Terrain plan. Conventional signs." Knowledge of this topic will be useful to you in the future. There are several types of terrain images: drawing, photograph, aerial photograph, satellite image, map, terrain plan (topographic plan).
To create topographic plans, modern technology is used (helicopters, planes, satellites) (Fig. 1).
Fig.1. The M-101T "Falcon" aircraft is designed for terrain surveys
(http://www.gisa.ru)
Photographs obtained as a result of aerial photography of the earth's surface are called aerial photographs.
Let's consider an aerial photograph (Fig. 2) and a topographic plan (Fig. 3) of the same area (the bed of the Moscow River in the Vorobyovy Gory area). Which image gives us more complete information about geographical objects? What type of image is more convenient to use to take a walk around Moscow?
A comparison will allow us to conclude that it is from the terrain plan that we can find out detailed information about geographical objects (for example, the name of a river, the name of streets, metro stations, parks).
  Rice. 2. Aerial photograph (http://maps.google.ru) |
 Rice. 3. Site plan (http://maps.google.ru) Scale 1:50,000 U
River word symbols |
Imagine that you are going on a hike far from the city. You need to prepare for the conditions of an unknown area that you have never been to, you need to think about what equipment, what clothes to take, perhaps prepare to cross a river, ravine, etc. You can get information about the hiking area by reading the map correctly.
Before you are two different images of the earth's surface: a satellite image (Fig. 1) and a topographic map (terrain plan) (Fig. 4-5).
Let's find out comparing satellite image And site plan. Let's find similarities and differences.
Using Figures 4 and 5, let’s fill out the table “Features of the terrain image.”
|
Image Features |
Site plan |
Aerial photo |
|
1. Top view |
+ |
+ |
|
2. You can find out the name of a settlement, river, lake, etc. |
+ |
_ |
|
3. You can determine the type of vegetation, the names of tree species |
+ |
_ |
|
4. All visible objects are shown from above |
_ |
+ |
|
5. Only important objects are depicted |
+ |
_ |
|
6. You can find out the sides of the horizon |
+ |
_ |
|
7. Objects are represented by symbols |
+ |
_ |
Let's summarize - what is a topographic map or area plan?
Let’s write down the definition of the concept “terrain plan” in a notebook.
Site plan or topographic plan (from the Latin “planum” - plane) - an image on a plane of a small section of the earth’s surface in a reduced form using conventional signs.
In order to work with a topographic plan, you need to be able to read it. The “alphabet” of the topographic plan is conventional signs. The symbols used to construct site plans are the same for all countries of the world, which makes them easier to use even if you do not know the language.
Conventional signs– designations used on maps or plans to depict various objects and their quantitative and qualitative characteristics. In other words, conventional signs indicate objects on the plan and are similar to these objects.
What can you find out using this site plan (Fig. 6)?
Rice. 6. Terrain plan (T. P. Gerasimova, N. P. Neklyukova, 2009)
And much more!
Topographical symbols are usually divided into: large-scale (or areal ), off-scale , linear And explanatory .
Z 
Draw the following diagram in your notebook:
Large-scale
, or areal
conventional signs serve to depict such topographical objects that occupy a significant area and whose dimensions in plan can be expressed in
scale given map or plan. An area conventional sign consists of a sign of the boundary of an object and its filling symbols or conventional coloring. The outline of an object is shown with a dotted line (the outline of a forest, meadow, swamp), a solid line (the outline of a reservoir, a populated area) or a symbol of the corresponding boundary (ditch, fence). Fill characters are located inside the outline in a certain order (randomly, in a checkerboard pattern, in horizontal and vertical rows). Area symbols allow you not only to find the location of an object, but also to estimate its linear dimensions, area and outline ( http://www.spbtgik.ru).
Z Let's draw examples of symbols and add to our diagram!
|
Village |
Building
Railroad station
|
Village |
|
Linear Conventional signs are intended to depict extended objects on the ground, such as railways and roads, clearings, power lines, streams, borders and others. They occupy an intermediate position between large-scale and non-scale symbols. The length of such objects is expressed on the map scale, and the width on the map is not to scale. Usually it turns out to be larger than the width of the depicted terrain object, and its position corresponds to the longitudinal axis of the symbol. Horizontal lines are also depicted using linear topographical symbols.
Let's sketch examples of symbols and add to our diagram!
|
Village
|
Windmill Well School Forester's house Monument Power station Wooden bridge Metal bridge free standing tree Spring Factory Building
|
Highway Clearing Trail Line power transmission
River
Ravine
|
Explanatory
Conventional signs are used for the purpose of additional characterization of local objects shown on the map. For example, the length, width and load-carrying capacity of the bridge, the width and nature of the road surface, the average thickness and height of trees in the forest, the depth and nature of the soil of the ford, etc. Various inscriptions and proper names of objects on maps are also explanatory in nature; each of them is executed in a set font and letters of a certain size.
Let's sketch examples of symbols and add to our diagram!
|
Village
|
Windmill Well School Forester's house Monument Power station Wooden bridge Metal bridge free standing tree Spring Factory Building
|
Highway Clearing Trail Line power transmission
River
Ravine
|
|
Let's take a closer look at this type of symbol.
If you want to get acquainted with other symbols, you can download the following document (Word file)
http://irsl.narod.ru/books/UZTKweb/UZTK.html
Now let's put theoretical knowledge into practice.
You must complete the following five tasks.
Exercise 1.
The site plan is used for:
A) studying a vast territory, for example, Russia;
B) construction, agricultural work in a small area;
C) travel to various countries of the world;
D) to plot a route if you want to go hiking.
Task 2.
The “alphabet of the plan” are symbols. But what corresponds to them on the ground? Select the number under which the symbol is depicted, corresponding to the letter indicating its meaning (Fig. 7).
For example: 1-A; 2-V.
A) break; B) swamp; B) path; D) bush; D) meadow
Rice. 7. Conventional signs of the area plan
(Baranchikov, Kozarenko, 2007)
Task 3.
Roads are indicated on the plan:
A) black solid or dotted lines;
B) brown lines;
B) blue lines;
D) green lines.
Task 4.
The following objects are indicated by scale or area symbols on site plans:
A) swamp, orchard, forest, arable land;
B) well, school, spring, isolated tree;
B) path, clearing, river, ravine;
D) railway, vegetable garden, factory, lake.
Task 5.
Carefully study the photograph (Fig. 8) and the adjacent plan (Fig. 9).
Answer the questions.
A) YES; B) NO.
Question 2. Is it possible to determine from the plan in which direction the Sona River flows?
A) YES; B) NO.
Question 3. Is it possible to determine from a photograph what the likely immediate goal of schoolchildren-tourists is?
A) YES; B) NO.
Question 4. Is it possible to determine from the area plan that tourists are heading towards the village of Sonino, where they can rest and replenish their food supplies?
A) YES; B) NO.
Question 5. Which lands occupy most of the territory shown on the plan.
A) swamps;
B) mixed forest;
B) bush;
List of literature used by the teacher when developing the lesson
This material was prepared for you by the geography teacher of Central Education Center No. 109
Daria Nikolaevna Chekushkina.
E-mail address:chekushkina.
daria@
gmail.
com
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