Methods of psychological research and the problem of objective method in psychology.
Methods of psychological research.
From Lectures:
Classification of psychology methods:
Researcher position
Passive
Active
· Questionnaire
· Testing
Projective methods
Method is an expression of the relationship between the object and the subject of cognition.
The Object and Subject of cognition are not opposed as in observation (method of introspection or reflection).
The experimental method is the active opposition of an object to a subject.
A variety of classifications of general scientific methods.
All methods of modern science are divided into theoretical and empirical. This division is very arbitrary. As an independent method, we can distinguish a modeling method that has its own specifics. In addition, interpretive methods, in particular methods of representing data processing, are distinguished from theoretical and empirical methods.
According to Druzhinin.
Method as a way of understanding reality.
Ways and methods of understanding objective reality are usually called research methods. Using methods, each science obtains information about the subject being studied, analyzes and processes the data obtained, and is included in the system of known knowledge.
In its composition, the scientific method is
a set of techniques or operations carried out by a researcher
when studying any object. The method in its unity with the subject of psychology constitutes a scientific approach to the reality being studied.
Classification of methods of psychological research.
The main methods of psychological research include methods that are used in modern psychology to collect so-called primary data, i.e. information subject to further clarification and processing.
The main methods of psychological research and their variants used to collect primary data:
| Basic method | Variant of the main method |
| Observation | External (observation from the outside) |
| Internal (self-observation) | |
| Free | |
| Standardized | |
| Included | |
| Third party | |
| Survey | Oral |
| Writing | |
| Free | |
| Standardized | |
| Tests | Test questionnaire |
| Test task | |
| Projective test | |
| Experiment | Natural |
| Laboratory | |
| Modeling | Mathematical |
| Boolean | |
| Technical | |
| Cybernetic |
General conceptual (illustrative) and comparative characteristics of the main empirical methods of psychology. Observation. Experiment. Survey. Testing.
Observation.
Observation is meaningful, interpretive and goal-directed perception.
At different stages of development of observation in a child, the following changes: a) the content available for interpretation and the depth of cognitive penetration into it, b) the complexity of the composition that can be grasped by the child as a whole, in the unity and interconnection of all its parts, c) consciousness, plannedness, systematicity of the observation process itself.
At the first stage in the development of observation, with limited experience and knowledge, interpretation is based not so much on connections and cause-and-effect dependencies between phenomena, but on their similarity (similar interpretation). As the child’s knowledge expands and his thinking develops, along with the likening one, he develops an inferential interpretation, which initially comes primarily from external, sensory properties, random, but more or less familiar combinations, connections, relationships. And finally, the third stage in the development of observation is formed by inferential interpretation, which reveals the already abstract, sensory data, internal properties of objects and phenomena in their essential relationships.
Experiment.
One of the main (along with observation) methods of scientific knowledge in general, psychological research in particular. It differs from observation by active intervention in the situation on the part of the researcher, carrying out systematic manipulation of one or more variables (factors) and recording accompanying changes in the behavior of the object being studied. A correctly set up Experiment allows you to test hypotheses about cause-and-effect relationships, not limiting yourself to stating the connection (correlation) between variables.
Survey.
A survey is a method of collecting primary information. The survey method is used in psychology in two forms: questionnaires and conversations (interviews). The source of information in the survey is the individual's written or oral judgments. The survey method is often criticized: doubts are expressed about the reliability of the information obtained from the direct responses of the subjects. To obtain more reliable information, special questionnaires are created to obtain information that corresponds to a certain hypothesis, and this information should be as reliable as possible. In psychology, special rules have been developed for composing questions, arranging them in the required order, grouping them into separate blocks, etc. If a survey is conducted in writing using a questionnaire, then we speak of a survey method, the advantage of which is that a group of people can participate in it at the same time. The data obtained during the survey can be statistically processed. In pedagogical practice, questionnaires are used quite widely, but it must be remembered that obtaining reliable and reliable facts requires professional knowledge from the questionnaire compilers. A poorly designed questionnaire not only does not provide reliable information, but also compromises the method itself. Assessing the survey method as a whole, it can be noted that it is a means of primary orientation and preliminary reconnaissance. The data obtained from the survey outlines directions for further study of the individual or group. Obtaining information in the process of direct communication between the researcher and the interviewee is characteristic of the conversation method (interview). A conversation is a more “psychological” form of questioning.
