Stairs. Entry group. Materials. Doors. Locks. Design

Restoration of fully mineralized loose archaeological metal
In the very last stage of destruction, an object made of copper alloy is a light green loose corrosion products, the shape of the object is maintained due to the mechanical adhesion of individual particles that are cemented by the earth.

Patination
The need for patination of objects made of copper and copper alloys is quite common. For example, after chemical cleaning, the exposed metal has a bright color of freshly etched copper, which does not meet the aesthetic requirements of a museum exhibition.

Cleaning of copper and its alloys adorned with other metals
When restoring inlaid items or items coated with another metal, it is required to know the methods of coating, fixing the inlay, the strength of adhesion to the base metal, depending on the overlay technique, and the nature of the destruction. Such work can only be carried out by a restorer with extensive practical experience.

Restoration of products with preservation of patina
Archaeological items. We have already spoken about the value of the information that a corrosion layer can carry on archaeological objects made of copper and copper alloys. Trying to preserve the archaeological appearance of an object, the restorer must at the same time reveal its shape, show the details of the decoration or design features, reveal the engraving or inscription, etc.

Chemical cleaning
Chemical cleaning removes all corrosion products that are on the surface of a metal object. It can only be used when there is no hope of keeping the corrosion layer stable.

Stabilization
By stabilization we mean the cessation of all reactions on the metal, leading to its destruction.

Properties of copper and its corrosion products
In a series of metal voltages, copper is to the right of hydrogen, the normal electrode potential is close to the potential of noble metals, so the chemical activity of copper is low.

Corrosion of copper and copper alloys
atmospheric corrosion. Under atmospheric conditions, copper and its alloys are covered with a thin uniform layer of corrosion products. Film formation is a self-extinguishing process, because Corrosion products protect the metal surface from interaction with the external environment. The film formation process consists of two even stages.

Corrosion of silver and its alloys
atmospheric corrosion. In dry air without aggressive agents at normal temperature, silver is covered with an oxide layer 12 A thick. The thickness of oxide films at elevated temperatures is 100-200 A, i.e. is within the thickness of passive films. Thus, silver, which is in clean, dry air, is covered with a colorless passive film, which does not lead to a change in its appearance.

Some information from the history of silver
Silver is one of the most ancient metals. The oldest silver items dating back to the 5th millennium BC were found on the territory of Iran and Anatolia.

Restoration of archaeological silver
A distinctive feature of archaeological silver is its fragility, so all actions with archaeological silver items must be carried out with extreme caution.

Cleaning Tarnished Museum Silver
mechanical cleaning. For mechanical cleaning of silver, only the finest abrasives can be used. When cleaning an engraved pattern, abrasive products must be used with particular care. Mechanical cleaning of items coated with silver is completely unacceptable.

Decontamination
On the surface of a museum silver item, there are always impurities of various origins. The polished surface becomes dull, dark.

Storage of metal objects
If certain conditions are not met, the metal may begin to break down in relatively comfortable museum conditions.

Chemical cleaning of iron
During chemical cleaning, all iron corrosion products are removed, therefore it is permissible to clean only objects (archaeological and museum) with a massive metal core, on which there are surface corrosion layers.

iron properties
Iron is a silvery-white ductile and malleable metal. Atomic weight - 55.85; density - 7.87 g/cm3, melting point 1539°C.

Lead
Lead is a soft, lustrous blue-gray metal when freshly cut. Atomic mass 207.2; density 11.34; melting point 327°C. In air, lead is covered with an oxide protective film.

Metal Corrosion Information
To correctly determine the causes of the destruction of the metal from which the object is made, to stop and prevent this process, it is necessary to know some basics of the theory of corrosion and protection of metals.

Restoration of archaeological iron
No metal is subject to such strong destruction in the soil as iron and its alloys. The density of rust is about two times less than the density of metal, so the shape of the object is distorted.

flushing
After electrochemical or electrolytic treatments, as after any chemical cleaning, the item must be rinsed.

Safety rules for restoration work with metals
The restorer deals with substances that have different physicochemical and toxic properties. Knowledge of the properties of the chemicals used, methods for their safe handling, proper organization of work, when all operations with chemically active, flammable and explosive substances are carried out in compliance with safety measures, will help to avoid accidents.

Cleaning from corrosion products
Electrolytic cleaning with the use of electric current from an external source refers to the universal strong methods used to clean products from any metal, provided that the item is well preserved. Usually large enough objects are cleaned in this way ...

Decontamination
Contaminants on metal objects usually consist of fatty layers mixed with dust, organic particles, soot, etc. All fatty contaminants can be classified into two main groups: mineral fats that can be removed by solvents, and fats of animal and vegetable origin that interact with aqueous solutions of alkalis or alkali metal salts, forming soaps soluble in warm water.

Tin

General methods of cleaning from pollution and corrosion products
Cleaning an object from contamination, darkening and stratification of corrosion products is one of the main and responsible restoration operations, the success of which depends on the appearance of the object and, to a greater extent, its further safety.

Corrosion of iron
atmospheric corrosion. Atmospheric corrosion is a very complex product that is in constant change. Therefore, the description of the sequence of formation of various corrosion products on iron is a conventional scheme.

Conservation of iron objects
Tin is a soft white metal with high ductility, malleability and fusibility. It can be rolled up to a thickness of 0.005 mm. Two allotropic modifications of tin are known: alpha - ordinary white tin, stable above 13.2°C and beta gray tin, stable below 13.2°C.

The study of objects made of metals
Before starting restoration, the object must be carefully studied: to determine what metal or alloy the object is made of, its safety, the presence or absence of a metal core, the thickness of the layer of corrosion products, the presence of active foci. This will help to calculate the total amount of work, the sequence and methods of processing, to formulate the restoration task.

Corrosion inhibitors
The protection of metals from corrosion by inhibitors (retarders) is based on the property of certain chemical compounds, when introduced in small concentrations into a corrosive environment, to reduce the rate of the corrosion process or completely suppress it.

Gold
The atomic mass of gold is 196.96; density 19.3 g/cm3 melting point 1063°С. Gold is very resistant to acids and alkalis.

Electrolytic and electrochemical cleaning of iron
Electrolytic and electrochemical methods can be used to clean archaeological and museum iron objects that have a fairly massive metal core.

Decorative surface treatment of iron
Bronze tinted. The metal is pickled with hydrochloric acid, thoroughly washed and kept in nitric acid vapors, then quickly heated to 300-350°C, kept until the surface takes on the color of bronze.

The direction of the restoration of artistic metal has existed in the Center since 1945. The workshop restores various types of museum metal made in a wide time range. Specialists work with black and non-ferrous, as well as precious metals, including silver, gold, bronze, brass, copper and tin. Items from archaeological excavations, church utensils and ancient Russian copper castings, weapons, household items, folk life items, as well as works of arts and crafts - watches, lighting fixtures and memorial dishes are undergoing restoration.

More 100 metal objects are restored annually

Over the years, the workshop has restored more than 4,000 exhibits of ferrous, non-ferrous and precious metals from the funds and expositions of dozens of Russian museums. Among them are collections and individual objects of archeology and ethnography from the Kizhi Museum-Reserve, the Taimyr Museum, Petrozavodsk, church cult objects from the museums of New Jerusalem and Sergiev Posad, memorial weapons from the Museum of the History of the Don Cossacks in Novocherkassk. The department performed the restoration of the Korsun Cross of the 12th century from the Pereslavl-Zalessky Museum (now it is one of the main shrines of the Nikolsky Cathedral of the St. Nicholas Convent in Pereslavl); Sundial of the 16th century from the Ivanovo Museum.

Topic 1. Introduction to the specialty.

Topic 2. Materials and types of wood
2.1. MATERIALS. WOOD
Topic 3 . RECIPES and RANGE OF SUBSTANCES used in the restoration of FURNITURE
3.1. PIGMENTS
3.2. Binders

Topic 4. Finishing materials
4.1. DECORATION MATERIALS
5.1. TOOLS AND EQUIPMENT
Topic 7. Workshop of the restorer

Topic 9. RESTORATION OF STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS FROM SOLID WOOD 9.1. STRENGTHEN AND RESTORE CONNECTIONS
9.3. RECOVERY OF ARRAY ELEMENTS AND REPLACEMENT OF LOSSES

10.2. MARQUETRY
10.4. MARKETRIE BULA
Topic 11. SKETCHES. Technical drawing. Drawing up a technological map, passport.
11.1 Reading working drawings and project design.

12.1. THREAD

13.1. Combined, mixed restoration
14.1. WALLPAPER WORKS

Topic 16
Topic 17. Rules of the restorer.
18. Professional antique furniture restorer unit.

PROFESSIONAL UNIT: "MASTER FURNITURE RESTORER"
Topic 1. Introduction to the specialty.
Restoration of antique furniture items.
Furniture as a material monument of culture. Furniture - as a subject of arts and crafts. Furniture from different historical eras. Baroque, Rococo, Chippendale, palatial, modern, Art Deco, classical furniture. As in no other object or product of arts and crafts, a variety of materials and technological methods are used in furniture. Furniture performs two main functions - utilitarian and aesthetic. Utilitarian orientation of furniture. During restoration work, special methods and techniques are used. Under the method of restoration is understood the method and manner of actions of the performer, and under the methodology - the methods and sequence of individual operations. Conducting an art history study of other products, identical in time and style of execution, drawings, drawings, photographs and other material. Method of conservation and reconstruction. Visual inspection of objects, examination of the condition of furniture construction. Determination of the integrity of the frame elements, the strength of tenon joints and surface finish. A necessary component of the entire restoration process is a phased photo fixation. An entry in the statement and passport of the state of the subject. Simultaneously with the initial study of furniture, its measurements are carried out, as well as research work is carried out to collect material about the time and place of its creation, the available analogues. Preservation of genuine items. Restoration of lost items. The use of preserved, identical or symmetrical parts that are duplicated.
1.1 Russian traditions of restoration craftsmanship
The art of furniture restoration has been known for a long time. Europe in the 17th and 18th centuries. well-known master furniture makers, along with the creation of new products, restored old furniture, often at the same time remodeling it in accordance with the requirements of the fashion of their time. Russian craftsmen, owners of furniture workshops. Girshman Vladimir Osipovich (1867-1936). Collector and art historian I. I. Lazarevsky. The first State Furniture Museum of 1919 in the Hirshman mansion. Furniture collections of the Botkins, Gagarins, Shcherbakovs. Heinrich GATSURA "History of furniture art". Furniture collections of Gambs, Tour, Lizere, Meltzer, Svirsky, Schmit. Alekseev Pavel Alekseevich, Bobkov (Babkov) Vasily Ivanovich, Volkovysk, S.G. and M., Zimin Sergey Porfilevich, Svirsky Nikolai Fedorovich, Shmit Pavel Alexandrovich, Shutov Vasily Petrovich. Rococo style or "a la Pompadour".
Furniture 1838-39 "Main half" and "New half of the heir" in the Winter Palace architect A.P. Bryullov. Apartments and furniture of Alexandra Feodorovna, wife of Nicholas I. In the chambers of the Winter Palace, there are soft armchairs and couches, cozy s-shaped sofas (“esas”), as well as various “double armchairs”, wittily nicknamed by the French “dos-a-dos”, “vis-a-vis”, “bec-a-bec”, “tete-a-tete”, etc. “Wrapped” furniture with capitonné upholstery, the wooden frame of which was completely hidden by silk, velvet or chintz fabric, decorated with tassels, fringe, cord, agramant. The fashion includes a wide quilted chair - “crapaud” (fr. - “toad”) with a soft back, as if “enveloping” the body, and an armchair with an elongated seat - “chaise-longue” (fr. - “long chair”).
In the English interpretation, even a special “geometric” direction appeared: ottoman couches with many pillows, upholstered in striped fabric. Of these, on the recommendation of the manufacturer "Sourby and Castle", created "various forms of seating for the living room. From the second quarter of the 19th century, Vienna "was the main" home "of the Rococo." In Russia, one of the first to introduce springs into production in the 1830s was the Gambs brothers.
Thanks to the expansion of business and professional contacts, already in the 1830s, “various types of rococo furniture of the Petersburg style with all accessories, for the living room and for the office” were also made in a number of Moscow workshops. In Moscow, they were well acquainted with the products of such leading metropolitan industries, "suppliers of the imperial court", as the factory of A. Tur and the Gambs brothers. Furnishings of the Grand Kremlin Palace, recognized by contemporaries as "examples of taste, elegance, strength", which raised "simple craftsmanship to the level of art."
The popularity of the company Gambs was so great that the words "Gambs work", "Gambs furniture", having got on the pages of literary works, became almost a household word, a kind of symbol of beauty, convenience and quality. Recalling his apartment in St. Petersburg many years later, A. Benois did not fail to note: “Mommy in the bedroom, as was always customary then, had a special dressing table made by Gambs - with a mirror in a curved frame and dozens of all kinds of boxes for jewelry and cosmetics.” In the 19th century, any high-quality piece of furniture (made of walnut, less often mahogany) in the “rococo style” could be called “Gambs”. Department of Manufacture and Domestic Trade. S.Pb. A machine for carving various designs on wood, ivory, mother-of-pearl and metals, and for the preparation of special varnishes. That is, this invention implied partial mechanization of the most labor-intensive work associated with decoration using the marquetry and boule technique; and as a consequence of this - cheaper and faster production of such products. Planer tools for shaped cuts are becoming more diverse, and carpentry tools such as clamp clamps are becoming more convenient. “Third Rococo”, in contrast to the “second Rococo” of the middle of the 19th century.
"Art Nouveau" dominant creative positions.
The influence of "Art Nouveau" was reflected not only in the form, but also in the color scheme of the samples of the "third rococo". In their coloring and upholstery, semi-tonal combinations of “green-brown modern” began to occur more and more often: silver with olive, lilac with dark green, greenish-gold with pink, and so on.
"Style Jacob" - in the time of Paul - Alexander, and a hundred years later. The reign of Paul-Alexander, causing repeated imitations in subsequent decades. Researcher N.N. Sobolev "Styles in furniture." The short designation "Jacob style" of a certain phenomenon in Russian applied art began to be used, most likely, from the middle of the 19th century, along with such terms as "Pompeian style", "Neo-Greek style", "Gothic style" and the like. Already in the early 1880s, the term "Jacob style" was also used by members of the imperial family. A special place among the samples of the "Jacob style" is occupied by pieces of furniture decorated with inserts made using the "eglomise" technique. With the emergence in Russian art of the early twentieth century of the artistic direction of "neoclassicism", which developed in line with modernity, as well as the expansion of the infrastructure of the urban environment with its well-established machine production, the production of furniture in the "Jacob style" increased even more. She could be seen in the living room of the Empress, and in the office of a foreign ambassador, and in the rooms of a fashion collector.
Art Nouveau began to develop in the last decade of the 19th century. In Germany it was called Jugendstil, in Austria - Secession, in France - Art Nouveau. Art Nouveau became the architectural style of the Silver Age. Russian Art Nouveau is associated with such outstanding names as the architect Shekhtel, Kekushev, Lindval.
Furniture Museum. On July 17, 2000, the Moscow Furniture Museum opened its doors to visitors on Taganskaya Street, in a restored estate that once belonged to the once famous nobleman of Catherine and Pavlov's times, Nikolai Arshenevsky.
The exposition of the modern Furniture Museum occupies 10 halls, in which furniture made by Russian cabinetmakers of the 18th - early 20th centuries is widely represented. From baroque to modern. A simple carved birch chair is decorated with a gilded Russian coat of arms. The Museum has a hall and furniture masters of the company "Smirvald", where you can get acquainted with both beautifully made antique copies and author's works. Followers of the traditions of such well-known Russian furniture firms as G. Gambs, A. Tur, N. Svirsky, F. Meltzer, A. Schmit.

1.2. BASICS OF SCIENTIFIC RESTORATION OF JOINERY AND FURNITURE PRODUCTS
Sequence and stages of restoration work
Modern scientific restoration is a whole range of activities aimed at preserving and transmitting cultural heritage to future generations. The restoration work is preceded by the study of a cultural monument, its attribution, the identification of the degree of preservation and the degree of distortion by previous restorations, the establishment of the original appearance. As a result of the study, the volume and methods of restoration work are determined, and a methodology for their implementation is developed.
Attribution - determination of the authenticity and author of a work of art, and if this is not possible, then schools, countries, time of creation, etc.
Reconstruction is the reconstruction of monuments of the past according to their surviving remains, images or descriptions. In the process of furniture restoration, various parts of an object that have been severely destroyed or lost can be recreated: individual structural parts or parts thereof, fragments of cladding, decor (carvings, mosaics, metal overlays, etc.), as well as finishing coatings. The task of restoration reconstruction is to reproduce with maximum accuracy the original appearance of both individual elements and the object as a whole.