Testing.
(From the English test - experience. trial) - a method of psychological diagnostics that uses standardized questions and tasks (tests) that have a certain scale of values. Used for standardized measurement of individual differences. There are three main areas of testing: a) education - due to the increase in the duration of education and the complication of curricula; b) professional training and selection - due to the increasing growth rate and increasing complexity of production; c) psychological counseling - in connection with the acceleration of sociodynamic processes.
Method as a relation to the reality being studied?
Correlation between the concepts research and examination?
Observation method in psychology.
Observation is a purposeful, organized perception and recording of the behavior of an object. Maintaining external validity is a precondition for conducting an observation.
Observation is an empirical method consisting of deliberate, purposeful, direct perception and registration of exteriorized actions that have a verbal and motor basis.
Evolutionarily born before all methods. Observation is one of the oldest methods of scientific research. Any scientific knowledge obtained experimentally is based on observations of natural phenomena or human activity.
Observation is based on an unconditional reflex reaction. The observed reality - of the external world or psychological - is not changed by the researcher.
A common feature of observation as a method is the activity of the observer in organizing the observation process, preparing and choosing observation conditions and recording data obtained through observation. The following feature distinguishes psychological observation from the point of view of the observer’s involvement in the interpretation of the obtained facts as scientific and psychological. It involves dividing the types of observation - descriptive and explanatory, including interpretive components in the units of description.
The following are considered observable in psychology:
1. behavior of the subject;
2. externally distinguishable forms of interaction between people in a group (in particular, methods of non-verbal communication);
3. linguistic consciousness of the individual, expressed in speech;
4. expressive forms of the subject’s emotional states;
5. personality traits manifested in his actions, biographical path of the individual.
Types of observations:
1. Observation and types of observer report. The organization of the observer's report is included, along with the purpose and creation of the situation, in the observation plan. Depending on the chosen method of describing data, we can distinguish:
Standardized - the observer is prescribed in a more or less clear form the identified categories of observation and the “units” that he must record, as well as the order of observation, its sequence, etc. Such observation is usually used where the observer is required to highlight already known manifestations of psychological events rather than describe new ones.
Non-standardized - the observer records data for a specific purpose, but without special restrictions on what to pay attention to, what moments to record. It allows you to get acquainted with those manifestations of the reality that interests the researcher, which are not yet known to him and for which a repertoire of “units” of description has not been developed. In addition, it is used if a holistic description of psychological reality is required rather than an analytical representation of it.
2. Observation from the point of view of taking into account the position of the observer:
External - observation from the outside, when the observer is completely separated from the object being studied. Can be open or hidden.
Included - the researcher is himself a member of the group of people he observes, a full participant in the observed events.
Open - those being observed know that their behavior is being recorded by the researcher (studying the dynamics of behavior of the submarine crew).
Hidden - the observed do not know that their behavior is being recorded by the researcher (Gesell's mirror).
Participant observation has its advantages and disadvantages: on the one hand, it allows you to penetrate deeper into the reality under study, on the other hand, direct involvement in events can affect the objectivity of the observer’s report. Some types of observations may represent an intermediate option between participant and external observation (observation of a teacher in a class during classes, observations of a psychotherapist).
3. Types of observation depending on its organization:
ü Laboratory - allows you to study the forms of manifestation of psychological regulation in the behavior of a person or animal in a more convenient and controlled situation for the researcher, but artificial conditions can significantly distort the results obtained.
ü Field – carried out in conditions natural to the life of the observed object. The requirement of this observation is the lack of initiative on the part of the observer of the phenomena being studied. Allows you to explore the natural forms of human life and communication with minimal distortion. Its disadvantage is that it is very labor intensive and that the situation of interest to the researcher is difficult to control. Such observation is often wait-and-see and unsystematic.
ü Provoked in natural conditions – often approaches the form of a natural experiment.
4. Observation depending on the level of “units”.
In addition to the description of psychological reality in repertoires of units or categories, another aspect of dividing the holistic process of observation into separate “units” is implied - from the characteristics of the observed events.
ü Systematic – carried out according to certain rules for structuring the observer’s concepts to classify events. Includes whether the observation program is appropriate for the purposes of the study; highlighting the sides of the object that need to be described; language for describing observation data, the method of recording them and the order of observation.
ü Non-systematic – carried out during field research, widely used in ethnopsychology, developmental psychology, social psychology. What is important for the researcher is not the fixation of causal relationships and a strict description of the phenomenon, but the creation of some generalized picture of the behavior of an individual or group under certain conditions.
5. Observation and objectives of the study. Depending on the content of the research objectives, the following are distinguished:
Free – minimal restrictions on what and when to observe.
Purposeful—The design or plan clearly defines the goals, organization of the observation, and how the observer will report. It can be continuous or selective depending on what is being observed: all manifestations of the process of interest or only some.
6. Observation in relation to hypothesis testing:
observation as a method of data collection is applicable at the preliminary stages of research, when there are no developed hypotheses about cause-and-effect relationships. If an observation is not related to testing specific hypotheses, it remains “targeted” and is not heuristic, although it is on the basis of such observation that hypotheses can be formed. The established tradition classifies as heuristic observation those types of observation that are aimed at testing hypotheses. Heuristic, therefore, is not observation at the preliminary stages of studying the “object” and observation in cases of a consciously adopted goal of minimal selectivity and maximum coverage of various manifestations and aspects of the observed object (process, phenomenon).
7. Chronological organization of observation:
ü Longitudinal – carried out over a long period of time, usually several years. It involves constant contact between the researcher and the “object” of study. The results of such studies are usually recorded in the form of diaries and widely cover the behavior, lifestyle, and habits of the observed.
ü Periodic – the most common type of chronological organization of observation. Conducted over certain, usually precisely specified periods of time.
ü Single or one-time – presented as a description of a single case. It can be either unique or standard, i.e. typical, is the result of both systematic and random observation.
Benefits of surveillance:
ü Immediacy – direct representation of the observed phenomenon in place and time. The absence of mediating links between the subject and the object of research;
ü Naturalness – the functioning of the psyche in a normal, comfortable, familiar mode.
ü Multidimensionality of coverage of psychological manifestations (panoramicness).
Disadvantages of surveillance:
Objective (related to the observation procedure itself):
ü Possible interference of the researcher in the natural course of events;
ü Initial fundamental passivity of the observer.
ü Ambiguous connection between external manifestations and internal experiences.
ü Labor intensity.
ü There are areas of the psyche that are inaccessible to observation
ü Presence
ü The impossibility of the researcher to cover the entire set of phenomena characterizing the process being studied;
ü Difficulties associated with an adequate description of the phenomena being studied;
ü Impossibility of completely avoiding subjectivity
ü Irreversibility of observed events.
Subjective (related to the personality of the observer):
A) psychological errors of the observer (related to the psyche of the observer):
ü Halo effect - the generalized impression of the observer leads to a rough perception of behavior, ignoring subtle differences (the observer attributes positive characteristics to an object that has a high social status, age status).
ü The effect of leniency is the tendency to always give a positive assessment of what is happening.
ü Error of central tendency - the observer’s desire to give an average assessment of the observed behavior; a person is not inclined to give an extreme assessment to phenomena.
ü Correlation error - an assessment of one behavioral characteristic is given on the basis of another observed characteristic (intelligence is assessed by verbal fluency).
ü Contrast error - the tendency of the observer to have observed traits that are opposite to his own.
ü First impression error - the first impression of an individual determines the perception and assessment of his further behavior.
ü Selectivity of perception.
ü Influence of mood.
ü Commitment to hypotheses.
B) unconscious limitations:
ü Psychophysiological limitations
ü Sensory limitations
ü Functional - emotional limitations (associated with fatigue)
ü Rhythm of nervous processes.
The way in which observed events are described is of paramount importance for evaluating the data obtained in the study.
Observation protocol. The observation design includes determining the moments of the observer's report during the observation or immediately after certain stages of the observation. Observation data is recorded in the form of a protocol, diary or separate entries (notes).
The protocol is the most commonly used form of recording during periodic observations and is most often carried out directly during the observation. It can be formalized to varying degrees.
A diary is a form of recording used in longitudinal observation. Records are usually made once a day or every few days, and the observer writes down from memory in free form everything that attracted his attention.