Topic 2. Materials and types of wood.
2.1. MATERIALS. WOOD
To repair or make up for the loss of solid wood elements, as a rule, used material is used: boards and bars made of pine, oak, birch, etc., which can be found, for example, during the demolition of old wooden houses; pieces of old furniture of no value; fragments of other wooden objects, especially from precious wood. The restorer must accustom himself to collect and store all the remnants of the restored furniture, which may be useful to him in the future. If it is necessary to use new wood, it is dried gradually, in natural conditions. It should not have defects in the form of cracks or warping. A particular problem is the replacement of the old cladding. In the XVIII-XIX centuries. for cladding, sawn veneer 1.5–3 mm thick was used. In the XVIII century. it was obtained by sawing a vertically placed log or beam into thin plates by hand with a saw resembling a bow saw. In the 19th century For this purpose, special band saw machines were used. Currently, veneer is obtained by planing or peeling. The wood is pre-steamed or boiled to make cutting easier. At the same time, its color changes - it becomes darker. The thickness of the sliced ​​veneer (which is mainly used) is 0.6 ... 1 mm, and the sliced ​​veneer of valuable species has a thickness of 0.6 ... 0.8 mm, i.e., much thinner than the old sawn veneer.
conifers
Pine. The color of the sapwood is yellowish white, the heartwood is reddish brown; wood of medium density, hardness and strength, medium drying out; it is processed easily, painted and gets off badly; used to repair elements from an array.
Spruce. Color yellowish or pinkish white; wood is light, soft, low drying, rots easily; it is processed easily, sticks together well, poorly painted and finished; used for repairing back walls, drawers and other solid wood parts.
Cypress, Siberian cedar.
2.1.1. Hard hardwoods.
Oak. The color of the sapwood is yellowish-white, the heartwood is from light to dark brown; expressive texture due to large vessels and medullary rays; wood is dense, durable, medium drying; when drying, it warps a little and cracks; over time, the wood becomes darker, softer and more fragile; processed well, glued satisfactorily; lends itself well to dyeing with mordants and finishing with mastics; mainly used for repair and replacement of solid parts (turned parts,
carved), as well as in mosaic sets in the form of veneer.
Ash. The color of the sapwood is white with a pinkish or yellowish tint, the heartwood is light brown; wood in texture and physical and mechanical properties is close to oak, but due to the absence of tannins it easily rots; used in the same place as oak, sometimes replacing it.
Walnut. The color is gray with various shades, the texture is bright, expressive with a variety of patterns; medium-drying wood, dimensionally stable, with high physical and mechanical properties; processed, glued and finished well. It is used in the form of an array and veneer.
Beech. The color is white with a yellowish or reddish tint, the false core is reddish-brown; wood in density, strength and hardness is close to oak, but is subject to decay, warping and cracking during drying; in old furniture is often affected by a wormhole. Well processed, painted and finished; used in the form of an array and veneer; imitates walnut, mahogany and rosewood.
Maple. The color of the wood is white or slightly reddish yellow; the wood is dense, durable, moderately drying, slightly warped, but easily rots and is affected by a wormhole. It is well processed, glued, painted and finished (polished). It is used to repair elements from the array, laid on threads. In the form of veneer, bird's eye maple is used - for the restoration of cladding and typesetting decor.
Pear. Color pinkish-brown. The wood is dense, strong and hard, dries out a lot, but does not warp or crack. It is well processed, glued, painted and finished. It is used to make up for the loss of elements from the array, false thread, cladding elements, marquetry, intarsia (imitating ebony).
2.1.2. soft hardwoods
Birch. The color is white with a reddish or yellowish tint; wood is homogeneous in structure, durable, of medium density and hardness, strongly drying out; subject to cracking and warping; easily rots and is affected by a wormhole. Well processed, glued, painted and polished. It is used in the form of an array - to strengthen and replace bar elements, laid on threads and in the form of veneer. Can imitate mahogany, gray maple, walnut.
Linden. White color; the wood is light, soft, of a homogeneous structure, strongly drying out, but stable in shape, does not crack: it easily rots and is affected by a wormhole. Well cut and glued; painted and polished satisfactorily. It is used to make up for the loss of relief, openwork and sculptural carving; repair of drawer bottoms and rear floors.
Poplar. The color of the sapwood is white, the heartwood is light brown or yellowish brown; wood is soft, light, slightly resistant to decay, with low physical and mechanical properties; slightly drying out, shape stable. Of the many varieties of poplar, the most valuable is silver poplar wood, as well as sags, used in the past for veneering in the form of veneer. Well processed, glued and finished.
Aspen. The color is white, sometimes with a slight greenish tint; wood is soft, light, prone to decay; moderately drying, sufficiently stable forms; well processed and glued. It is used in the form of an array for the repair of frame elements, the base for cladding, for fine carving.
Alder. Color reddish-brown; the wood is light, soft, moderately drying, prone to warping during drying. Well cut, glued, painted and polished. Can be used to simulate walnut, mahogany and ebony in mosaic sets.
2.1.3. exotic wood.
The Red tree. The most common is mahogany wood (South America) red in color with various shades; It has high physical and mechanical properties, is dimensionally stable, lends itself well to processing and especially polishing. It is used in the form of an array for the repair and replacement of frame elements, as well as in the form of veneer for replacement of cladding, losses in mosaic sets.
Rosewood. The most common are dark red, purplish brown, dark brown, chocolate with a purple tint; texture with pronounced dark stripes; wood is dense, heavy, dimensionally stable; lends itself well to finishing and polishing. It is mainly used as veneer in the restoration of mosaic sets.
Pink tree. The wood is yellowish-brown or pinkish-brown with brown stripes and stains; in terms of physical and mechanical properties, it is close to walnut wood; well processed and finished. It is mainly used as a facing material, in mosaic sets. Belongs to rare materials, imitated by light Anatolian (American) walnut.
Black ebony. Color black (core); the wood is dense, durable, difficult to process, well polished without the use of finishing materials. Used in mosaic sets. Tick, abashi.

Topic 3 . RECIPES and RANGE OF SUBSTANCES used in the restoration of FURNITURE.
3.1. PIGMENTS
Natural mineral pigments. Chalk. Ground limestone. Air lime. Lime hydraulic. Heavy spar (barite). The spat is light. Ocher. Mummy. Sienna. Minium iron. Umber. Orpiment natural. Cinnabar natural. Graphite. manganese peroxide. white pigments. Red pigments. yellow pigments. Crown is yellow. Lemon crown. Green pigments. Cobalt green. Copperhead. Blue pigments. Ultramarine. purple pigments. Manganese purple. Brown pigments. gray pigments. Black pigments. Soot. Black grape. Bronzes. airbrush method. Mordant dyes.
3.2. Binders
Drying oils natural and artificial. Oil varnishes. Nitrolacs. Alcohol varnishes. Adhesives. Glue mezdrovy, painting, bone. Acid casein. gum arabic. cherry glue. Worn paints. Oil paints. Nitroenamels. Desiccant. Solvents. Turpentine .. White spirit. Scheme of deep staining of wood in autoclaves (staining)
3.3. Grinding and polishing materials
Pumice natural. Bream. Carborundum. Sandpaper (skin). Grinding paste. Polishes. Polishing paste. Washes. Wax. Mummy.
3.4. Adhesives and other wood bonding materials
In the restoration of furniture, mainly natural adhesives of animal origin are used: bone, skin, fish, casein. In some cases, it is allowed to use PVA dispersion. Bone glue is produced in granular and in tiles.
Mezdrovy glue is produced in the form of tiles, crushed and in scales. Mezdrovy glue differs from bone glue in higher adhesive capacity and light color. For gluing hard and valuable wood species, it is recommended to use skin glue, to which 20 ... 40% bone glue is added, and for gluing soft wood, bone glue, to which 20 ... 40% skin glue is added. The glue is produced in the form of translucent elastic flakes. The lack of glue, like all glutinous glues, is its low water resistance, which in conditions of high humidity leads to the destruction of adhesive joints.
Casein glue is produced in the form of a powder, which includes: casein, slaked lime, sodium fluoride, copper sulfate and kerosene. The working adhesive solution is prepared by mixing the powder with water in a ratio of 1:1 to 1:2 (depending on the type of wood and the type of gluing). Polyvinyl acetate dispersion is a viscous white homogeneous liquid, which is a product of vinyl acetate polymerization in an aqueous medium in the presence of an emulsifier and a polymerization reaction initiator. It is ready for use, has practically unlimited viability, is non-toxic, has elasticity and stability of the adhesive line, light and fungus resistance. PVAD adheres well to porous wood (ash, oak, mahogany, walnut), coniferous and soft hardwood, and much worse dense wood (beech, pear, maple), as well as wood containing essential oils (rosewood, rosewood, violet wood, lemon).
It is used mainly for repairing spiked joints, gluing bar elements, strengthening (with sawdust) places when re-setting screws, accessories.
Some restorers use synthetic resin adhesives, in particular epoxy-based adhesives, which have good adhesion to various materials and high strength. They are used in the restoration of inlays, Boule mosaics. However, this violates the principle of reversibility. In addition, over time, like many synthetic polymeric materials, these adhesives lose their elasticity, which can lead not only to peeling off mosaic elements, but also to warping and cracking of the base, i.e. to
causing significant damage to a cultural monument.

Topic 4. Finishing materials
4.1. Finishing materials in furniture.
Finishing materials can be divided into the following groups:
- materials for preparatory operations of the surface for finishing;
- bleaches, dyes, fillers, primers, putties, fillers;
- the main materials for creating a finishing coating - varnishes, varnishes, mastics, paints;
- auxiliary materials - grinding skins, pastes, etc.;
- decorative finishing materials: used in mosaic sets;
- plates of non-ferrous metals, bones, horns, tortoise shell, etc.;

Foil, bronze powder - for gilding, bronzing, etc.
To bleach wood after removing the old coating, if necessary, or when adjusting the color of new wood, hydrogen peroxide, oxalic acid, bleach, titanium peroxide, etc. are used. Hydrogen peroxide is used in the form of a 30% solution. Oxalic acid is used in the form of a 10% solution together with a 20% sodium hydrosulfite solution. The solutions are mixed on the surface to be bleached, applying first the first, then the second solution. To adjust the color of newly manufactured parts, light-resistant aniline dyes (water- and alcohol-soluble) and mordants, as well as decoctions are used.
tea and coffee, watercolors, etc.
Water-soluble dyes for wood. soluble dyes. Mordants - copper and iron vitriol, potassium dichromate, potassium permanganate. Primers are used to bond wood and ensure better adhesion of subsequent layers when polished with shellac polish. When finishing large-pored wood (walnut, oak, ash), fillers are used, which are suspensions of fillers and pigments in solutions of resins and drying oils with the addition of desiccants (substances that accelerate the drying of oils). Such a suspension should be stable, i.e., not delaminate when used, easily rubbed over the surface of the wood and fill its pores. Excess filler should be easily removed from the surface. When drying, the filler should shrink as little as possible. An aqueous solution of borax serves as an emulsifier of the composition, kerosene - for better removal of excess filler.
Putties are thick pastes used to fill small cracks and depressions in wood or finished surfaces during restoration. They are prepared at the place of consumption. As a binder, they use glue, drying oil, varnish; as a filler - chalk, wood flour, small sawdust, etc. Putty "Pencil". When sealing cracks, it is melted with a soldering iron or, crushed, mixed with nitro-lacquer. In case of large irregularities, a filler is introduced.
Putties and Adhesive putties. To give the putty greater elasticity and strength, drying oil is added to it in an amount of 15 ... 20% by weight of the adhesive solution. For a transparent finish of furniture made from precious woods (mahogany, walnut, rosewood, rosewood, Karelian birch, plane trees, etc.), shellac lacquer and shellac polish were used in the past, for furniture made of oak, ash - wax mastic.
Commodity shellac in the form of scales has a color from yellow to brown. Shellac varnishes and varnishes can be colored with alcohol-soluble dyes. Black lacquers and varnishes dyed with alcohol-soluble nigrosine are especially widely used for finishing furniture, black grand pianos and pianos.
Wax mastic is prepared from beeswax, which is melted in a water bath and mixed with turpentine in a ratio of 1:2 or 1:3. To give the coating greater hardness, a little rosin can be added to the composition.
Artistic oil and tempera paints. Insufficiently hard and water-resistant coatings are fixed with transparent cover oil, alcohol varnishes.
Fine-grained paper-based sanding papers (grain size M40, 3, 4), leveling liquids RME or NTs-313, pumice powder (for polishing coatings).
Various stones used in inlay are imitated by mixing a liquid solution of glue or gelatin with a small amount of glycerin and slaked lime tinted with dry pigments in the color of the imitated stone into a thick dough. Plates from this test are dried between smooth metal or glass sheets under pressure. Decor elements of the desired size and configuration are cut out of imitated plates.
To make them water resistant, they are coated with a solution of alum or tannin. If their color changes under the influence of these chemicals, then they are treated with formalin vapor in a special chamber for 1–2 days. Formalin is poured into an open vessel and placed in a chamber under the racks with processed products. Formalin vapors give the composition hardness, density, water resistance and protect the plates from warping.

Topic 5. Tools and equipment
5.1. Carpentry tools.
Hand saws. Hand saws include bow saws, jigsaws, edge saws, awards, veneer saws. Bow saws with different blades are used for sawing the material across, along and at an angle to the wood fibers, sawing spikes and eyes, sawing the ends "on the mustache", precise trimming of the bars. Wide hacksaws are used for sawing wide boards across the fibers, sawing spikes and eyes, narrow ones for sawing curved blanks. A hacksaw with a butt is used for sawing small parts, precise trimming, and sawing off the ends with a mustache. A special award, the small teeth of which are located along a curved convex line, is used for cutting veneer. Jigsaws of different sizes are used for sawing small parts from thin boards, bones and other
materials, as well as for cutting holes in the central part of the board or shield.
A skilled cabinet maker sharpens his own saws using a saw straightener, a set and a triangular file.
Planing tools. For the initial planing of boards, a sherhebel is used, which has an oval cutting edge of a knife protruding 2 ... ... 3 mm beyond the sole of the block. After planing with a planer, deep grooves remain on the surface of the wood, which are leveled with a single planer, which has a straight cutting edge of a knife with somewhat oval corners. For clean planing, a double planer is used, which has a second knife that serves as a chipbreaker. End surfaces, curly wood are planed with a grinder - a shortened double planer that removes very thin chips.
Sharpen knives on a grinding wheel made of carborundum or sandstone, which is moistened with water during the sharpening process. Chisels and chisels. These tools are among the most commonly used tools in the furniture restoration process. It is necessary to have a set of carpentry chisels with a cutter width of 3 to 16 mm (cutting angles of cutters from 25 to 35 °) for sampling sockets, lugs, grooves, through and non-through holes, and surface cleaning. Drilling tools. Various drills are used to drill holes. Screw drills can be with conical sharpening and with a cutter. The former are used for drilling holes along the wood fibers, the latter - across. For drilling holes of large diameter, a perk is used, for drilling through holes, drills. To drill shallow holes with a high surface finish, drills with circular or serrated undercutters are used. Tools for cleaning the surface of wood. For cleaning flat surfaces, a scraper is used, which is fixed in a wooden or metal case for ease of use. Relief surfaces are cleaned with cycles with a profile cutting edge. The final shape of the carved elements is given with rasps with a fine notch, which give a rough surface. Irregularities are smoothed out with fine-notched files and sanding skins.
Auxiliary tools and devices. To perform carpentry and other work in the process of furniture restoration, control and measuring, marking and other auxiliary tools are necessary.
Control and measuring and marking tools include: a meter and a tape measure, metal and wooden squares, compasses of various types (calipers, calipers, inside gauges), thickness gauges, goniometers. In addition, the restorer should have a carpenter's hammer, mallets, pliers, pliers and round nose pliers, wire cutters, screwdrivers, an awl, knives of various shapes and sizes. It is also necessary to have tools for engraving, mosaic, finishing and wallpaper work, metal processing; some medical instruments (scalpels, spatulas, syringes, etc.). The high quality of the instruments, keeping them in good condition is the main condition for the successful work of the restorer.
Carpentry work, as well as other restoration operations, are performed on a workbench. When working on a workbench, a number of devices are used: a workbench stand - to maintain long parts at a certain height, which are fixed at one end in the vise of the workbench; miter box ordinary and screw, templates - for cutting the ends at an angle and stripping them by planing. To compress (press in) parts during gluing, as well as to fix and support the material and parts during processing, C-shaped wooden and metal clamps of various sizes, edge clamps, long adjustable clamps, clamps, clamp clamps for pressing flat parts when facing are used.
For gluing the cladding, you must have a lapping hammer, irons - large cast iron, electric with a thermostat, small children's.