Separate records are kept when registering a single observation or using observation as an auxiliary technique.
The protocol in which the observer records data can be continuous or selective. In a continuous protocol, the observer fully reflects all observed events in the order in which they occurred. Usually they indicate the time that a particular event took. A complete protocol is more or less formalized. Since without formalization it is quite difficult to keep up with events while recording time. It is used, as a rule, at the preliminary stages of research and gives a general idea of the observed reality.
The selective protocol also records events in chronological order, but not all, but only those of interest to the researcher. Used in later stages of the study.
The observation procedure includes 4 main stages:
1. Preparation stage - drawing up initial ideas about the object of observation, the situation, the subjects and choosing an observation technique.
2. Stage of developing an observation scheme:
ü Determination of essential features of the object of observation
ü Determination of behavioral indicators of the object of observation
ü Determination of observation situations, their number and duration
ü Development of a protocol form and coding system
ü Conducting flight observation (“dress rehearsal”). As a result, correction of the observation scheme
ü Development of a program for quantitative processing of observation data and their visual presentation
ü Development of an algorithm for high-quality processing of observation data
3. Conducting observation – the process of obtaining empirical material, recording the observed events in the protocol.
4. Stage of processing analysis and interpretation of results.
In this article, we invite you to consider one of the main techniques that is included in psychology. Observation involves purposeful and intentional perception of the object of study. In the social sciences, its application is the most difficult, since the subject and object of research are human beings, which means that the subjective assessments of the observer, his attitude and attitudes can be introduced into the results.
Observation is one of the main empirical methods, the simplest and most common in natural conditions. For his results to be accurate, the observer must remain aloof, unnoticed, or become part of the group that includes the object of observation, blending in so as not to attract attention. The researcher must record and evaluate events related to the purpose of observation.
Elements of this technique include theoretical thinking (various monitoring of results, comprehension) and quantitative scaling, etc.).
When studying the basic methods of psychology, observation should certainly be noted and, if possible, applied. After all, this is one of the main techniques used by modern science.
It must be said that observation in psychology is necessarily somewhat subjective. The degree of subjectivity can be reduced by the rejection of quick conclusions and generalizations, repeated observations, as well as the use of other methods along with it. It is better for several observers to participate in the study. To increase the effectiveness of this method, various observation cards and questionnaires are often used. They allow you to concentrate on the most important points and not be distracted by unimportant ones.
Observation in psychology is always carried out for a specific purpose, according to a predetermined plan, and is equipped with various objects necessary to record the results and carry out the process itself.
This method allows you to collect empirical data, form ideas about the objects of research, and also test various guesses and theories associated with it.
Observation carries out cognition through direct contact, based on the readings of the senses, therefore it is the first scientific technique in history.
Methods of psychology (observation, experiment, etc.) have their own characteristic features. These features make it possible to distinguish them as a separate type of research. Observation in psychology is distinguished by the type of relationship to an object (for example, in a conversation or experiment, a specialist creates special conditions that cause this or that phenomenon), the presence of direct contact with it (which is absent when studying the products of activity, and is also not always present in the experiment).
From a methodological point of view, it is characterized by universality, that is, the ability to use observation in relation to a wide range of different mental phenomena, as well as flexibility (the ability to change the “field of coverage” of an object or hypothesis during the research process) and minimal requirements for the technical and hardware support of the procedure. In this, the methods of psychology, observation, experiment and others, are very different.
In the scientific literature, the terms "observation", "objective observation" and "external use" are often used interchangeably. Mental life is a complex phenomenon, inaccessible to direct view from the outside, hidden from prying eyes. Therefore, initially the only method of psychology was introspection (self-observation), and only with the development of science did external observation begin to be used when observing a person (psychology, sociology and other sciences).
In Russian psychology, the basic principles of observation are described in the works of such scientists as S. L. Rubinstein, L. S. Vygotsky, A. N. Leontiev.
Observation and experiment in psychology, as well as other methods, can have the following objects of study:
Human (or animal);
A whole group of people.
The subject of observation can, as a rule, only be the external component of activity (movements, movements, contacts, joint actions, speech acts, facial expressions, external manifestations of vegetative reactions, as well as various situations, both spontaneous and organized).
There are a number of rules when applying this method:
1. Systematic, repeated studies should be conducted in changing and repeating situations to highlight patterns and random coincidences.
2. Don'ts: You should definitely make alternative assumptions about what is behind a particular behavior and test them.
3. Particular situations and conditions must be compared with general ones, considering them in the context of various communities (the individual as a whole, the general situation, the stage of mental development, for example, in relation to a child, etc.), since such consideration often completely changes the psychological the meaning of what is observed.
In order to minimize inaccuracies and errors in the research and ensure its objectivity, as already noted, it is necessary that the researcher does not give away his presence. It is necessary to make sure that the observer can see, while remaining unnoticed as a researcher. The peculiarities of observation in psychology presuppose the least possible participation of the subject in it.
This can be achieved by the following:
- “to become familiar”, that is, to make the object of study accustomed to the presence of the observer - to often be present in his field of vision, as if not paying attention to him;
Explain the presence of an outsider with some goal acceptable for the object of study, for example, tell the teacher at school that you would like to be present at the lesson in order to master his methodology;
Replace the observer with recording equipment (video camera, for example), which will ensure accurate recording and will be less embarrassing for the observed;
Carry out the study from a dark room adjacent to the one where the observed are located, for example, separated from it by a special Gesell glass with one-way light conductivity;
Use hidden camera footage.
The goal must be clearly defined, since only in very rare cases do random observations lead to important discoveries.
Psychology is very diverse. There is no comprehensive unified classification, so we will list only the main ones.
1. Systematic and random. Systematic is characterized by regularity and repetition throughout the entire period of study. The time intervals between observations are determined by external conditions and the nature of the object being studied.
2. Open or hidden. These types of observation in psychology characterize the observer’s position towards the object of study. For example, with hidden observation, the researcher looks through Gesell glass at the object of study, and with open observation, the observed one also sees the researcher.
As a subtype, this also includes participant observation, when the subject himself is a member of a group, a participant in events. Participant observation can be either open or hidden (for example, if the researcher does not disclose that he is such to other members of the group).
Some types of observation are intermediate between included and non-participated observation. For example, when a teacher studies the behavior of students during a lesson: here the researcher is involved in the situation, but differently than the objects of study, their positions are unequal in relation to managing the situation.
3. Field and laboratory. Field research is carried out in natural conditions for the observed and implies the absence of any initiative on the part of the researcher. This observation in psychology allows us to study the natural life of the observed object. Its disadvantages include labor intensity, as well as the uncontrollability of the situation by the researcher, and the impossibility of systematic observation. Laboratory research provides the opportunity to study an object in a controlled, convenient situation for the researcher, but can significantly distort the results of the study.
4. Longitudinal, periodic and single. These types are distinguished by the time of organization of the study. Longitudinal (“longitudinal”) is carried out over a long period of time, often several years, and also involves continuous contact of the observer with the object. The results of such a study are recorded in the form of diaries, which widely cover the lifestyle, behavior, and various habits of the object being studied.
Periodic observation is the most common type of temporary research organization. It is carried out over certain precisely defined periods of time. Single, or one-time, observations are carried out in the form of a description of a single case, which can be either typical or unique in the study of a particular phenomenon or process.
Units of observation are simple or complex actions of the object of study that are accessible to the observer. To register them, special documents are used:
1. Observation card. It is necessary to register certain characteristics in a formalized and often coded form. During the course of the study, several such cards can be used, separately for each unit of study.
2. Observation protocol. Designed to record combined results in formalized and informal procedures. It reflects the interaction of observation cards.
3. Observation diary. Psychology often uses various observation logs. They are necessary in order to record the results of the study. They indicate not only various information about the object itself, but also the actions of the observer committed during the study.
When recording the results, various film and video equipment can also be used.
Examples in psychology reveal this well. Let's look at a specific example where this technique is used.
For example, a military researcher needs to find out which military personnel are prone to various offenses, for example, money-grubbing, drunkenness, and violence. The objects of observation are newly arrived soldiers.
First, the researcher collects information about them through the officers of the units to which the research objects belong. This information can be obtained, for example, from those who accompanied new arrivals to the place of service from the recruiting station, through conversation, and analysis of documents. In this case, it is necessary to especially pay attention to the social environment in which the soldier grew up and was brought up (prosperous or dysfunctional, complete or single-parent family, belonging or not belonging to a group with negative value orientations), to his behavior (whether or not he was brought to criminal or administrative responsibility , the presence or absence of negative characteristics from work or study), on his psychological and physiological characteristics (character traits, level of development, etc.).