Topic 6. DETAILS, KNOTS. FURNITURE PRODUCTS AND THEIR COMPONENTS
The composition of the furniture product may include parts and assemblies. A part is a product made without the use of assembly operations at the manufacturer. A node is a product, the components of which are to be interconnected at the manufacturing plant by screwing, gluing and other assembly operations. A node is an assembly unit, it may include parts, materials (fabrics, leather, etc.), other nodes (the so-called nodes of the second, third, etc. stages) and purchased products, i.e. not manufactured at this enterprise, and received by him in finished form. Knots can be simple or complex. Simple nodes are nodes that do not include other nodes. Complex nodes include nodes of the second, third and other steps. The general structure of the furniture product. Depending on the purpose, the parts and assemblies included in furniture products have different names. So, for example, the following parts are included in the chair: legs, drawstrings, prolegs, bosses, back. The main elements of cabinets are walls, doors, covers, bases, drawers and shelves. They are usually nodes. Details and assemblies play the main constructive role in furniture products and form the basis of their design. Details in the form of various layouts and glazing beads play an auxiliary constructive role in the product. Parts and assemblies included in the product have sharp edges in cross-section or profiles of various shapes in the form of chamfers, softenings, moldings, fillets, folds. Connections of parts and assemblies of stem products can be made with plastic, with an overhang or flush. On fig. shows some elements of the components of furniture products obtained in the process of their manufacture. Bars-blanks of any shape used in the construction of furniture products. The narrow part of the bar, regardless of the location of the annual layers, is called the edge, and the wide part is called the face; the line of intersection of the reservoir with the edge-rib. In the bars, the right and left layers are distinguished. The right power is always located towards the core of the tree, the left - to its periphery. The surface of the bar, obtained by cutting the wood fibers at a right angle, is called the butt, and at an angle greater or less than a straight line - one and a half.
Layouts are called bars, which cover the edges of the shields. The layouts can be placed flush with the shield face (flush), with a ledge or with a ledge. The shape of the layout can be rectangular and profile. Beads are called bars that serve to fasten glass or panels inserted into a quarter. Panels are called shields nested inside (in the gap) of the frame. In terms of shape, the panels are flat, in the form of an even shield, and of complex shape, with beveled or profiled edges. Panels with such edges are called figurative. A chamfer is a cut off sharp edge of the edge of a part. The chamfer increases the resistance of the material to external influence, therefore, it protects the rib from knocking down. Mitigation, or curling - small, with a radius of 1-2 mm, rounding of a sharp edge. Rounding is a more significant hemming of the edge of the part compared to softening. A fillet is a semicircular recess made on the edge or on the face of the part. Kalevka is a figured profile of a bar or, in other words, a figured edge of a bar designed for decorative furniture. A fold is a rectangular recess formed by two planes, most often giving an incoming right angle. The protruding part of the part, resulting from the selection of the fold, is called a sponge. A fold with equal sides of an angle is called a quarter. Platik is a deliberately allowed ledge, designed for a hidden adhesive seam, gap or other defect on the surface of the product. The size of the plate is from 2 to 6 mm. The use of plastics is widespread in the furniture industry. Sometimes, flush fitting a part is very difficult and complex and requires an unnecessary investment of time and labor. Therefore, already in the design itself, a scarf is provided. The presence of plastics simplifies the assembly of products, but complicates their finishing. The overhang is the part of the seat, cover, etc. protruding beyond the base. The overhang value ranges from 10 to 50 mm.

Topic 7. Workshop of the restorer.
7.1. RESTORATION WORKSHOP

The restoration workshop should have several isolated rooms with appropriate equipment: a room for preliminary exposure of objects, examination, dismantling and measurements; a room for disinfection and disinfestation, removal of old finishing coatings; carpentry, finishing and wallpaper workshops.
All rooms of the restoration workshop should be high enough, at least 3.7 ... 4 m, with convenient openings so that bulky furniture can be carried into them; have good natural and artificial lighting, forced ventilation, water supply and an adjustable water heating system; must be equipped with fire fighting equipment. The temperature and humidity conditions of the premises must correspond to the conditions of museum halls or storerooms. The room for receiving and preliminary inspection of items should have a large stable table for inspection, dismantling, and measurements of small items; workbench for auxiliary carpentry and metalwork; racks for storing disassembled items; cabinets for storing tools and materials; desk; a vacuum cleaner.
The room for disinfection and other work related to the use of toxic materials must have, in addition to general, forced, local ventilation-exhaust suction at workplaces (tables) where pest control is performed or old finishing coatings are removed. The room should have racks for keeping processed items, medical-type cabinets with glass walls and doors for storing tools and small doses of solvents, chemical glassware: a laboratory table with an exhaust hood and a set of laboratory equipment (distiller, medical sterilizers, technical and analytical scales, electric heating devices, etc.). Work tables should be equipped with suspended spotlights, movable horizontally and vertically.
The size of the carpentry workshop is determined by the number of cabinetmakers-restorers working at the same time. Workbenches are arranged so that between them there are passages with a width of at least 1 m. Each workplace should have, in addition to natural and general artificial lighting, local lighting. To store materials, tools, individual parts and parts of restored items, each workplace should have cabinets and racks. In the workshop, a place must be allocated for the preparation of glue, equipped with local suction; a place for pressing large parts during cladding, where clamp clamps, clamps, a set of metal gaskets, etc. should be placed. To remove dust and chips, it is necessary to have installations or vacuum cleaners, to store adhesive semi-finished products - a refrigerator.
The room should be spacious, well lit and have sufficient ventilation to ensure the removal of dust and harmful vapors and gases. The workplace for manual finishing should be equipped with tables, racks, pads, etc., so that the workpiece can be placed in a horizontal position at a height of 70...80 cm from the floor.
The workplace for sanding, painting and priming should be separated from the place for varnishing and polishing parts. Each of them should have fireproof cabinets for storing materials, tools and fixtures, as well as racks for holding and drying parts. Particular attention should be paid to the cleanliness of workplaces and the entire premises. The wallpaper workshop should have two rooms: the first - for the dismantling of soft elements, their disinfection, cleaning, sorting, etc.; the second - more spacious, light - for wallpaper work. Both compartments should have cabinets and racks for storing materials, tools and fixtures, a vacuum cleaner.
It is recommended to remove shavings and dust during planing, dust and small debris during disassembly and repair of upholstered furniture with pneumatic portable vacuum cleaners. In addition to these departments and workshops, large restoration organizations usually have a procurement workshop, where wood is processed on machine tools. For cutting boards into blanks, universal circular saw and band saw machines are used; for processing blanks - jointing, thicknessing, milling machines, as well as turning.
For the same purpose, electrified hand tools are used.

Topic 8. Stages of restoration. Furniture restoration technologies
8.1. STAGES OF RESTORATION PREPARATORY WORKS

1. Study of the monument.

2. Determination of the purpose of the restoration.

3. Preservation of the material foundations of the original.

4. Possibility of repeated restoration.

5. Preservation of material aging.

6. Preservation of signs of the previous restoration.

7. Correctness of the restoration.

8. Correspondence of the restored elements to the original.

9. Save style.

10. Collection and preservation of historical information.

The process of furniture restoration in general consists of the following steps:
- preliminary studies;
- drying or exposure of the object before restoration;
- disassembly, disinfection, exposure to complete drying of disinfectant compositions;
- strengthening of wood damaged by rot and wormholes, holding until complete stabilization:
- removal of unsuitable finishing coatings, excerpt of the object;
- restoration of structural elements;
- restoration of decorative elements, accessories;
- restoration of finishing coatings;
- restoration of soft elements;
- full installation, final finishing, retouching.

8.2. PRELIMINARY STUDIES
For high-quality restoration, it is necessary to carefully study the condition of the object, make its attribution, identify the causes of damage, determine methods and develop a methodology for restoration work, and provide them with all the necessary materials.
The reasons causing various damages and defects of the furniture coming for restoration can be divided into the following groups:
- natural aging of materials (wood, adhesive, finishing, upholstery, etc.) and their wear during operation;
- insufficiently high quality of materials and unskilled manufacturing of products; - unfavorable operating and storage conditions;
- inept previous restoration.

The greatest harm to antique furniture is caused by unfavorable conditions of its operation and storage: sharp fluctuations in temperature and humidity, increased dryness or humidity of the room. Most often, the shaded and unfinished rear and lower parts of the products are damaged by insects.
Detect damage and loss of decorative elements (threads, inlays, fittings). Depending on the results of the study, a decision is made whether to make a new finish or leave the old one. In parallel with the preliminary studies, the furniture received for restoration is measured. If its history is unknown, they collect all possible information about the item, establish the time and place of its creation, and find analogues. Photograph the entire object and its individual parts, as well as the most significant damage. The results of preliminary studies and measurements are summarized in a defective statement, which indicates all types of damage found and the proposed methods of restoration. The procedure for the implementation of restoration work, the means and methods of restoration used are approved.

Topic 8.3. PREPARATION OF PRODUCTS FOR RESTORATION
Furniture affected by the grinder beetle should be isolated to prevent contamination of other items. Dismantling of products into separate parts. First of all, they separate parts that do not have a rigid connection with the frame: they take out drawers and shelves, remove doors, metal overlays, handles, locks, etc. For cabinets assembled with wedge ties, the cornice, sides, back wall are separated, and then, if necessary, columns, pilasters and other decorative details are separated. With a new assembly, object distortions are possible.
Large parts are disassembled on the floor, small units and parts - on a workbench, on which a soft bedding is placed. When disassembling, they use a chisel, chisels, wooden wedges, which are inserted into the slot and lightly tapped on them to separate the parts of the product. You should never separate any parts by force. When removing metal parts, to facilitate the removal of screws, a few drops of oil are applied to them with a pipette. Disinfection and strengthening of wood. Furniture affected by a mold fungus or a wormhole is disinfected before restoration, destroyed wood, if possible, is strengthened.
To destroy the grinder bug, the preparation "Drevotoks" is used - a liquid insecticide, which is applied to the surface with a brush 2 ... 3 times with intermediate drying or formalin is injected into the flight holes with a syringe. After drying the surface, freed from the paintwork, the remaining stains of the dye are removed from it, if necessary, with bleaching compounds.
Grinding removes heavily cracked, worn and flaky coatings, and also levels the surface of wood after removing coatings with solvents and washes, if there are irregularities on it. Removing a thin surface layer of wood, tarnished from time to time, returns it to its original color.

Topic 9. RESTORATION OF STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS FROM SOLID WOOD

9.1. STRENGTHENING AND RESTORING CONNECTIONS.
Dismantled spiked joints are cleaned of old glue with a dry stiff hair brush or by wetting with warm water. After drying and eliminating other defects on the parts (cracks, chips, etc.), the spiked joints are glued again. At the same time, loose joints are strengthened by increasing the spike in width with veneer inserts or wedges from the material of the part.
If the spike has cracks, they are sawn through with a thin saw (jigsaw) and wedges are inserted.
If the spike is destroyed, it is cut off and replaced with a new one. When replacing a box spike, a notch is made on the inside of the board, equal in width to the size of the spike, and in depth - half the thickness of the board. An L-shaped block of the same type of wood is adjusted and glued into it, with the same direction of the fibers. When replacing a frame straight stud, a straight plug-in stud is made. The connection in tongue and groove, if it is weakened as a result of shrinkage of the crest in thickness, is compacted by gluing veneer strips to the crest on both sides. If the crest is cracked or broken off, it is cut down and a tongue of the same width and depth as that of the attached board is made in its place. Boards are rallied on a rail from the same breed.
Joints of boards on a smooth fugue, weakened as a result of warping of shields or shrinkage, are strengthened with transverse dowels of a trapezoidal or rectangular cross section. The traditional method is to reinforce joints on a smooth reveal with dovetail stud inserts.

9.2. CRACK FINISHING, WARRANTY AND OTHER DEFECTS REMOVAL
Cracks in flat parts (panels, bottoms of boxes, table tops, etc.) are sealed with slats or wedges cut from wood of the same breed as the part, of the same color and with the same grain direction. When gluing, the rail is lightly hammered. It should protrude somewhat above the surface of the part. Cracks in the bottoms of drawers and the back walls of cabinet furniture, if they are small in size and the products are not intended for use, are sealed from the invisible side with a dense cloth, and with a visible one they are sealed with putty.
Warping of panel furniture parts (table tops, chests, boxes, door panels, front walls of drawers, etc.) is a defect that is difficult to eliminate.
Minor defects on the surface of the parts (stabs, flakes, cracks) are sealed with adhesive putty, tinted to match the wood of the product.
Deep stabs and flakes are sealed with inserts of wood of the same species, similar in color and texture. The shape of the inserts is selected so that they are less noticeable. Most often they are made in the form of rhombuses, elongated along the fibers of the wood. The prepared plate or bar is placed on the surface to be repaired, outlined, and a recess is made according to the risks. The edges of the insert are slightly beveled so that it fits snugly into the hole. Before gluing along the edges, they are carried out with chalk, which retains the protruding glue, which is especially noticeable on light wood. The pasted insert is cleaned with cycles, trying not to touch the main wood.
9.3. RECOVERY OF ARRAY ELEMENTS AND REPLACEMENT OF LOSSES.
When restoring bar parts broken across the fibers, if their parts are preserved and the fracture site is not destroyed, it should be carefully cleaned of dirt, trying not to break off the chips, and connect the fragments. If the joint is tight enough, holes are drilled in both parts of the part to a depth of 20 ... 30 mm and the part is connected with glued round spikes. The same is done with an oblique fracture of wood. If the wood has cracks at the end of the fracture and butt gluing does not provide the necessary strength, the joint is reinforced with plates of identical wood, matched in color and texture. In some cases, when building up load-bearing parts, for example, chair sides, a connection to an oblique lock is used. The width of the bar parts is increased by
gluing new bars on a smooth fugue, on a lath, flat straight or round plug-in spikes and other methods of rallying bars. In all cases, the species, the direction of the fibers, the color of the old and new wood must be identical. If the corners (for example, table tops, chest of drawers, etc.) or the ends of the legs are damaged, the cleavage point is leveled to obtain a plane, polished, a block is made from a suitable material (usually in the form of a wedge) and glued, and then processed with a chisel exactly in size . For gluing solid wood elements, bone, skin or casein glue is used. After compressing the joints with clamps, excess glue is removed. If a piece of furniture is completely lost, the method of reconstructing it by analogy is used. When the part has a simple shape (tsarga, proleg, etc.), then a similar or symmetrical part is used as a template. When copying a part of a complex shape, the original is measured, a template is made of thick paper or cardboard, which is applied to the workpiece, and outlined.

Topic 10 . RESTORATION OF THE SURFACE AND DECORATIVE ELEMENTS

10.1. ELIMINATION OF FACING DEFECTS
Facing defects are found on the plates and edges of panel and bar parts in the form of veneer peeling, nicks, chips, dents, cracks, scratches. Blisters in the form of air bubbles are eliminated by cutting a defective place in the middle along the fibers with a sharp knife or scalpel at an angle of 30 ... 45 °, introducing glue under the lining and lapping it with a heated lapping hammer. The old cladding is removed with a thin and wide steel knife with a rounded tip, which is slipped under the cladding, slightly lifting it. If the adhesive holds weakly, peeling occurs dry. In some cases, they resort to steaming the lining, laying on it a damp cloth folded in several layers, on which a moderately heated iron is placed. When removing veneer from curved surfaces, it is necessary to first make a template of the same curvature, put the removed lining on it so that it retains its shape and does not break. Before gluing the old cladding again, remove the remnants of the old glue from it and from the base with warm water and a sponge. On the basis, all defects (cracks, pins, dents, etc.) are sealed with inserts from wood of the same species or putty prepared from bone or hide glue and crushed charcoal. High-quality bone, mezdrovy or sturgeon glues are used for veneer. Glue is applied to both surfaces to be glued to the base and facing and carefully leveled with a brush. The traditional method of gluing the cladding layer is lapping. Laminating is used when repairing small flat parts, when the old veneer is a single, sufficiently strong sheet. Curvilinear surfaces are lined with loose hulls, which are metal boxes or bags of dense fabric filled with heated sand. A box of sand is used for lining convex surfaces, such as the walls of chests of drawers, cabinet doors (baroque and rococo furniture). With a concave surface, a sandbag is used, which is pressed with clamps or a press. The flowability of the sand creates a uniform pressure over the entire surface. It is very important to secure the cladding so that it does not move under pressure.
Parts with a smooth transition of curves in cross section are clamped with clamps between two mutually inverse profile templates, which are made of plaster or tightly fitted rails. Rubber gaskets are placed between the lining and the planes of the templates.
To eliminate defects in the form of a swelling over a knot due to the drying of the base or subsidence over a knot due to swelling of the base, it is necessary to remove the knot, plug the hole with a stopper from the base wood and seal it with veneer. Small dents on the surface of the lining are removed by repeatedly pressing a hot iron through a damp cloth. The escaping steam causes the wood to swell and the fibers to straighten. Minor cracks, pins, traces of a wormhole are sealed with mastic or putty, tinted to match the color of the veneer. Deep cracks, stabs, dents are sealed with inserts, which must be carefully selected according to the texture and color of the veneer. If the wood fibers are sinuous or the lining is made of an influx (burl), then the shape of the insert or build-up is made in accordance with the pattern of the wood fibers.

10.2. MARQUETRY
Marquetry - a set of pieces of veneer.
If the finishing coating is preserved and the defects of the mosaic (scratches, dents, pins, flaking, losses) are insignificant, conservation measures are mainly used: they remove dirt, strengthen the elements of the set, repair minor defects with putty or putty, restore minor losses, refresh and, if necessary, increase or partially restore the coating with shellac polish.
In case of significant damage: damage to the coating, severe contamination, cracking, warping and peeling of the elements of the set, as well as if the finish was poor during the previous restoration, the coating is removed, the surface is cleaned and washed with a swab dipped in ethyl (wine) alcohol. Do not use alkaline compounds or ammonia for this purpose, which can change the color of the mosaic elements.
Restoring the composition of the mosaic set. If the marquetry was made by inserting elements into a pre-glued background veneer, knife marks are visible at the places of loss on the base, which makes it possible to restore the contours of the lost elements; it remains to choose the wood according to the breed, color and direction of the fibers.
The shape of the inserts used to seal local defects is selected so that the inserts are invisible. With a pronounced wood texture, the joints of the inserts should, if possible, coincide with the direction of the fibers. In this case, the inserts are made in the form of triangles or strips elongated along the fibers. When making up for the loss of a mosaic of a complex contour, a paper cartridge is first made. The cartridge is glued onto the veneer selected for insertion and cut out with a jigsaw. Then the inserts are glued onto the base paper up, after drying, the paper is removed.
Firing is used to obtain a gradual transition from dark to light tones, which creates the impression of volume. To do this, pure fine sand is poured into a wide metal vessel with low sides and heated on a tile. The degree of darkening of wood is determined visually. Mosaic sets were often engraved. When making up for losses, engraving is done only if there is a direct analogy.