At the same time, the observer identifies special signs that make it possible to judge the tendency of objects to deviate behavior. It is believed that persons with deviant behavior include soldiers whose behavior does not correspond to the moral and legal norms accepted in this society. This could be, for example, a dishonest attitude towards official duties, disobedience to commanders, insulting colleagues, stubbornness, attempts to dominate, etc.
Based on these signs, researchers, using mostly random observation, collect detailed information about all soldiers, and then draw up a detailed research program.
The student identifies situations, categories and units of observation, prepares tools (protocols, cards, observation diaries).
The observation method in psychology is implemented using examples of typical situations, among which it is worth noting:
Training sessions. During such activities, the general level of training, skills, knowledge, the degree of diligence of the soldiers is determined, the level of cohesion of the team as a whole, and the degree of its desire to acquire knowledge are revealed.
Breaks, leisure hours. In these situations, the observer may be interested in the topics of conversation, the leaders and their influence on other participants in the dialogues, and the different opinions and points of view of the soldiers.
Household work. Of interest here may be the attitude towards the work of those being studied, the various relationships between military personnel when performing household work, as well as leaders and subordinates. It is important to note that in the presence of large volumes of work, as well as in critical situations (earthquake, fire, flood), qualities such as endurance, dedication, cohesion, and mutual assistance of team members are especially evident.
Changing of the guard, divorce and service. In these situations, the degree of military training, the level of skills and abilities, motivation to perform duties, and the beliefs of the soldiers are revealed.
Here you can pay attention to general discipline, the reaction of the military to official duties and their distribution.
A special role is played by various conflict situations, in which the relationships between soldiers and their behavior are most clearly manifested. It is important to note the instigators, as well as indicate the causes, dynamics and outcome of the conflict, and determine the roles of the various participants.
This type of research is used mainly in studying the behavioral characteristics of students and teachers and the style of their activities. Here it is important to comply with two basic conditions: the observed person should not know that he is the object of the study; the researcher should not interfere with the activities of the observed.
Observation in social psychology should be carried out according to a pre-developed program. It is necessary to record only those manifestations of object activity that correspond to the tasks and goals of the research being conducted. It is best to use video recording, as it allows you to study phenomena repeatedly and ensures maximum reliability of the conclusions obtained.
In educational psychology, non-participant observation is mainly used, but sometimes included observation can be carried out, allowing the researcher to experience first-hand what experiences those being observed experience. However, one should especially strive to maintain objectivity.
Here it can be either continuous or selective. If observation covers many aspects of the observed behavior simultaneously, over a long period of time, and is carried out in relation to either one or several children, it is called continuous. In this case, some selectivity is often noted: novelty is the selection criterion. When carrying out selective observation, only one specific aspect of the behavior of the child being studied is indicated and assessed, or his behavior in separate, specific situations, at certain intervals of time (the following examples implement such observation in psychology: C. Darwin observed the manifestation of emotions of his son, and the domestic linguist A. N. Gvozdev recorded the speech of his child during the first eight years of his life).
The value of this technique in developmental psychology is that for the application of this method there are no age restrictions for the object being studied. Tracking the life of the observed person over a long period of time allows us to find turning points, critical periods in his development.
Observation in psychology, examples of which we have just indicated, is most often used here to collect data at the initial stage of research. But sometimes it is used as the main method.
In conclusion, I would like to note once again that only the external results of a person’s mental activity and their manifestations can be recorded and observed. However, a number of important psychological components that explain behavior remain externally unmanifested and, therefore, cannot be recorded through observation. For example, it is impossible to trace mental activity, various hidden emotional experiences and states.
Therefore, even where the observation method is the main, leading one, a number of other techniques are used along with it, such as a survey, conversation, and other additional methods. Observation and experiment in psychology are also often used together.
OBSERVATION as a method of collecting empirical data
Observation– purposeful, organized and in a certain way recorded perception of the object under study; the observer, as a rule, does not influence the process (phenomenon) being studied
The oldest psychological method. In clinical, social, educational psychology, developmental psychology, in occupational psychology, i.e. in areas where it is of particular importance to record natural human behavior, where intervention by the experimenter disrupts the process of human interaction with the environment
What kind of observation happens?
Non-systematic, during field research, ethnopsychology, developmental psychology, social psychology What is important is not a strict description of the phenomenon, but the creation of some generalized picture of the behavior of an individual or group under certain conditions
Systematic - carried out according to a specific plan, the researcher identifies the recorded characteristics of the subject’s behavior and classifies the environmental conditions (close to a quasi-experiment or correlational study)
Continuous – all behavioral features are recorded
Selective - we look only at certain behavioral features, types of behavioral acts (for example, the frequency of aggressive acts, time of interaction between mother and child, etc.)
External - the observer is not a member of the group of subjects
Included: observer – member of the group of subjects:
1) subjects are aware of the observation (for example, when studying the dynamics of behavior in a group of climbers or a submarine crew)
2) do not know that their behavior is being recorded - behind Gesell’s mirror, a group of prisoners in a common cell, etc. (see figure) Ethical issues
The problem with observation is subjectivity (of the person conducting the research). Good – audio or video recording. At the interpretation stage - the opinion of several experts.
OBSERVATIONS (example)
Researchers Dean, Wilpis, and Hewitt (1975) were interested in how far people of unequal status kept from each other. The hypothesis underlying their study was based on the assumption that people with lower status tend to be further away from people with higher status than from people of their own status. For example, the distance between a student and his teacher may be greater than between him and his fellow students. And there may be an even greater distance between him and the dean or rector. To test this hypothesis, Deem et al unobtrusively measured how far recruits stopped when approaching naval officers. The results of this study showed that the distance between military personnel increased in proportion to the difference in their ranks. This example, which tells us something about the interaction between interpersonal space and perceived status, is not based on traditional experimental methodology, but is a good example of observation in natural settings.
Observation is usually called a purposeful, intentional and specially organized perception, determined by the task of the observer and not requiring him to “intervene” by creating special conditions in the “life” of the observed process or phenomenon. Observation differs from aimless passive “gazing,” which also does not in any way change the conditions of existence of the phenomenon under consideration, primarily in that it is subordinated to a specific goal, is carried out according to a pre-developed plan, and is equipped with objective means for carrying out the observation process itself and recording its results.
Observation is an active form of sensory cognition, which makes it possible to accumulate empirical data, form initial ideas about objects of observation, or test initial assumptions associated with them. It is precisely because observation provides knowledge through direct contact through the senses with the object of study that it became historically the first scientific method.
The term “observation”, as E.A. rightly believes. Klimov, is used in three different meanings: observation as an activity, as a method and as a technique. Let's look at them one by one.
Observation is used not only in scientific research, but also in various types of social practice, retaining its basic features. The power system operator observing the instrument readings carries out the inspection according to a specific plan; the doctor, conducting a systematic examination of the patient, gets an idea of his state of health; The investigator, observing the behavior of the criminal during interrogation, checks which of the hypotheses about the role of the interrogated in the crime is most plausible. Whether observation is scientific or practical is determined primarily by the nature of the goals. Scientific observation always pursues research, educational "goals. Observation included in practical activity is aimed at its maintenance; the results of observation are immediately used to achieve the main goal of practical activity: by a doctor to make a diagnosis, by an operator to control the distribution of electricity, by an investigator to solve a crime. Thus In this way, the truth and objectivity of the observation results are immediately verified.