10.3. INLAY AND INTARSION.
Inlay is the decoration of wooden objects with inserts from other materials (bones, mother-of-pearl, non-ferrous metals, stones), which cut into plates of various shapes flush with the decorated surface. Intarsia is the inlay of wood products with wood plates that differ from the base in color and texture. Inlaid objects, in addition to general damage (weakening of the structure, cracks, pins, dents, etc.), have defects in the form of lagging or lost inlay elements that need to be restored.
The recesses on the base are cleaned of old glue with a scalpel, trying not to damage the notch made at the bottom of the large recesses. The inserts removed from the product are cleaned of dirt and old glue; warped decorative elements are softened by soaking in strong acetic or phosphoric acid and straightened under pressure.
The front surface of the inserts is polished with pumice powder mixed with water and felt, removing the smallest scratches left by the sandpaper. Since the animal bone acquires an unpleasant yellowish tint under the action of light, it is bleached with a 30 ° solution of perhydrol, and tea broth is used to match the color of the old bone. The operation is performed on finished inserts.
Inserts are glued with carpentry or sturgeon glue. After drying, excess glue is removed with a scalpel and a wet swab. To fill small losses, you can use a putty based on a PVA dispersion diluted with water (1: 1), to which alabaster is added until a creamy consistency is obtained. Engraving restoration is a complex and responsible task. If a similar insert has been preserved, the engraving pattern from it is transferred to tracing paper and then to a new part. If there is no similar insert, the restorer completes the drawing project based on the study of various illustrative materials (photographs, drawings, engravings and objects similar in style), guided by his own flair and skill. When restoring a museum exhibit, the project must be approved by the restoration council.
When engraving, the rivet is held like a pencil, and depending on the degree of pressure and inclination of the tool, lines of various thicknesses are obtained. Riflek and compasses are used to apply parallel strokes. The stichels are held with all fingers of the right hand so that the thickening of the handle rests on the palm. The thickness of the line being drawn depends on the cutting angle of the engraver. To reveal the engraved pattern, pigments are rubbed into it. You can use wax mastic for this purpose, made up of dried oil paint and wax (1: 2), which is rubbed with a swab of thin cloth.

10.4. MARKETRIE BULA
Boulle's marquetry is, from the point of view of restoration, the most complex and careful way of decorating furniture. The famous French furniture maker André Charles Boulle (1642-1732) created mosaic sets of brass against a background of tortoiseshell, horn, brass against a background of ebony or other wood. This technique, called Boulle's marquetry or Boulle's mosaic, consists in the fact that from two sheets of different materials superimposed one on top of the other, elements of the background and inserts are simultaneously cut out or cut out with a jigsaw. By inserting into the slots of the first sheet of the insert from the second, two sets of opposite colors are obtained. Pewter, ivory, and mother-of-pearl were also used in Boole's mosaics.
The tortoise shell on the reverse side, as a rule, was tinted with glue paint in red (rarely black) color and duplicated with paper, which compensated for the unevenness of the base and served as a background. Pine wood was usually used as a base. The combination of materials of different properties in one product with changing temperature and humidity conditions inevitably led to the destruction of the mosaic, so furniture decorated with Boulle marquetry was often repaired and restored in the past.
Transferring the drawing to paper. First, remove the metal plates, which peel off more easily, with a knife with a thin blade. If necessary, the adhesive layer is moistened with 95 ° alcohol. Then the plates are peeled off from the tortoise shell, steaming them with a damp cloth and a hot iron. Heat and moisten the tortoiseshell plates sparingly to avoid warping. In some cases, alcohol is also used. To preserve the original paint on the back of the tortoiseshell plates, it is necessary to peel them off, if possible, on a layer of paper.
Sometimes you can peel off the entire set at once, for example with alcohol.
To obtain a fragment of the desired configuration, the plate is glued with wood glue on plywood 3 mm thick, on the reverse side of which thick paper or veneer is glued to prevent warping. Then a cartridge is glued onto the surface of the plate and a mosaic element is cut out with a jigsaw. To separate the plywood from the tortoise shell plate, the element is immersed for several minutes in hot water. In the same way, fragments are obtained from the horn. To replenish fragments of metal (red copper, brass, tin), large sheets are taken, the thickness of which should correspond to the thickness of the plates from the tortoise shell (usually 0.5 ... 0.6 mm). The metal must first be annealed. Tracing paper with a pattern is glued onto a metal sheet, which, in turn, is glued to plywood, and a mosaic fragment is cut out with a jigsaw. Plywood and tracing paper are then separated. The reverse side of the metal plates is ground with a coarse-grained sandpaper or scratched with a chisel to obtain a rough surface (which ensures better adhesion of the metal to the base). If necessary, the tortoise shell is painted with slightly diluted paint (gouache), applying it with a brush to all panels.
Before the final finishing of the mosaic, paper is removed from the surface of the set, after which they begin to restore the engraving, if it was and there is an analogue of the pattern. Grinding is carried out with the help of abrasive skins, gradually moving from coarse-grained to fine-grained, and finished with wet grinding with waterproof skins with a grain size of M40, M20. Polished first with tripoli powder, then with charcoal using a swab dipped in oil, and finally with a polishing paste applied to the swab. Finally, the oil-free surface is covered with a thin layer of shellac varnish to prevent the brass from oxidizing.

Topic 11. SKETCHES. Technical drawing. Drawing up a technological map, restoration passport.
11.1. Reading working drawings and design project.
Drawing and perspective. Graphic constructions of lines, figures. Projection drawing. Technical drawing; construction principles. Linear perspective; ways to build perspectives. Sketch drawing. A drawing and a sketch differ from a drawing in that they are not drawn to scale and it is impossible to establish the actual dimensions of the object from them. The scale is the ratio of the dimensions of an object in the drawing to its actual dimensions in kind. A drawing of the facade of products, introduces its appearance.
The form, content and size of the columns of the main inscription must comply with GOST and ESKD. For drawing dimensions on the drawing, extension and dimension lines are drawn and dimension numbers are indicated. Dimension lines at both ends are limited by arrows.
11.2. Reading drawings and drawing up a technological map of furniture restoration.
Re-accounting of museum valuables. The procedure for accounting and storage of accounting documents. Account designations. Auxiliary forms of accounting. Additional descriptions. Storage of museum valuables. Federal Law of the Russian Federation "On the Museum Fund of the Russian Federation and museums in the Russian Federation", Regulations on the Museum Fund of the Russian Federation, approved by Decree of the Government of the Russian Federation of February 12, 1998 No. 179. TsMiAR. Uniform rules and conditions for accounting and storage of museum exhibits, determined by the Ministry of Culture of Russia. Restoration of monuments of wooden architecture. Repair, restoration and reconstruction of wooden structures and details; restoration and recreation of woodcarving; biological, chemical and other types of protection of cultural heritage sites. Recommendations for filling out individual sections of the passport: the constructive basis of furniture,
name of the furniture, age, author, name of the monument, age, location, information about previous restorations. Attachments are given to the passport in the form of photos, diagrams, iconography, and other references. The last page of the passport is stamped by the customer or contractor. ORGANIZATION OF FURNITURE RESTORATION PRODUCTION. Designing the organization of work. Bill of quantities of work. Step by step worksheet. Work calendar. Material requirements list. Rationing of restoration works.

Topic 12. Certain types and technologies of restoration
12.1. THREAD
Of all types of decoration of joinery and furniture products used in the past, carving occupies a leading position. To decorate furniture, picture frames and mirrors, wooden lamps, all known types of carving were used - flat and embossed, openwork and laid on, high relief and sculptural.
Various types of wood were used to carve. Complex relief and sculptural carving was most often made of linden or birch and then finished with gilding on gesso. Linden was used for large overhead carvings, and maple, birch, beech, and pear were used for small ones. It was also trimmed with gilding. In furniture made of valuable species - walnut, mahogany, Karelian birch - carvings were made from the same wood and finished with transparent varnishes or varnishes. Until the middle of the XIX century. carvings were done only by hand. Carving hand tools were circular and jigsaw saws, chisels, chisels, drills, rasps and files, hook-shaped chisels (clucarses), semicircular chisels (cerasics), chasers (punches).
The main thread damages are usually: chips, cracks and losses, more or less significant. Chips are repaired by gluing a piece of wood of the same breed and with the same grain direction onto a previously leveled surface, which is then given the necessary shape. Cracks, tears, dents are sealed with putty or inserts from the same type of wood.
The workpiece is glued with carpentry or rubber glue to a flat backing board or shield, laying thin paper, and the thread pattern is transferred to the workpiece. The contours of the petals are cut and trimmed with semicircular chisels of different curvature, then the relief is worked out (at first roughly, then thinly) and cleaned with sandpaper. The finished thread is removed and cleaned of paper, then the thread is trimmed and then glued onto the finished surface of the chair back. A template made of thin plywood or thick cardboard should have an allowance for the final surface treatment of the part. It is applied to the prepared bar and outlined. The workpiece is sawn with a band or bow saw. After that, cutting tools (chisels, knives, rasps) bring the workpiece to the required shape, constantly controlling the dimensions at the most characteristic points according to the original. When the required shape is obtained, a pre-cut piece is attached to form the console. It can simply be glued onto a smooth cut, but it is better to strengthen the connection with dowels.

12.2. METAL APPLICATIONS
For the manufacture of overhead decorative elements, accessories, inserts, low-carbon steel (iron), bronze, copper and brass are used. Iron pads in the form of loops, locks were used in ancient times. In Russia, headrests and chests with forged iron linings were common. Forging was at first in the form of smooth strips of metal,
then slotted and chased ribbons and sheets. Curls, spirals, and plant motifs were used in the ornament of the binding, loops and locks. The painted surface of the product or colored paper ribbons covered with mica served as a background for openwork overlays.
Bronze - an alloy of copper and tin - was widely used as overlays and inserts in furniture and interiors in the 17th, 18th and early 19th centuries. Depending on the tin content, the color of bronze can be: pink (1.. .5%), orange (5...10%), yellow (15%), golden (25%), bluish (30%), white ( 35%), light gray (50%), steel (65%). Often, bronze linings and inserts were gilded. Pure (or red) copper was used in furniture much less frequently than its alloys. Sometimes it was used in Boule's marquetry or in the form of thin overhead strips, but more often brass, an alloy of copper and zinc, was used for this purpose. Just like bronze, brass can have different shades depending on its zinc content: red (5%), red-yellow (10%), light yellow (25%), bright yellow (35%), silver -white (65%). Hardness and strength
brass is lower than copper and bronze.
Metal parts of antique furniture in the form of front and fastening fittings, overhead decorative elements usually have cracks, abrasions, deformations from impacts, potholes, minor losses and, finally, corrosion, sometimes almost to the point of complete loss.
Restoration of metal parts of furniture in large restoration workshops is carried out by metal specialists. After inspecting the product, photographing, removing dust, the metal parts are carefully removed from the wooden base. Further visual examination, high-quality chemical and X-ray fluorescence analyzes make it possible to develop technological recommendations for the restoration of specific parts, taking into account the properties of the material from which they are made. Rust is removed from iron parts with a 15 ... 25% solution of caustic soda (caustic soda), in which the parts are immersed. To preserve flat-shaped parts with a smooth surface, the old craft method is also used: unboiled linseed oil is rubbed into a heated object until its surface becomes even black.
Corrosion deposits on bronze, which have arisen under favorable conditions for the operation and storage of furniture, form a noble patina that protects the metal from further destruction. It covers the entire surface of the object with a dense even layer, reproducing the smallest details and relief forms. Noble patina can have different color shades depending on the composition of the bronze: ruby ​​red, green, etc. However, noble patina is rare. Under unfavorable conditions (high humidity, dirt), the so-called wild patina is formed, which does not protect the object from further destruction and must be removed.
Such a patina is removed with solutions of caustic soda, formic acid, ammonia, ammonium carbonate. Mechanical cleaning is carried out with brass and nylon brushes, scalpels and burs. Gilded bronze must not be cleaned with abrasive or chemically active materials. Gilded surfaces are washed with warm water and baby soap with a soft brush or swab.
Lacquered bronze is also cleaned with soapy water. If it is necessary to renew the varnish layer, the bronze is polished and degreased, then heated on fire for several seconds so that it turns yellow, and immediately covered with a thin layer of shellac varnish.
Parts made of copper and brass, if they are deformed, are first straightened and then cleaned with the same compositions as bronze. Wax, shellac varnish, drying oil are used to create protective coatings. Mechanical damage to patterned cast parts - scratches, holes, cracks, etc. - is eliminated by filling them with Wood's fusible alloy, followed by processing (artistic, decorative and conservation) of the metal surface.

Topic 13. RESTORATION OF FINISHING COATINGS

13.1. Combined, mixed restoration.
To create protective and decorative finishing coatings on joinery and furniture products of the 18th-19th centuries. both transparent and opaque materials were used. To obtain transparent coatings, they used mainly shellac polish or wax mastic, opaque coatings - glue (tempera) or oil paints, as well as gold leaf for gilding.
Finishing is a long and complex process, including preparatory (dyeing, priming, filling, gesso, etc.) and basic operations. An error or sloppiness in performing each of these can spoil a good restoration.
Finishing coatings with minor defects and damage are not removed, but repaired and refreshed with compositions such as "Polish". Significantly damaged coatings of no particular value (wax, enamel, lacquer) are not repaired, but removed with washes or sandpaper and reapplied using the technology and materials used in the past.

13.2. CLEAR FINISH
A fresh process of clear finishing consists of sanding, dyeing (bleaching), priming or filling, polishing with shellac polish or waxing.
For grinding, fine-grained paper-based skins and a wooden block with felt are used, which is wrapped with sandpaper when processing flat surfaces. Grinding of profiled surfaces and final grinding is done without pads. An obligatory operation before subsequent dyeing and polishing is the removal of wood pile after grinding by wetting the surface with a weak adhesive solution and grinding the pile that has risen after drying with a spent fine-grained sandpaper.
Dyeing is used to match the color of new parts to old ones. Old wood is tinted only in extreme cases, when one part of the furniture is too different in color from another, for example, due to fading or discoloration when various stains are removed. For dyeing, it is better to use aqueous solutions of dyes, primarily natural ones - decoctions of coffee, tea, walnut peel (nut stain), mahogany sawdust, etc. They are well perceived by wood, harmless to it, quite light-resistant and allow you to enhance the natural tone of one or another breeds. To imitate rare breeds, when making up for losses, synthetic (aniline) water-soluble dyes and mordants are used.
Before proceeding to the final finishing of the product with shellac polish, the surface is primed or filled in accordance with the initial finish.
Priming is carried out with nitro-varnish, natural drying oil or shellac varnish. Varnishes are applied on a flat surface with a swab, on a thread - with a brush, drying oil - with a semi-dry swab and carefully rubbed into the pores. Filling is performed when finishing by polishing products made of large-pore wood. Between the pores of the wood after cleaning, no traces of filler should remain. After drying, the surface is carefully polished with fine-grained waste sandpaper. Polishing with shellac polish is the most time-consuming and complex process of transparent finishing. It must be produced in a warm (ns less than 18 ° C), bright, clean and dust-free room. Polishing swab. The size of the swab depends on the size of the polished surface or part. The surfaces to be polished must be in a horizontal position. Polish is applied to the surface of the product with smooth, continuous, spiral and zigzag sliding movements.
After each pass with a swab, the thinnest layer of polish should remain on the surface. Up to 50 or more such layers are applied during the first period of polishing until a uniform sheen appears on the surface. As the tampon dries, polish is added to it, but in such an amount that it does not leave a greasy trace, since in this case the drying of the polish is delayed, as a result of which the tampon can "burn" the surface. The swab is pre-checked by making several test strokes on a board.
Finish polishing by "drying" the surface, for which it is powdered with Viennese lime or magnesia (children's tooth powder can be used for this purpose) and the dust is removed with a soft cloth moistened with diluted alcohol. So that the product does not look like a remake, the surface is sometimes rubbed with a fine powder of charcoal or tripoli, dimming the strong shine. Wax finish gives a more matte surface than polishing, it is used mainly on furniture made of large-pore solid wood - oak, walnut, ash.
When waxing is performed again, a wax mastic of a jelly-like consistency is applied to a carefully polished surface with a tampon of coarse linen or a hard brush. After drying, the mastic is rubbed with a woolen cloth until a uniform silky sheen is obtained. If necessary, the operation is repeated after 2-3 days. To give the coating greater strength, one or two layers of varnish or shellac varnish are applied to the surface.

13.3. OPAQUE FINISH
The main types of opaque wood finishes in the past were gilding and staining with oil or glue paints. Moreover, painted products often had gilded details.
Gilding. When gilding, in addition to materials common to all types of finishing, such as adhesives, varnishes, grinding materials, special ones are also used: foil, gesso, polyment and some varnishes. Foil is the name given to the thinnest sheets of metals that are obtained by forging metal plates with parchment and other materials lining until the mass of each sheet becomes equal to the reference one, for gold - about 1 g / mm. In this case, the thickness of the foil reaches one hundred-thousandth of a millimeter. Usually, gold leaf is used for decoration, or a double, where the front side (leaf) is made of gold, the reverse side is made of silver or copper. It is obtained by joint forging of plates of two metals. Gold leaf is produced in the form of booklets measuring 120x70 or 91.5 + 91.5 mm. The booklet may contain 10, 30 or 60 sheets of tissue paper. Instead of gold foil, sometimes its imitation is used - potal (hype) - an alloy of copper and zinc (4: 1), which also goes on sale in the form of books of 100 leaves sized 110x110 or 150x150 mm. Potal is oxidized by atmospheric oxygen, therefore, when applied, it must be protected with a layer of varnish. Another substitute for gold foil is mousse gold, which is tin dichloride in powder form, which, when mixed with varnish, forms enamel. The enamel coating is highly durable, almost does not oxidize and imitates gilding well.
Levkas is a finely dispersed plastic mass, consisting of a mixture of glue with chalk or kaolin, which, when dried, forms a hard and smooth primer layer for a gold coating. There are several ways to prepare levkas.
To increase the hardness of the soil, marble powder or finely ground spar is sometimes added to the composition of levkas, and to protect it from spoilage, an antiseptic solution is added, which is introduced during the preparation of the adhesive solution. Depending on the binding composition for fixing the foil, gilding can be adhesive (when using glue or polymer) or oil (when using oil varnish). With glue gilding, it is possible to obtain a coating with varying degrees of gloss - from mirror to semi-matt, with various shades of color; it is very effective. With oil gilding, the coating has great strength and water resistance, but it is darker and uniform in color and luster. The first is used for indoor, the second - for outdoor work.
Polyment - a binder composition in the form of a paste obtained by mixing a precipitated bolus * (oily clay is possible) with beeswax, tallow, soap and other components that have good adhesion to the foil.
Bolus is a type of ferruginous clay, the deposits of which are located in Armenia.
In oil gilding, the so-called gulfarben lacquer is most often used, which is a mixture of oil lacquer with natural thickened drying oil in a ratio of 2: 1. To speed up drying, up to 15% desiccant is added to the varnish. Dilute it to working viscosity with turpentine or white spirit. Gilding is performed with a special set of tools. A golden pillow measuring 20X15 cm for cutting gold leaves into pieces is made of horsehair or sea grass, covered with leather over two layers of flannel with the suede side up. It is fixed on a stable base. Side-screens are attached on two or three sides to protect the foil from blowing away.
Golden knives. Brushes of various shapes and sizes are used to apply gesso, polyment, varnishes and leaves of gold. Steel hooks are used for clearing and cutting threads after levka.
In oil gilding, several layers of oil paint (golden ocher) are applied over gesso, and after drying and grinding, oil sulphate varnish is applied. Pieces of foil are applied to the lacquer coating. The surface is matte and retains the color of the foil.
The gilding on the carving is especially effective when shiny polished areas are interspersed with matte ones. Therefore, when finishing products with carvings (furniture, baguette, picture frames and mirrors), the bulges were usually made polished, and the cavities were matte.
Restoration iron. Smoothing and drying gesso. An antiseptic solution (formalin) is usually added to the glue. Excess glue is removed with a cotton swab. When wood cracks, small cracks are sealed with a putty made of wax rosin mastic and wood flour, large cracks - with wedge-shaped inserts from the corresponding type of wood, which are glued on fish glue, and then sealed with putty. Places of terminations are tinted.
Coloring. To make up for losses in the form of scuffs or flaking of the paint layer, pictorial paints are used - tempera or oil. Some restorers dilute semi-dry tempera with a mixture of egg yolk and table vinegar. The gaps are painted over with a brush, as in paintings, choosing the appropriate color scheme.
The oil paint coating is fixed with a light oil varnish, into which turpentine is introduced (to obtain a matte surface), or not fixed at all.
With a combined finish with paint and gilding, gesso is applied evenly over the entire surface of the object. They start with gilding, then paint with glue or oil paints in accordance with the original finish. When painting without gesso, the wood surface is primed with natural drying oil or adhesive solution, then leveled with putty and painted with adhesive or oil paint.

Topic 14 . Restoration of upholstered furniture.
14.1. WALLPAPER WORKS
During operation, soft furniture elements are exposed to a wide variety of loads and wear out much faster than hard elements. Depending on the design of the soft elements, armchairs, chairs and banquettes are divided into hard, semi-soft and soft. The determining factor in softness are the seats. Hard chairs include chairs and armchairs with wicker seats, semi-soft chairs and armchairs, the seats of which have flooring made of elastic materials with a thickness of 20 ... 40 mm, depending on the base (hard or elastic). Soft restorations include products whose seats have a rigid or flexible base, compression springs and flooring made of elastic materials with a thickness of 30...50 mm.

14.2. RESTORATION MATERIALS FOR UPHOLSTERED FURNITURE
All remaining materials (lining, covering, flooring, stuffing, as well as springs and nails) are used again after their appropriate processing. In the absence (loss) of soft elements, they are restored in their original form using similar materials. Springs began to be used in upholstered furniture at the beginning of the 19th century. These were mainly one- and two-cone springs made of wire with a diameter of 3; 3.5 and 4 mm with the number of turns from 4 to 8, height from 90 to 335 mm. Furniture nails with a length of 30 ... 40 mm and wallpaper with a length of 12, 15 and 20 mm are used for fastening cover and facing fabrics to wooden frames of upholstered furniture.
The stuffing and flooring materials used in antique furniture were of animal or vegetable origin. Of the materials of animal origin, horse and cow hair were most often used. Burnt, rotten or moth-eaten hair is unsuitable for restoration. Hair, well preserved, can be used after special treatment. It is disinfected in a special chamber with formalin vapor, then dried with well-functioning ventilation. After that, the hair is washed in warm water with soap, cleaned of impurities, the fallen lumps are plucked. In addition to hair, pig bristles, wool, feathers and down were also used in the past, but these materials are usually replaced due to their unsuitability. Vegetable materials used in the past in upholstered furniture include: sea grass, palm fiber, Mexican
fiber (obtained from aloe and agave leaves) - fiber and sisal, bast, cotton wool. These materials are also used, if possible, after appropriate processing.
Binding and stitching materials in the form of twisted cords made
from flax yarn, breaking (twisted twine), tying twine (from bast fibers), linen and cotton threads are used when weaving springs, sewing blanks, stitching boards, sewing up cover and facing fabrics.
Integumentary fabrics are used to cover bases and springs, form decks and boards. This group includes coarse technical fabrics of a rare plain weave made of flax-jute-kenaf yarn of low numbers: burlap cloth of various density to cover the springs; coarse calico from cord yarn of the lowest numbers; a stern linen made of stern flax yarn of wet spinning of lower numbers; calico severe - cotton fabric of calico weave.
Clean fabrics with perchlorethylene - a colorless liquid with an ethereal odor. Not explosive, not combustible. It has a mild narcotic effect. The tissue is immersed in the solvent for 30 minutes. In case of severe contamination, a soft brush, swab (locally) is used. The solvent is changed twice. Fabrics treated in perchlorethylene retain their natural softness.
Textile tapes or belts used as an elastic base for soft elements can be made from jute or hemp.
The preserved old belts, visible from the underside of the seat, are used again, reinforced by duplication with a dense, durable fabric from the inside. Lost belts are made again from tarpaulin, canvas or dense canvas folded in several layers. The same applies to bases made of a solid piece of fabric.
Decorative details in the form of braid, cord, fringe, buttons, etc. are cleaned and restored, if possible, or replaced with similar ones. Tools needed for wallpapering: hammer, screwdriver, mallet, pliers, straight and curved wallpaper needles, scissors, belt tensioner

14.3. RESTORATION OF A CHAIR WITH A WICKER SEAT
Weaving materials. Straws obtained by stratification of reed rods
or stems of rattan - palm tree. Rattan stems reach 400 m in length. When restoring a chair with a destroyed wicker seat, first of all, the old mesh is removed, cutting it off with a knife, and the holes in the seat sides are cleaned. Then the chair frame is restored and trimmed. After that, they begin to restore the wicker seat. Stages and sequence.
1. Fix the straw in the central hole of the back side of the chair with a wooden peg, leaving the tip about 7 cm. Pull it to the central hole on the front side of the chair, thread it through it and pass it from the bottom side into the adjacent left or right hole, and then to the corresponding hole on the back tsar. Thus, half the seat is braided. Then repeat the operation, starting from the middle, and braid the second half. The corner holes must remain empty. The straws should be parallel to each other, perpendicular to the sides, well stretched. The ends of the straw are also moistened when one segment ends and a new one is tied to it. They do this as follows: the end of the first segment is wrapped around the end of the second and tightened with a loop. It turns out a movable unit, which is located on the underside of the side between two adjacent holes. The end of the first segment is fixed by wrapping it twice around the gap between the two holes and tightening the loop from the bottom side. The ends of both segments are cut off with scissors.
2. Weaving the first horizontal row of straws starts from the front side of the seat and goes to the back side, stretching the straws evenly, placing them over the first row and securing them from time to time with wooden pegs to avoid excessive stretching. The result should be a dense, evenly stretched mesh.
3. The weaving of the second vertical row begins in the same way as the first, from the middle of the back side of the seat frame. Straws are placed on top of the first two rows, parallel to the first vertical rows, but with a slight shift to the right so that a thin gap forms between them.
4. When weaving the second horizontal row, the straws are passed under or above the vertical ones, placing them parallel to the first horizontal rows with a slight shift. They start weaving from the back side of the seat, skipping the straws under the first and above the second vertical rows. Great care must be taken when working with plant fibers, avoiding sharp bends and twists.
5. Weave a diagonal row starting from the left rear corner of the seat. Having fixed the end of the straw with a peg in the corner hole, they drag it diagonally, placing it above the horizontal and below the vertical rows. Having reached the opposite corner, they lead the straw back parallel to the first, pulling it through the adjacent hole on the front side and placing it above the horizontal and below the vertical rows. Thus, the lower left corner of the seat is braided, then, starting from the same corner hole, the right one.
6. Weave the second diagonal row starting from the right rear corner of the seat, using the same holes and stretching the straw perpendicular to the first diagonal rows.
The straws pass under the horizontal and over the vertical rows. This operation requires special attention and accuracy.
7. After finishing the weaving of the mesh and fixing the ends of the straws, they start edging. To do this, use two strips of different widths - wide for edging, narrow - for fixing it. A narrow strip is fixed in one of the corners of the seat and passed from the underside of the tsarg, periodically (through one hole) pulling out and making a loop. A segment of a wide edging is passed through the loops, which are tightly tightened. The ends of the piping are fixed in the corner holes and cut off.

14.4. RESTORATION OF A CHAIR WITH A SEMI-SOFT SEAT.
When restoring such products, first of all, it is necessary to remove the old soft element, pull out all the nails, and clean the frame from dirt.
Then they begin to strengthen the frame - repair the spiked joints, strengthen the tsar belt (if necessary) with the help of bosses. The first stage of wallpaper work is fixing the base of the soft element and the stuffing layer. A piece of canvas is placed on the belts and, turning the edge outward, nail it to the back of the seat. They stretch the canvas, fix it with several nails in one layer on the front side, then wrap the edge and nail it completely (the interval between the nails is 2 cm). Then a soft element is formed. A piece of canvas is placed over the hair, straightened and lightly nailed ("baited") in the middle of each side. After making sure that the canvas lies correctly and evenly, they hammer (not completely) a few more nails with an interval of about 5 cm into the upper edges of the tsargs. Then, pulling out the pre-hammered nails one by one, they tuck the edge of the fabric under the hair and finally nail it to the side surface of the tsarga.
Then a cover fabric (chintz, calico, calico) is applied to the seat, it is first lightly nailed with thin nails 9 mm long to the seat frame. Close up the fabric around the hind legs, cutting off the excess. If the seat has rectangular front corners, the fabric is laid in a deep fold, having previously nailed the inner layer to the frame. If the corners of the seat are rounded, make several small folds or gathers. Excess material is cut off. The fabric is finally nailed around the perimeter. After performing this operation, the frame is finally finished, after which the facing decorative fabric is fixed. The final operation is the fixing of the decorative braid, which is sewn on with thin colored threads.

14.5. RESTORATION OF SOFT CHAIR
A feature of soft chairs is the presence of springs. To ensure the elasticity and constant shape of the repaired soft element, the springs must be tied up, that is, fixed in a certain position. The conical springs should be tied up so that their rings do not touch each other during upsetting, they can freely and silently compress and straighten. For ligation of conical springs, overcasting loops, simple and double loop knots are used. In overcast dressing (sedimentary weaving), the twine is overcast (make a loop) around the wire of the springs, getting movable knots, which allows you to upset the springs and set them in the desired position. The springs installed at the edges are upset by "/z, the middle ones by "/2 of their normal height. Overcast binding of springs
is made from the opposite side of the product towards itself. First, all the transverse rows of springs are upset, then the longitudinal ones.
The position of the springs is fixed with a nodal weave, in which the twine is tied on the coils of the springs with a fixed simple or double looped knot. The ends of the twine are fixed to the seat frame. Sedimentary and nodal weaves are performed either with double-length twine with a reverse stroke, or with pieces of twine folded in half, in two passes in one direction.
There are various schemes for bandaging cone springs, depending on the design of the product, the number and size of springs. Typically, the springs are tied in transverse, longitudinal and diagonal directions and each spring is secured with eight knots. In some cases, ligation is used only in the transverse and longitudinal directions with
fixing the springs with four knots. At the same time, an intermediate dressing is made with one or two twines between the rows of springs.
In seats with a front running board, a metal rod with a diameter of 5 ... 6 mm is tied with twine to the upper coils of the front and side rows of springs from the outside.
The next operation is to cover the spring cover with a cover fabric (burlap), which is nailed to the upper edges of the side with roofing nails 2x20 mm in size or wallpaper 1.8x20 mm in size with a step of at least 50 mm.
After nailing, the cover fabric is sewn with a cord or twisted twine with a diameter of 1.5 ... 2 mm in at least three places to the upper coils of each spring. The knots in the places of sewing and the transitional twine from knot to knot are tightly tightened. A layer of stuffing material (horsehair) is laid over the cover fabric stretched over the springs to secure
which is preliminarily stitched on the fabric from twisted twine with a step of 250 ... ... 300 mm. Stuffing material is selected under the stitches, laying it first along the edges of the seat, and then in the middle, forming an even and dense layer over the entire surface of the seat.
The prepared sides are stitched (quilted), capturing the first turns and wire binding of the extreme rows of the spring. Stitch pitch - 20...25 mm. The quilted board should be even, tight, without blockages and overhangs.
Next, a layer of cotton wool is applied to the seat, and calico or calico is placed on it, which is pulled tight and sewn to the sides with threads or nailed with wallpaper nails. After that, the product is finally finished, and then the seat is covered with a facing fabric. The facing fabric must be stretched over a soft element in compliance with the symmetry of the pattern, without wrinkles and distortions, tucked in at the edges and firmly attached to the frame with wallpaper nails with
with an interval of 20.30 mm or without a fold, glued along the edges. The edge of the cladding is closed with a decorative braid.

Topic 15. STORAGE OF RESTORED FURNITURE
The duty and obligation of the custodians and owners of antique furniture is to ensure, first of all, the optimal temperature and humidity conditions in the room. The optimum temperature is 18°C. Its fluctuations are admissible within 15...20 °C. Relative humidity should be within 50...65%. Meanwhile, in autumn, for example, air humidity in poorly ventilated rooms reaches 85.90%, and with the start of the heating season it drops to 40%. Such sharp fluctuations are extremely dangerous for old furniture, especially lined and finished with marquetry, intarsia, and mosaics. In products where different types of wood are used, old and new materials that react differently to changes in humidity, internal stresses arise, leading either to the destruction of the wood, or the adhesive bond, or both.
Furniture should not be placed near heating appliances, the minimum distance is 0.5 m. It is necessary to protect products from direct sunlight on their surface by closing the windows with curtains. It is recommended to rearrange the furniture from time to time so that the light from the window does not constantly fall on one of the sides.
Rearranging and transporting furniture often causes damage to it. When rearranging furniture, you should lift it, and not move it along the floor, risking breaking the legs.
To ensure the stability of cabinet furniture, if necessary, they make linings under the legs, which also eliminates skew and provides free opening of the doors. Polished and waxed furniture must be protected from water drops on its surface, from contact with hot objects. Furniture should not be subjected to heavy loads. To prevent moth damage to upholstered furniture, traditional remedies such as lavender or eucalyptus leaves should be used.

Topic 16. Cutting surfaces for valuable wood and stone.
The following tools are used for cutting: a handbrake, a sheperka, a split, squirrel and ferret brushes, steel combs, finger shepers, an elastic band, a flute, a sponge, a device for knurling porosity. Oak section. Soil for cutting under the oak is prepared from golden ocher with the addition of zinc white.
The most common method of cutting under oak is cutting with a rubber comb. The scallop is cut from a piece of rubber plate 3-5 mm thick, along the edges of which teeth of various sizes are cut, from the largest to very small (5-7 teeth per 1 cm).
Glazing is often done with aqueous compounds that dry quickly. The dried glazing layer is covered with a light oil varnish once or twice. When varnishing twice, the first layer is ground with pumice powder and water to roughen the surface.
When depicting a bizarre pattern of core layers observed on radial sections, the cutting was called mirror oak cutting. With a light pattern on a dark background, the surface for cutting is prepared as described above, cutting it with a small scallop, followed by cutting the layers with a steel scallop. Then, with a thumbnail wrapped in rags, they “sweep” the pattern, removing part of the cover in places. The drawing is shaded with a soft brush. The dried cut layer is stained with a glazing composition, carefully rubbing certain places with a rag to make them a little lighter. After that, the surface is lightly shaded with a flute and, after drying, varnished.
When cutting under oak, sometimes the surface is given the appearance of porosity, rolling it with steel toothed rollers. To do this, use devices with a different set of rollers. Walnut cutting is carried out on a darker ground than oak. To do this, the soil is prepared from one part of whitewash and three parts of golden ocher with an admixture of iron minium with soot or burnt umber. Paints are diluted with a mixture of drying oil and turpentine, taken in equal quantities. When the soil dries, a glaze layer is applied, composed of 95% raw umber and 5% burnt umber, ground on beer or kvass. The pre-primed surface is also wiped with beer or kvass so that the glazing lies more evenly. The glazing layer is immediately spread from top to bottom.
When the glazing layer dries, the surface is covered with an oil layer consisting of three parts of natural umber and one part of burnt umber. Paints are diluted with a mixture of drying oil and turpentine in equal amounts.
A layer of finely grated oil paints (ocher, natural and burnt umber, burnt sienna) is applied along the wet layer with a finger coat along the wet layer. These paints from a palette or from glass, alternately or partially mixed, are induced to obtain layers of a natural walnut pattern.
The side surfaces are then treated with a dry sheperka and immediately carefully leveled with a flute. The final glazing is carried out after the cut layers have dried. To do this, the cut is covered with a thin layer of glazing from the cut itself, which is darker in tone, made from natural and burnt umber, pounded on beer or kvass. The side parts are cut in the form of transverse wavy lines. As it dries, the surface is varnished twice with wet grinding of the first layer of varnish. Cutting under mahogany is carried out on the ground of golden color with a reddish tint. The color of the soil is made up of yellow ocher (about 80%), iron red lead, yellow crown and white, diluted with a mixture of drying oil and turpentine.
A thin covering oil layer is applied over the dried layer of soil, made up of burnt umber and sienna with a small addition of krapp varnish. On the raw glazing layer, the layers of the pattern are laid with a sheperka. When the glaze layer dries, it is varnished twice with wet sanding of the first layer. Combined cuts are performed using the techniques described above; on the same surface, you can cut separate planes for different types of valuable rocks.
The sequence of operations when cutting under the marble. Depending on whether the surface is cut under white or gray marble, a white or grayish-blue background is prepared. On a dry background, two ferret brushes are used to paint the veins with light gray lacquer paint. When the glaze layer dries, it is varnished twice.
Decalcomania. In order to obtain a relatively cheap, highly artistic cutting of a surface that looks like wood and marble, which does not require the use of the labor of highly skilled Alfred artists, it is recommended to use the decalcomania method, i.e., transferring to the surface to be finished drawings previously made in a factory way on sheets of paper. When using decals, they are cut into pieces, from which they make up a picture of cutting with the desired pattern. Then the drawing is covered with oil varnish and applied to a well-prepared wall surface. When the varnish hardens and firmly glues the pattern, the paper is moistened with water. The adhesive substrate on which the picture was printed gets wet, and the paper can be easily removed from the picture. For strength, after drying, the pattern is covered with light oil varnish of grades 4C or 5C.

17. Professional antique furniture restorer unit.
Degree of preparation: furniture restoration master 2-3 category.
Duration of training: - 4 months, 3 months theory, 1 month - practice.
Graduate Diploma.
Subsequent certification at the Institute of the Art of Restoration is required.

Budgetary and contractual (paid) basis of training.
The main goal of the program is to train highly qualified and widely educated craftsmen in the field of furniture restoration. The training program is aimed at studying the experience of developing furniture restoration technologies, the problems of restoration, protection, and modern conservation.
18. Rules of the restorer.
1. Keep a maximum of old, genuine elements in the product. Necessary
strive to preserve and use all pieces of furniture that can still
serve (wood, cladding, flooring materials, etc.), and enter as
as few new elements as possible. To preserve the strength of the product, it is allowed to manufacture new frame elements that will not be visible during exposure. In this case, parts of the old parts are used to repair the visible parts of the furniture.
2. Avoid radical, irreversible actions. The principle of reversibility is the main one in restoration. All actions performed by the restorer must be reversible (conservation, repair, replacement of losses). It is not allowed to use insufficiently proven new (especially synthetic) materials and technologies that cause or may cause irreparable harm to the restored product in the future. When restoring carved furniture with gilding, the old gesso and gilding are often completely removed, regardless of the degree of preservation of the object. Destroying the author's soil and gilding of the 18th century, we thereby distort the monument. The reworking of the surface by the hand of the master of our time does not preserve the handwriting of the era. The item loses its authenticity.
3. Respect natural aging, "the patina of time. If the product was polished with shellac polish, which gives the surface a silky sheen and reveals the depth and iridescence of the wood fibers, then over the years this depth intensifies. The surface with a noble patina is distinguished by transparency, softness and depth of tone, usually a little darker than the original color of the wood.Time leaves its mark on the metal: bronze and brass darken, become dimmer, scuffs and scratches remain on the gilding.
4. Do not remove traces of restoration made in the old days. Careful attitude to furniture as a historical monument should keep the restorer from correcting. In the old days, furniture was often remade. These alterations testify to the change in tastes and requirements for furniture in different historical periods. Eliminating these transformations, you can lose
traces of the history of the furniture, without being completely sure that its original appearance is being restored.
5. Compensation for losses should be made only if there is sufficient reliable information. When a part of the design or decorative elements of the product is lost, the problem of its restoration arises. The surviving identical or symmetrical elements are used as a model and duplicated. The same is done if the missing part
preserved on another product included in the same set (during restoration
chairs, for example), or on another known instance (when the furniture was deliberately repeated).
As analogues, other products are used that are identical in time and style of execution, as well as drawings, drawings, photographs and other illustrative material.
6. Do not try to make the restoration invisible. Many good restorers consider it a matter of honor to hide the restoration, to make it invisible, believing that the restored furniture loses its value. They sometimes do additional costly and useless work, trying to disguise the restoration: they imitate a wormhole, cracks in the veneer,
dirt or wear on the gilding and finish, forging new elements to look like old ones. It is necessary to ensure that the restoration is not shocking, very conspicuous, it must be invisible from afar, leaving the product whole and harmonious. At the same time, for a specialist who studies antique furniture, the difference in old, authentic elements and additions should be obvious. For this it is enough
when adjusting the color tone, make a slight difference between the old and new parts of the product.
7. Don't try to improve the furniture. Restoration is sometimes identified with repair, in which the goal is to restore the mainly utilitarian function of furniture and allow arbitrary treatment of it. This approach to restoration existed in the 19th century, when the furniture of the Middle Ages and the Renaissance was significantly distorted. The mistakes of the past should not be allowed to be repeated with regard to furniture of a later time, especially objects of historical or artistic value.
8. Do not make hasty, thoughtless decisions. Before starting the restoration, it is necessary to carefully consider the entire process and draw up a work plan, determine the methods and techniques for performing each stage. Scientific organizations such as the All-Russian
Artistic Research and Restoration Center named after Academician I. E. Grabar and the All-Union Research Institute of Restoration, which will help resolve any issue.
As a rule, the restoration project proposed by the performing restorer must be reviewed and approved by the restoration council, which includes museum curators, researchers, and restorers. The council can make suggestions and additions to the restoration plan. This practice eliminates errors during restoration, increases the responsibility of the performer and at the same time allows the restorer to take the initiative and gain experience.
9. Save all information about the restored furniture. When accepting furniture for restoration, the restorer must collect all available information on the history of the monument, the conditions of its storage, previous restorations, etc. If the product itself has any labels, markings or other signs, they must be preserved.
Restoration can reveal a lot in furniture: its manufacturer, author, history. All this information must be saved. During the restoration process, all actions performed by the restorer should be recorded with a detailed description of the materials used, tools, methods and timing for performing a particular operation. All data is entered in a standard "Passport
restoration of a monument of history and culture", which is an important document for the subsequent study of the monument.

19. "MASTER FURNITURE RESTORER".

The curriculum includes disciplines for the restoration of wood, decorative surfaces, sculpture and stone, furniture and other objects of arts and crafts. Particular attention in the learning process is given to modern methods of restoration work, the problems of monument protection, management issues in the field of use and promotion of cultural heritage. The training program is based on the latest information and computer technologies, new methods of furniture restoration.
Basic theoretical courses.
- art history
- history of Russian art
- history of arts and crafts
- introduction to the profession of a restorer
- restoration materials
- legal foundations of restoration, art management, fundamentals of a market economy
- the main technological processes of restoration
- Materials Science
- tools and equipment for restoration
- reconstruction, restoration and protection of cultural monuments
- attribution and examination of subjects of arts and crafts
-modern problems of restoration science
- history and methodology of restoration science

Job Description. Restoration and conservation of art and decorative objects made of porcelain, glass, ceramics, plastic, majolica, metal and other materials under the guidance of a highly qualified restorer of art and decorative objects. Selection of parts of art products and preparation of surfaces for gluing. Cleaning seams. Preparation of paints according to given recipes. Toning and painting of art products with slight shading and fine-tuning. Attaching individual parts or assemblies of dolls and other toys using hinges, rubber bands, hooks. Selection and preparation of parts for installation.

Must know: technology of gluing art products and decorative objects; properties of glued materials; techniques for performing simple operations for gluing and painting art products; the recipe for the preparation of the glue and paints used; the principle of operation and the rules for the use of serviced equipment, fixtures and tools; device toys; etching methods and rules for removing streaks from mirrors.

Work examples

1. Mustard pots, lids, ashtrays, wine glasses, salt shakers - gluing.

2. Mirrors of a rectangular shape - etching of the protective coatings of the silver film, removal of streaks of minium varnish, silver from the front side.

§ 42. Restorer of art products and decorative objects of the 3rd category

Job Description. Restoration and conservation of art and decorative items of simple configuration made of porcelain, glass, ceramics, plastic, majolica, metal and other materials. Bonding products and objects from a small number of fragments and having an even fracture, with cleaning of glue outlets, puttying small losses and chips at the seams, followed by tinting. Preparation of mastic according to a given recipe. Selection of colors. Toning products in places of gluing with application up to three tones. Cleaning from pollution, products of corrosion. Removal of easily removable dirt, old restoration finishes, glue, records with metal brushes, scalpels, sandpaper, detergents and compresses with solvents. Degreasing of metals. Replenishment of minor losses, chips, cracks, potholes with finishing masses. Grinding, polishing, toning finishes without reproducing the pattern. Production of molds from gypsum, wax and plasticine. Forming parts into molds. Primary firing. Temperature monitoring. Preparation of putties and masses, cutting blanks to recreate products and objects. Rough processing after casting when recreating the loss of cast metal parts.

Must know: types and properties of basic materials; mastic recipe; techniques that ensure a strong and even seam; techniques for coating products and objects with paints; arrangement of serviced equipment, fixtures and tools; device winding mechanisms of toys; techniques for flashing and removing unstable contaminants; technology for sealing cracks, seams and chips.

Work examples

1. Vases, souvenirs, plates, cups - gluing with seams.

2. Mirrors of spherical and figured shape - etching of the protective coatings of the silver film, removal of lacquer, minium, silver from the front side.

3. Toys - gluing with reinforcement of sound mechanisms.

4. Various products and objects - sealing potholes, holes, cracks with an area of ​​​​less than 1 cm2.

5. Crystal objects - dismantling.

6. Figurines without carefully designed anatomical forms - gluing with seams.

7. Glass exhibits - gluing.

§ 43. Restorer of art products and decorative objects of the 4th category

Job Description. Restoration and conservation of simple and medium complexity art products and decorative objects, broken into parts, conjugated in one or more nodes, having a complex, uneven fracture made of porcelain, faience, glass, crystal, majolica, metal and other similar materials. Glue selection. Selection of paints and varnishes for tinting restored products and tinting in places of gluing with application from three to five tones. Repeated and uniform application of varnish on the surface of products. Removal of stubborn dirt and marks from the surface with the help of active detergents, electrolytic and electromechanical methods. Reconstruction of lost fragments of rectilinear glassware by pressing and manual grinding. Glass cutting according to the pattern. Removal and production of molds consisting of two parts. Preparation of gesso, putties and finishing masses according to the recipe. Imitation of engraved drawing and relief. Mounting finishes on ferrous and non-ferrous metal products using soldering, riveting, forge welding.

Must know: technology and methods of product restoration; main technical properties and characteristics of materials used in the restoration of products; the sequence of restoration of artistic painting; methods of complex coating of products with various paints; technology for varnishing products and removing persistent contaminants; methods of mounting and gluing sculptures and decor; methodology for restoring losses by analogues; properties of natural and artificial pigments, dyes and their mixtures; style features of applied art from metals.

Work examples

1. Vases, coffee pots, biscuits with relief, figurines with carefully crafted anatomical forms, teapots - gluing.

2. Toys - gluing with reinforcement of sound mechanisms.

3. Various products - sealing holes, cracks, potholes with an area of ​​​​1 cm2 or more.

4. Chandeliers, sconces, other lighting devices - installation of fragments.

5. Wine glasses, wine glasses, glasses made of hand-cut crystal, Venetian glass - gluing.

6. Thin-walled openwork objects - gluing with patching of potholes.

7. Multi-figured figurines - gluing.

§ 44. Restorer of art products and decorative objects of the 5th category

Job Description. Restoration of complex art and antique products and decorative items made of porcelain, faience, ceramics, crystal, glass, metal and other materials with the restoration of missing parts from samples, drawings and fragments. Preparation of compositions necessary for the manufacture of remanufactured parts. Toning of painting on products with more than five tones applied. Restoration of fine openwork engraving and chasing. Toning when reproducing multi-color painting, glaze imitation. Straightening of deformed metal parts, embossing of patterns that have lost their relief, inlay. Reconstruction of significant losses according to preserved details, drawings, sketches, photographs and other documents. Finishing of fragments in the material of the product and various finishing masses with the manufacture of molds, models and casting of parts. Grinding, polishing, toning and other finishing works. Cutting thick glasses and inserting a pattern into the frame. Removal of hard-to-remove layers, restoration records using a special selection of detergents and chemicals. Restoration of significant losses of products and objects with the selection of material according to structure and color.

Must know: techniques for the restoration of products and objects; techniques for toning artistic painting; physical and chemical properties of materials used in the restoration of products; formulation of enamels and varnishes, finishing masses; requirements for the quality of glue, paints; engraving and chasing techniques; basic techniques for working with enamel; technology for strengthening heavily damaged works; methods of installation and fastening of art products from various materials.

Work examples

1. Vases, plates, cups and other household items - restoration of missing parts.

2. Stained-glass windows - mount.

3. Various products - tinting for marble, bone, mother-of-pearl with the restoration of artistic drawing.

4. Tiles - restoration of missing parts.

5. Volumetric exhibits - gluing using templates.

§ 45. Restorer of art products and decorative objects of the 6th category

Job Description. Restoration and conservation of particularly complex artistic, antique, archaeological, unique decorative items and decorative items made of porcelain, faience, marble, crystal, glass, ceramics, majolica and other materials. Reconstruction of products according to samples or analogues, sketch designs of restoration. Recreation of relief and texture in places of gluing, or embedding, in places that require the reconstruction of a pattern. Cutting, honing and inserting patterned, rippled, tempered glass into pattern frames. Engraving complex designs on crystal. Polishing of recreated details. Correction of deformations on objects with metal drawing, with castle dents, with further editing of the pattern. Recreation on the surface of products of individual parts or individual parts of species, portrait drawings and sculptural processing. Restoration of the finest engraving. Restoration and conservation in miniature. Removal of iridescence, salt crystallization products. Gluing and fastening on pins, frames of fragments. Removing and making molds from unique fragments. Toning and restoration of painting. Preparation of enamel with selection of colors according to the preserved fragments.

Must know: brands of porcelain and earthenware from different countries and eras; fundamentals of production technology of porcelain, earthenware; types and properties of materials used in the restoration of products; techniques and methods of processing products; basics of color science and composition of the picture; shadow construction laws; techniques of highly artistic painting on ceramic products; engraving techniques; the history of sculpture and plastics; stylistic features of sculpture and decor of various eras and schools; the specifics of the restoration of antique, archaeological, unique products and objects.

Work examples

1. Bas-reliefs, high reliefs, ornaments - recreation.

2. Figurines of people in clothes with deep folds in dynamic poses, with characteristic and carefully crafted face shapes - a recreation.

3. Multi-figure figurines with compositional constructions - recreation.

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Essay on the topic: "Workplace safety"

Introduction

With the development of scientific and technological progress, an important role is played by the possibility of safe performance by people of their labor duties. In this regard, the science of labor safety and human life was created and is developing.

Life safety is a set of measures aimed at ensuring human safety in the environment, preserving his health, developing methods and means of protection by reducing the influence of harmful and dangerous factors to acceptable values, developing measures to limit damage in the aftermath of emergency situations in peacetime and wartime .

The purpose of the work is to study labor safety in the workplace, the influence of harmful factors on work and measures to protect against them.

The protection of the health of workers, ensuring the safety of working conditions, the elimination of occupational diseases and industrial injuries is one of the main concerns of human society. Attention is drawn to the need for widespread use of progressive forms of scientific organization of labor, minimizing manual, low-skilled labor, creating an environment that excludes occupational diseases and industrial injuries.

At the workplace, measures should be taken to protect against possible exposure to hazardous and harmful production factors. The levels of these factors should not exceed the limit values ​​stipulated by legal, technical and sanitary standards. These regulatory documents require the creation of working conditions at the workplace, under which the influence of dangerous and harmful factors on workers is either completely eliminated or is within acceptable limits.

Restorer of archival and library materials of the 4th category

1. The main causes of hazards in the working environment of the chosen profession

Characteristics of works. Restoration, disinfection and conservation of modern printed publications and documents on paper with combined damage, heavily soiled, with chemically resistant text and images. Visual determination of mechanical and biological damage. Unweaving and unbinding printed publications and documents. Sheet washing. Impregnation of the base with a strengthening solution. Strengthening of sheets with one- and two-sided layering of restoration paper. Connecting multiple sheet breaks, including text breaks. Replenishment of the lost parts of the sheet. Preservation by encapsulation. Binding with the formation of blocks. Binding in full cardboard cover. Carrying out disinfection and disinfestation in cells by chemical methods.

Restorer of archival and library materials of the 4th category. Must know: types and causes of damage to modern documents and books; ways and means of mass restoration and conservation of documents and books; rules for stitching and binding modern documents and printed publications; chemical methods of disinfection and disinfestation of documents and publications; types of materials, tools and equipment used for disinfection, restoration and binding.

Physical production factors are very diverse in their qualitative characteristics and effects on the body, they include the microclimate of the working area (temperature, relative humidity and air velocity, infrared radiation)

For all factors of the production environment, hygienic standards are established - maximum permissible concentrations, doses, levels. In real conditions, they act on the body of workers not in isolation, but, as a rule, together in various qualitative and quantitative combinations.

Harmful factors of the labor process are associated with the irrational organization of labor in the workplace, the absence or insufficient mechanization, ergonomic defects in equipment and work furniture, and the inconsistency of work regimes with the psychophysiological capabilities of the body. Harmful factors of the labor process include dynamic and static overloads of the musculoskeletal and neuromuscular apparatus, arising from the movement of weights, great efforts, forced working postures, and frequent torso bending.

According to the Hygienic Classification of Labor (according to indicators of harmfulness and danger of factors of the working environment, severity and intensity of the labor process), production factors are divided into three classes: optimal, in which adverse effects on the body are excluded and prerequisites are created for maintaining a high level of efficiency; permissible, not exceeding hygienic standards, under the influence of which only functional changes are possible, which are established by the beginning of the next shift; harmful and dangerous three degrees, and the third degree is characterized by an increased risk of developing occupational diseases and poisoning.

Measures to prevent the adverse effects of P. in. on the body are determined by their qualitative and quantitative characteristics and sources of education, the conditions of exposure to workers. The main directions of prevention are technical and organizational: improvement of technology (transition to continuous production processes, waste-free, environmentally friendly technology, integrated mechanization and automation of production, which involves reducing the formation of hazards and their impact on the working area, industrial site and the environment). It is important to improve ventilation and architectural and planning solutions, in necessary cases, the use of effective personal protective equipment, preventive and current sanitary supervision, treatment and preventive measures (preliminary and periodic medical examinations of persons who have contact with P. v., purposeful clinical examination, suspension from work in unfavorable conditions of women during pregnancy; prohibition of the use of adolescent labor in conditions that adversely affect the growing body), hygienic training of employees in personal prevention measures, promotion of a healthy lifestyle.

2. Analyze possible options for the location of the working area and the area of ​​​​occupation of the employee

A workplace is an organizationally indivisible (under given specific conditions) link in the production process, serviced by one or more workers, designed to perform one or more production or service operations, equipped with appropriate equipment and technological equipment. In a broader sense, this is an elementary structural part of the production space, in which the subject of labor is interconnected with the placed means and the subject of labor for the implementation of individual labor processes in accordance with the target function of obtaining the results of labor.

Regulations

In the Russian Federation, the requirements for a workplace are determined by the following documents:

* Labor Code of the Russian Federation,

* Regulatory legal acts of the constituent entities of the Russian Federation,

* State and international standards.

These documents contain requirements for the organization and ergonomics of the workplace, as well as establish rules, procedures, criteria and standards aimed at preserving the life and health of workers in the course of their work.

Jobs can be classified according to the following features and categories.

According to the degree of automation of the labor process:

* Workplace with manual work -- labor processes are performed manually.

* Workplace of manual mechanized work - workers use a mechanized tool with an external drive.

* The workplace of machine-manual work is equipped with a machine (machine, mechanism), which works with the direct participation of the employee.

* Machine workplace - the main work is performed by the machine, and its management and auxiliary work are carried out by the worker.

* Automated workplace - the main work is performed by the machine, auxiliary work is partially or completely mechanized.

* Instrumental workplace - equipped with special equipment in which production processes are carried out by exposing the object of labor to thermal, electrical or physico-chemical energy.

By degree of specialization:

* Special - from 1 to 3 operations are assigned to the workplace. It is used in mass production, with in-line methods of manufacturing products.

* Specialized - from 3 to 10 operations are assigned to the workplace. It is used in serial production, with batch processing methods.

* Universal - more than 10 operations can be performed at the workplace. It is used in single production, with individual methods of manufacturing products.

According to the functions performed by the employee:

* Workplace of the head.

* Workplace of a specialist.

* Workplace of an employee.

* Workplace of the worker.

* Workplace of junior service personnel, etc.

Working conditions:

* With normal conditions.

* With heavy physical labor.

* With harmful conditions.

* With particularly hard physical labor.

* With especially harmful conditions.

* With high neuropsychic tension.

* With monotonous work.

By operating time:

* One-shift.

* Multi-shift.

By the number of serviced equipment:

* Without equipment.

* Single-station (single-aggregate).

* Multi-machine (multi-aggregate, multi-device).

According to the degree of mobility:

* Stationary.

* Mobile.

On a professional basis. For example, you can highlight the jobs of an accountant, general practitioner, clerk, carpenter, driver, etc.

Depending on the specifics of the labor process, other signs of classification can be distinguished.

Workspace

According to the design of the workplace, the performance of labor operations must be ensured within the reach of the motor field. The motor field reach zones for the average size of the human body are shown in Figures 1 and 2.

Figure 2.1 - The range of the motor field in the vertical plane.

Figure 2.2 - The reach zone of the motor field in the horizontal plane at a height of the working surface above the floor of 725 mm.

The performance of frequent labor operations should be ensured within the zone of easy reach and the optimal zone of the motor field, shown in Figure 3.

Figure 2.3 - Areas for performing manual operations:

1 - zone for placing the most important and very frequently used items (optimal zone of the motor field); 2 - zone for placing frequently used items (zone of easy reach of the motor field); 3 - zone for placing rarely used items (reach zone of the motor field).

Dimensional characteristics of the workplace.

The design of the workplace should ensure the optimal position of the employee, which is achieved by adjusting the height of the seat and footrest. The height of the working surface is taken according to the nomogram (Figure 4) for a worker with a height of 1800 mm. The optimal working area for workers of shorter stature is achieved by increasing the height of the working seat and footrest by an amount equal to the difference between the height of the working surface for a worker with a height of 1800 mm and the height of the working surface that is optimal for the height of this worker.

The footrest must be adjustable in height. Width must be at least 300 mm, length - at least 400 mm. The surface of the stand must be grooved. A 10 mm high edge should be provided along the front edge.

Figure 2.4 - Nomogram of the dependence of the height of the working surface (1), legroom (2) and the height of the working seat (3) on the height of a person.

Internal volume.

An important factor is the space under the table, it should be enough to comfortably bend and unbend your knees.

Figure 2.5 - Legroom (width not less than 500 mm): a - distance from the seat to the lower edge of the working surface is not less than 150 mm; h - legroom height not less than 600 mm.

3. Organization of the workplace, taking into account the ergonomic foundations of labor safety

safety labor worker restorer

The organization of the workplace is a material basis that ensures the efficient use of equipment and labor. Its main goal is to ensure high-quality and efficient performance of work on time based on the full use of equipment, working hours, the use of rational methods and methods of work, the creation of comfortable working conditions that ensure long-term preservation of the working capacity of employees. To achieve this goal, technical, organizational, economic and ergonomic requirements are imposed on the workplace.

On the technical side, the workplace must be equipped with advanced equipment, the necessary technological and organizational equipment, tools, instrumentation, provided by the technology, lifting and transport vehicles.

On the organizational side, the equipment available at the workplace should be rationally located within the working area; a variant of the optimal maintenance of the workplace with raw materials, materials, blanks, parts, tools, repair of equipment and tooling, waste disposal was found; safe and health-friendly working conditions are provided.

On the economic side, the organization of the workplace should ensure optimal employment of workers, the highest possible level of labor productivity and quality of work.

Ergonomic requirements take place in the design of equipment, technological and organizational equipment, the layout of the workplace.

The work process of an employee, regardless of what functions he performs, is characterized by inherent laws that determine:

Placement of the employee in the working area;

The position of the working area;

The sequence, quantity and spatial extent of the labor movements that make up the labor process;

The sequence of entry of a person into work;

The appearance, build-up and reduction of fatigue.

Ergonomics explores the impact exerted on the functional state and performance of a person by various factors of the production environment. The latter are taken into account when designing equipment, organizational and technological equipment, when justifying the layout of workplaces. Proper planning should provide for such placement of the employee in the area of ​​​​the workplace and such an arrangement in it of objects used in the process of work that would ensure the most comfortable working position; the shortest and most convenient traffic zones; the least tiring positions of the body, arms, legs and head with prolonged repetition of certain movements.

Mode of work and rest.

One of the important measures to reduce fatigue is the establishment of the correct mode of work and rest. The alternation of work and breaks for rest should be justified physiologically and psychologically. When organizing recreation, it is necessary to take into account the peculiarities of restoring the functional state of the worker. So, if by the end of work fatigue was significant, then in the first hour of rest the state of the body will not change. Recovery is gradual. Consequently, the organization of recreation should be determined by the nature of the work, as well as the living conditions of a person and his inclinations. For example, during concentrated work with increased attention, frequent but short breaks are recommended, since long ones can lead to a loss of rhythm. The same breaks are necessary for long-term monotonous work, but during the period of increased efficiency they should be shorter, and after the onset of fatigue - longer.

Labor discipline.

Labor discipline is obligatory obedience for all employees to the rules of conduct determined in accordance with this Code, other federal laws, a collective agreement, agreements, local regulations, an employment contract.

The employer is obliged, in accordance with labor legislation and other regulatory legal acts containing labor law norms, a collective agreement, agreements, local regulations, an employment contract, to create the conditions necessary for employees to comply with labor discipline.

Labor discipline management.

The existing methods of labor discipline management can be divided into economic, psychological, legal. Let us dwell in more detail on the methods of legal influence.

Labor Code distinguishes four methods: persuasion, encouragement, coercion, labor organization. Their practice dates back thousands of years. Over the centuries, it is not the methods that change, but their content and combination.

For example, the types of punishments, rewards, and beliefs are changing. Persuasion is the main method of managing work discipline. This is education, the impact on the consciousness of an employee in order to induce him to useful activity or prevent unwanted actions.

The most commonly used methods of labor discipline management are encouragement and coercion.

reward method.

Encouragement is the recognition of the merits of an employee by providing him with benefits, advantages, public honor, and increasing his prestige. Every person has needs for recognition, for material values. Their implementation is encouraged.

However, using encouragement, you can get a double result: to lead the team to conflicts up to its collapse and, on the contrary, to unite and rally it.

Encouragement is carried out with the help of rewards. Reward is the receipt of what a person considers valuable for himself. The concept of value varies from person to person. For one person, in some circumstances, a few hours of sincere friendship can be more valuable than a large sum of money. In an organization, we usually deal with two main types of rewards: intrinsic and extrinsic.

The internal reward comes from the work itself.

These are such values ​​as self-respect, the significance of the work performed, its content, awareness of the result, etc.

In order to ensure that the employee receives internal remuneration, it is necessary to create normal working conditions for him, providing him with everything necessary, to determine his rights and obligations, responsibility and clearly set the task.

coercion method.

The basis of disciplinary liability is a disciplinary offense, that is, a guilty, unlawful failure to perform or improper performance by an employee of his labor duties. For the commission of such an offense, the employer applies coercion to the employee. Coercion is understood as an external influence on the behavior of an employee within the framework established by labor legislation.

4. Analyze professional risks for the chosen profession according to the methods of the methodological instruction "Identification and assessment of occupational risk"

Risk assessment for labor protection purposes.

From the position of labor protection, occupational risk is determined to establish the degree of danger of equipment and technologies, to assess the state of labor protection and to develop a system of technical and organizational measures to reduce the level of industrial injuries.

The magnitude of industrial injuries can be defined as:

where r1 is an indicator reflecting the nature and severity of damage in industrial man-machine systems; r2 - frequency of occurrence of injuries and accidents; r3 - material consequences of incidents.

Each indicator is evaluated on a 10-point scale. Depending on the value of R, a class of working conditions and a risk level are established.

Determination of working conditions and the level of risk according to the calculated value of R (table 4.1)

	Class of working conditions (UT)	Level of risk
		Acceptable
		elevated
		Significant
		Very tall
		Extreme

According to the risk assessment calculations in the profession of ice harvester of the 3rd category, we got the result R=529, which is a very high level of risk in this specialty.

Traumatism and occupational morbidity.

Occupational diseases are one of the most numerous groups of diseases that cause not only the highest disability of people, but also one of the most common causes of death among the working population on the globe. Occupational diseases caused by various occupational hazards should not be regarded as an inevitable phenomenon. The occurrence of occupational diseases largely depends on the imperfection of the technological process and equipment.

The production environment in which human labor activity takes place, if hygienic requirements are not observed, has a negative impact on human health and performance. It consists of natural and climatic factors (as part of the external environment surrounding a person) and factors associated with professional activities, which are commonly called harmful factors. The same factors can be dangerous.

Dangerous factors are those that, under certain conditions, can cause an acute health disorder or death of the organism. Harmful factors are those that have a negative impact on performance or cause occupational diseases.

All factors that can cause a decrease in working capacity, the appearance of acute and chronic poisoning and diseases, affect the growth of morbidity with temporary disability and cause other negative consequences, are commonly called "industrial hazards". GOST 12.0.003-74 subdivides dangerous and harmful production factors according to the nature of the action into the following groups: physical, chemical, biological and psychophysiological.

The group of physical factors includes: noise, vibration and other types of oscillatory effects, ionizing and non-ionizing radiation, climatic parameters (temperature, humidity, air mobility), illumination level, as well as fibrogenic dust. The group of chemically hazardous and harmful production factors according to the nature of the impact on the human body is divided into: general toxic, irritating, sensitizing, carcinogenic, mutagenic, affecting reproductive function. These include toxic substances of various aggregate states that can cause any kind of general, local or remote adverse effects on the body. Biological - pathogenic microorganisms, microbial preparations, biological pesticides, saprophytic spore-forming microflora, microorganisms producing microbiological preparations. Psychophysiological dangerous and harmful production factors are divided into physical (static and dynamic) overloads, lifting and carrying heavy loads, uncomfortable body position, prolonged pressure on the skin, muscles, joints and bones, and neuropsychic overloads (mental and emotional overstrain, monotony of labor and overstrain analyzers). Industrial hazards, as a rule, have a complex and combined effect on working people.

Occupational disease - a disease caused by exposure to a harmful factor in production conditions and confirmed in the prescribed manner. Annually recorded acute occupational poisonings and diseases, as well as chronic occupational pathology detected during periodic medical examinations, make up a small percentage of the total number of cases and days of temporary disability. However, this pathology is of great socio-hygienic and socio-economic importance. The diagnosis of an occupational disease is strong evidence of the impact on the health of workers of unfavorable working conditions, which need to be changed, sometimes urgently.

The term "occupational diseases" has a legislative and insurance value. The list of occupational diseases is approved by law.

Occupational diseases include:

1. Diseases in the etiology of which the main role belongs to a certain professional factor (with silicosis - dust of silicon dioxide, with professional intoxication - industrial poisons, etc.)

2. Some common diseases, in the development of which a causal relationship has been established with the influence of certain factors of the working environment. For example, bronchial asthma - in workers of some chemical industries, agriculture; tuberculosis - in medical workers who have contact with patients with tuberculosis, etc.

Depending on the duration of exposure to the occupational factor, acute and chronic occupational diseases are distinguished. Acute occupational diseases include those that arose suddenly, after a single (during no more than one work shift) exposure to a harmful factor in the production environment. Chronic occupational diseases include diseases that have developed as a result of prolonged and repeated exposure to harmful factors in the working environment.

The main cause of an occupational disease may be intense short-term or long-term exposure to harmful factors as a result of an accident, disruption of the normal course of the technological process, malfunction or lack of sanitary facilities; improper use or lack of personal protective equipment.

In the system of measures to combat occupational diseases, their timely registration, recording and investigation are of great importance. In addition, there are many ways that help to deal with physical, chemical, biological hazards that await a person at work:

Replacing harmful substances with less harmful or safe ones;

Isolation (if it is still impossible to refuse the use of a hazardous substance, it should be kept away from workers in order to avoid contact);

Fencing (the task is to ensure tightness);

Ventilation (air exchange system to remove industrial hazards);

Humidification (replacement of "dry" processes with "wet" ones);

Personal protection (protective clothing, footwear, equipment).

Industrial injury. An injury is a violation of the anatomical integrity or physiological functions of human tissues or organs caused by a sudden external influence.

An occupational injury is a sudden acute health disorder that occurs at the workplace or during a stay on the territory of the enterprise. In a number of industries, occupational injuries continue to occupy a significant place in the overall incidence, although great success has been achieved in the fight against it over the past decades.

Accidents at work are divided into:

By the number of victims: single and group;

By severity: mild, severe, fatal;

Depending on the circumstances: related to production, not related to production, but related to work.

An accident is recognized as work-related if it occurred when performing any actions in the interests of the enterprise outside of it (on the way to or from work), in the performance of state or public duties, in the performance of the duty of a citizen of the Russian Federation to save human life, etc. n. Accidents that occur on the territory of the enterprise and in places specially stipulated in the regulation on the investigation of accidents at work must be investigated.

It is necessary to distinguish between the traumatic factor and the cause of the accident. The traumatic factor directly causes injury, and the cause of the accident is considered the result of a violation of standards, rules or safety instructions. An accident can happen due to various reasons:

technical, sanitary-hygienic, organizational, psychological and physiological, as well as due to the lack of personal protective equipment.

The analysis of accidents is preceded by their classification by causes. The main causes of industrial injuries can be the following.

Technical reasons that can be described as reasons that do not depend on the level of labor organization at the enterprise, namely: imperfection of technological processes, design flaws in equipment, fixtures, tools; insufficient mechanization of heavy work, imperfection of fences, safety devices, means of signaling and blocking; strength defects in materials, etc.

Organizational reasons, which entirely depend on the level of labor organization in the enterprise. These include: shortcomings in the maintenance of the territory, passages, passages; violation of the rules for the operation of equipment, vehicles, tools; shortcomings in the organization of jobs; violation of technological regulations; violation of the rules and norms of transportation, warehousing and storage of materials and products; violation of the norms and rules of preventive maintenance of equipment, vehicles and tools; deficiencies in training workers in safe work practices; shortcomings in the organization of group work; weak technical supervision of hazardous work; use of machines, mechanisms and tools for other purposes; lack or non-use of personal protective equipment, etc.

Sanitary and hygienic reasons, which include increased (above MPC) content of harmful substances in the air of working areas; insufficient or irrational lighting; increased levels of noise, vibration; unfavorable meteorological conditions, the presence of various radiations above the permissible values; violation of personal hygiene rules, etc.

Personal (psychophysiological) reasons, which include physical and neuropsychic overload of the worker. Most accidents occur as a result of certain actions and movements that can be called erroneous. Erroneous actions are caused by various reasons, the most common of which are: fatigue and fatigue, lack or insufficiency of knowledge and skills, inconsistency of individual psychological qualities with the requirements of work activity, improper equipment arrangement, emergency change in the situation, poor sanitary and hygienic environment, etc. A person can perform erroneous actions due to fatigue caused by large physical (static or dynamic) overloads, mental overstrain of analyzers (visual, auditory, tactile), monotony of work, stressful situations, and a painful condition. An injury can be caused by a discrepancy between the anatomical, physiological and mental characteristics of the body and the nature of the work performed.

For accidents related to production, the administration is responsible, and the victim is paid temporary disability benefits in the amount of average earnings at the expense of the enterprise. In the event of a disability resulting from an injury or other damage to health, a pension is granted to the victim. In addition, he is compensated for material damage due to disability in the amount of the difference between the lost average monthly earnings and the disability pension.

General measures for the prevention of injuries consist of organizational and technical, general sanitary and individual protective measures.

Organizational and technical measures consist of measures for the prevention of accidents and measures that prevent diseases in the workplace, as well as improve general working conditions. Measures to prevent diseases at work include: conducting a preliminary medical examination of applicants for work and conducting periodic medical examinations; maintenance of working and amenity premises in proper condition; the use of devices to reduce noise, vibration. Measures for the general improvement of working conditions are: the introduction of mechanization, automation in order to reduce labor-intensive processes; improvement of natural and artificial lighting; providing instructions on safety and industrial sanitation; conducting employee training. Organizationally, maximum labor safety is ensured by the use of fences, safety and blocking devices, as well as the installation of alarms.

Injury cases according to organizational principles occur as a result of incorrect actions (or inaction) of engineering and technical workers and workers, expressed in their failure to fulfill their duties, violation of established technology and labor organization, requirements of equipment operation rules and labor safety rules and due to ignorance, insufficient qualifications or indiscipline. The elimination of these factors is the primary task of preventing industrial injuries.

General sanitary measures include: ensuring a rational regime of work and rest; medical service; equipment of sanitary facilities, workplaces. Individual protective measures are as follows: providing workers with overalls, shoes and other personal protective equipment, workplaces are provided with posters on labor safety.

The behavior of employees in the production process is regulated by job responsibilities, production assignments, as well as the requirements of production, labor and technological discipline. Unsatisfactory performance of official duties, violation of the requirements of industrial, labor and technological discipline become organizational causes of injuries that must be eliminated.

Very important, from the point of view of injury prevention, is the fulfillment of the requirements of GOST 12.0.004-90 for training and instructing workers.

If it is impossible to prevent the adverse consequences of erroneous actions by technical means, then it is necessary to take other measures: change the working mode if the cause of the erroneous action is fatigue, train personnel if the erroneous action is caused by a lack of skill, etc. If it is still not possible to eliminate erroneous actions, then the persons who allow such erroneous actions should be removed from work. We can talk about the professional unsuitability of an employee for a certain type of work.

To correctly address the issues of managing the health of workers and developing health-improving measures aimed at reducing morbidity, a deep understanding of the reasons that support its certain level, and reliable evidence of the influence of certain factors on it, primarily industrial and professional, the elimination or reduction of the impact of which most realistic. The decrease in morbidity with temporary disability has not only social, but also economic significance, as it contributes to the preservation of a significant number of workers in the production sector.

5. The role of legal and regulatory documents in ensuring labor safety

A characteristic feature of the modern period of Russia's development is the growing role of the state in the processes of ensuring the security of various spheres of life of Russian society.

Ensuring life safety is the most important state task. At present, in Russia, natural law is accepted as a principle of state law. So the Constitution of the Russian Federation proclaims that “a person, his rights and freedoms are the highest value. Recognition, observance and protection of rights and freedoms is the duty of the state. Fundamental human rights and freedoms are inalienable and belong to everyone from birth. The exercise of human rights and freedoms should not violate the rights and freedoms of other citizens.

Human rights to life and health are fundamental human rights and are protected by the Constitution. It follows that the task of realizing these rights is a state task.

The sphere of state activity, the purpose of which is the realization of people's rights to life and health in the process of work, is called labor protection.

To ensure labor protection in Russia, the state has developed and is improving the regulatory legal framework, created the appropriate management and regulation bodies, supervises and controls, and the necessary measures are applied to offenders.

Labor protection activities are based on the regulatory legal framework, which is a set of legal norms governing relations between employers and employees in the field of labor protection.

Labor protection is a system for preserving the life and health of workers in the course of work, including legal, socio-economic, organizational and technical, sanitary and hygienic, medical and preventive, rehabilitation and other measures (Article 209 of the Labor Code of the Russian Federation) . The above definition of the concept of “labor protection” gives us an idea of ​​how extensive its regulatory and legal framework is.

Modern normative legal framework (NGO) of labor protection includes general, special and special parts.

The general part establishes the requirements for all types of activities. The general part of the regulatory framework for labor protection includes: the Labor Code of the Russian Federation, the Federal Law "On the Basics of Labor Protection in the Russian Federation", decrees of the President, decrees of the Government of the Russian Federation, decrees of the Ministry of Health and Social Development, decrees and orders of other ministries of intersectoral competence.

The special part concerns certain types of activities, for example, the operation of electrical or thermal installations, boiler supervision or lifting structures, construction, transport, communications, etc. The special part may include federal laws, presidential decrees, government decrees, decrees and orders of the head of the ministry or department.

The special part regulates the issues of labor protection in a separate organization, enterprise. The special part includes orders and instructions of the head of the organization, lists approved by him, protocols signed by the authorized commission, journals, certificates and other regulatory legal acts (NLA) registered in the prescribed manner.

Legal acts that form the normative legal basis for labor protection.

1. Labor protection management.

Requirements for the labor protection management system:

Labor Code, art. 216.

GOST 12.0.006-2002. "General requirements for the management system of labor protection in the organization."

Requirements for regulatory legal acts on labor protection:

Labor Code, art. 211.

PP No. 399 of May 23, 00 “On regulatory legal acts containing state regulatory requirements for labor protection”.

Requirements for labor protection authorities:

Labor Code, art. 217, 218.

PMT No. 10 dated 22.01.01 "Intersectoral standards for the number of employees of the labor protection service in organizations."

Requirements for planning and financing labor protection measures:

Labor Code, art. 226.

Requirements for the organization of the implementation of labor protection measures

Requirements for monitoring the effectiveness of labor protection measures:

Intersectoral rules on labor protection in the performance of various activities and works.

Labor Code, Ch. 57.

Federal Law No. 134-FZ of August 8, 2001 “On the protection of the rights of legal entities and individual entrepreneurs during state control (supervision)”. Order of the Ministry of Emergency Situations No. 132 dated March 17, 2003 "Instructions for the organization and implementation of fire supervision in the Russian Federation."

Approved by the LEG on January 26, 2001 "Instructions for carrying out measures to control the implementation of state energy supervision of equipment, buildings and structures of electrical and thermal installations, power plants, boiler houses, electrical and thermal networks of energy supply organizations and consumers of thermal and electric energy."

Order of the Ministry of Health No. 228 dated July 17, 2002 "On the procedure for carrying out control measures in the implementation of state sanitary and epidemiological surveillance."

Requirements for statistical reporting on ensuring safe working conditions, accidents and occupational diseases:

DRS No. 24 dated July 8, 2004 “On approval of statistical tools for organizing statistical monitoring of the number, pay and working conditions of employees for 2005”.

DRS No. 23 dated July 6, 2004 “On Approval of Statistical Tools for Organizing Statistical Observation of the Size and Composition of the Population and Activities Carried out in the Health Sector for 2005”.

2. Professional training and education of workers on labor protection.

Requirements for the training and education of labor protection specialists, other managers and specialists and workers:

Labor Code, art. 225.

GOST 12.0.004-90 "Organization of labor safety training". PMT and PMO No. 1/29 dated January 3, 2003 "On approval of the procedure for training in labor protection and testing knowledge of labor protection requirements for employees of organizations."

PrMZ No. 229 dated 29.6.00 "On professional hygienic training and certification of officials and employees of organizations."

Other resolutions and orders of the heads of ministries and departments of intersectoral competence on the issues of training and education of employees.

3. Ensuring safe working conditions

Requirements for equipment, production processes, premises, workplaces:

Labor Code, art. 215.

Law "On technical regulation"

GOST 12.2.003-91. “System of labor safety standards. Production equipment. General safety requirements”.

Standards for safety requirements for production equipment (group 2 SSBT)

GOST 12.3.002-75. “System of labor safety standards. Manufacturing processes. General safety requirements (as amended on November 23, 1990)."

Standards for safety requirements for production processes (group 3 SSBT).

Requirements for the state examination of working conditions:

Labor Code, art. 6, 215, 219, 357.

GD No. 244 of April 25, 2003 "On Approval of the Regulations on Conducting a State Expert Review of Working Conditions in the Russian Federation".

PMT No. 53 dated July 2, 2001 "On approval of guidelines for conducting state examination of working conditions when licensing certain types of activities."

Requirements for certification of workplaces for working conditions:

Labor Code, art.146, 212.

PMT No. 12 dated March 14, 1997 "On the certification of the Republic of Moldova in terms of working conditions."

Guide R 2.2.755-99 "Hygienic criteria for assessing and classifying working conditions in terms of harmfulness and danger of factors in the working environment, the severity and intensity of the labor process."

Requirements for certification of labor protection works:

Requirements for certification of work on labor protection Labor Code, art. 212.

PMT No. 28 dated April 24, 2002 "Regulations on the system of certification of work on labor protection in organizations."

Requirements for the protection of workers from exposure to hazardous production factors (safety) and harmful production factors (industrial sanitation):

Labor Code, art. 221.

PMT No. 51 dated 12/18/98 "Rules for providing workers with special clothing, special footwear and other personal protective equipment."

PMT No. 66 dated December 25, 1997 "Typical industry norms for the free issue of special clothing, special footwear and other personal protective equipment to employees."

Intersectoral rules on labor protection when performing various types of activities and works

4. Prevention of occupational diseases.

Requirements for medical examinations:

Labor Code, art. 69, 76, 212, 213, 266, 328.

PP No. 646 of October 27, 2003 "On harmful and (or) dangerous production factors and work, during the performance of which preliminary and periodic medical examinations (examinations) are carried out, and the procedure for conducting these examinations (examinations)".

PrMZiSR No. 83 dated August 16, 2004 “On approval of the lists of harmful and (or) hazardous production factors and work, during the performance of which preliminary and periodic medical examinations (examinations) are carried out, and the procedure for conducting these examinations (examinations)”.

PrMZiMP No. 90 of March 14, 1996 "On the procedure for conducting preliminary and periodic medical examinations of workers and medical regulations for admission to the profession."

PrMZ No. 405 of December 10, 1996 "On conducting preliminary and periodic medical examinations of employees."

PrMZ No. 122 dated April 14, 2000 "On a personal medical book and a sanitary passport for vehicles for the transport of food products."

Letter of the Ministry of Health No. 1100/1328-0-117 dated May 17, 2000 Instruction No. 11-7/101-09 dated May 17, 2000 “On the procedure for issuing and maintaining a personal medical book and a sanitary passport for specially designed or specially equipped vehicles means for transporting foodstuffs.

PrMZ of the USSR No. 555 of September 29, 1989 "On improving the system of medical examinations of workers and drivers of individual vehicles." Letter of the Ministry of Health No. 2510/9468-03-32 dated August 21, 2003 “On pre-trip medical examinations of vehicle drivers”.

PP No. 695 of September 23, 2002 “On the passage of a mandatory psychiatric examination by employees engaged in certain types of activities, including activities associated with sources of increased danger (with the influence of harmful substances and adverse production factors), as well as those working in conditions of increased danger ".

PSM - PRF No. 377 of April 28, 1993 “On the implementation of the RF law “On psychiatric care and guarantees of the rights of citizens in its provision” (as amended by the RF Government Resolution of September 23, 2002 No. 695).

Preservation of women's health:

PP No. 162 dated 25.2.00. "List of heavy work and work with harmful or dangerous working conditions, in the performance of which the use of women's labor is prohibited."

PP No. 105 dated February 6, 1993. "Norms of maximum permissible loads for women when lifting and moving weights manually."

SanPiN 2.2.0.555-96. "Hygienic requirements for working conditions of women".

Requirements for maintaining the health of young people under 18:

PP No. 163 dated 25.2.00. "List of hard work and work with harmful or dangerous working conditions, in the performance of which it is prohibited to use the labor of persons under 18 years of age."

PMT No. 7 dated 04/07/99 "Norms of maximum permissible loads for persons under eighteen years of age when lifting and moving weights manually." SanPin 2.4.6.664-97 "Hygienic criteria for acceptable conditions and types of work for vocational training and work of adolescents."

Benefits and compensation for harmful and dangerous working conditions:

PP No. 849 dated November 29, 2002 “On the procedure for approving the norms and conditions for the free distribution of milk or other equivalent food products to workers employed in work with harmful working conditions, as well as therapeutic and preventive nutrition.”

PrMZ No. 126 of March 28, 2003 “On approval of the list of harmful production factors, under the influence of which, for preventive purposes, it is recommended to consume milk or other equivalent food products.”

PMT No. 13 of March 31, 2003 "On approval of the norms and conditions for the free distribution of milk or other equivalent food products to workers employed in work with harmful working conditions."

PMT No. 14 dated March 31, 2003 “On approval of the list of industries, professions and positions, work in which gives the right to receive free medical and preventive nutrition in connection with especially harmful working conditions, diets for medical and preventive nutrition, norms for the free distribution of vitamin preparations and rules for the free distribution of therapeutic and preventive nutrition.

Letter of the Ministry of Health of the USSR No. 143-11 / 10-17 dated 06.25.91 "On the replacement of milk with other food products."

PMT No. 45 of July 4, 2003 "On approval of the norms for the free distribution of flushing and neutralizing agents to employees, the procedure and conditions for their issuance."

Ministry of Health of the USSR No. 658-66 dated 12/31/66 "Instruction on the sanitary maintenance of premises and equipment of industrial enterprises" (p. 105).

PGKT USSR and VTsSPS No. 387/22-78 dated 10/3/86 "On approval of the model regulation on the assessment of working conditions at workplaces and the procedure for applying sectoral lists of jobs where additional payments to workers for working conditions can be established."

Decree of the Cabinet of Ministers of the USSR No. 10 dated January 26, 1991 "On approval of the lists of industries, jobs, professions, positions and indicators giving the right to preferential pension provision."

CGKT of the USSR and the Presidium of the All-Union Central Council of Trade Unions No. 298 / P-22 of October 25, 1974 “On approval of the list of industries, workshops, professions and positions with harmful working conditions, work in which gives the right to additional leave and a shorter working day.”

5. Compensation for damage caused by an accident or occupational disease.

Requirements for compulsory social insurance against accidents and occupational diseases:

Federal Law No. 125-FZ of July 24, 1998 “On Compulsory Social Insurance against Industrial Accidents and Occupational Diseases”.

PP No. 789 of October 16, 2000 “On approval of the rules for establishing the degree of loss of professional ability to work as a result of accidents at work and occupational diseases” (as amended by the ruling of the Supreme Court of the Russian Federation of April 8, 2003 No. KAS 03-132).

GD No. 975 of August 31, 1999 "On approval of the rules for classifying an industry (sub-sector) of the economy as occupational risk classes."

Federal Law No. 17-FZ dated February 12, 2003 “On insurance rates for compulsory social insurance against industrial accidents and occupational diseases for 2001”.

GD No. 652 of September 6, 2001 “On Approval of the Rules for Establishing Discounts and Surcharges for Policyholders on Insurance Tariffs for Compulsory Social Insurance against Occupational Accidents and Occupational Diseases”.

PP No. 184 dated March 2, 2000 “On Approval of the Rules for Calculating, Accounting and Spending Funds for Compulsory Social Insurance against Occupational Accidents and Occupational Diseases” (as amended by Decree of the Government of the Russian Federation No. 754 dated December 11, 2003).

Requirements for providing medical assistance to victims:

Intersectoral instructions for first aid in case of accidents at work, 2001

PrMZ No. 73 dated March 4, 2003 “On approval of instructions for determining the criteria and procedure for determining the moment of death of a person, termination of resuscitation measures.”

...

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