The term "method" was used in the ancient world as a synonym for "teaching". Currently, in philosophical literature, method is broadly understood as “a form of practical and theoretical mastery of reality, based on the laws of the object being studied” (Philosophical Encyclopedia, vol. 3, p. 409). In other words, the method includes, on the one hand, a system of regulatory principles of practical and cognitive theoretical activity, that is, methods of manufacturing products or methods of research and presentation of material, and, on the other hand, a method of interpreting facts (A.P. Kupriyan). In agreement with this point of view, B.A. Klimov believes that observation method in psychology is system of provisions about the essence and specificity of psychological observation, about its capabilities and limitations as a method of scientific research, about tools, about the structure and types of activities of a psychologist in the role of an observer. Observation is one of the methods of collecting data, such as an experiment, conversation, survey or analysis of the products of activity, and differs from them either in the type of relationship to the object of study (in experiment 1, a conversation, the researcher causes the phenomenon he is studying by creating special conditions), or the presence of direct visual and auditory contact with the object of study (this is absent when analyzing the products of activity and does not always occur in experiments). The main characteristics of the psychological method of observation are purposefulness, mediation by theoretical concepts and planning. From a methodological point of view, observation in psychology is characterized by “universality,” that is, its application to the study of such a wide range of mental phenomena that, perhaps, no other method of psychology has, flexibility, that is, the ability to change the “field of coverage” as necessary during the course of observation. the object being studied or the hypothesis being tested, and the absence or minimal requirements for the hardware for conducting the observation. These characteristics allow it to still retain its significance as the main method of psychology.
In relation to this specific research task, taking into account the specific nature of the reality being studied, the situation, the conditions in which the research should be carried out, the availability of certain objective means for carrying out observation and recording its results, the observation method is implemented in the form of a specific technique. Under observation technique usually understood (E.A. Klimov, G. Faznakht) socially fixed, stated clearly for others, objectively presented collection and processing system empirical data, which is adequate to a certain limited range of tasks. In foreign psychological literature, the term “observation techniques” is used as a synonym for the understanding of the technique given here. Observation methods differ in the ways of organizing observation activities, methods of dismembering (quantifying) the observed flow of the reality being studied, the nature and size of observation units, methods of recording what is observed (hand recording, film, photo, video recording) and methods of analyzing the results (qualitative, quantitative ). The methodology, as the most complete description of the entire observation procedure, includes: the choice of situation and object of observation, which is determined primarily by the purpose of the study and, to a certain extent, theoretical ideas about the reality being studied; observation program (scheme) in the form of a variable list of signs (aspects) of observed behavior, observation units with a detailed description of them, as well as the method and form of recording the observation results; description of the requirements for organizing the observer’s work; description of the method of processing and presenting the obtained data.
This section of the general practicum in psychology is aimed at familiarizing students with the features of psychological observation and mastering the basics of constructing observation methods in relation to a specific research problem.
Features of the observation method in psychology
The specific features that distinguish the observation method in psychology from the characteristics of this method in other sciences are due to a number of factors, which we will consider below. All of them are in one way or another connected with the characteristics of the psyche as a subject studied by our science. Mental life is inaccessible to direct observation from the outside, hidden from the eyes of outsiders. Part of it is revealed to the inner gaze and is known through introspection. Related to this circumstance is the fact that during an entire period in the history of psychology, introspection (introspection) remained the only method of our science. But only a small part is revealed to self-observation, like the tip of an iceberg protruding from the water, if all mental life is an iceberg. As psychology transformed into an independent science, methods for objective research of the psyche and the method of observation, among them, developed 2. Observation serves as one of the methods of knowing psychic reality to the extent that the latter has external manifestations, and with the subtlety and depth that can be provided by the theory within the framework of which certain observations are carried out and its data are interpreted.
Soviet psychology proceeds from the Marxist understanding of the active transformative essence of human activity. Research by Russian psychologists is based on the principles of the unity of consciousness and activity, the general structure of external and internal activity, the relationship between the meaning and personal meaning of the constituents of consciousness (L.S. Vygotsky, S.L. Rubinstein, A.N. Leontiev). These principles constitute the methodological basis for the application of the observation method in empirical psychological research and suggest the possibility of studying different levels of mental reflection based on identifying their regulatory role in activity.
What can you observe? The object of psychological observation is the one being observed - an individual person (or animal), a group of people in their joint activities, community. Subject of observation there can only be external exteriorized components of activity: a) motor components of practical and gnostic actions; movements, movements and immobile states of people; speed and direction of movement; distances between them; contacts, shocks, blows; joint actions (groups of people); b) speech acts, their content, direction, frequency, duration, intensity, expressiveness, features of the lexical, grammatical and phonetic structure; c) facial expressions and pantomimes, expression of sounds; d) external manifestations of some vegetative reactions: redness or paleness of the skin, change in breathing rhythm, sweating, etc. , a combination of the listed characteristics. Observables can be situations, arising in natural life and artificially created in an experiment, differing in types of activities, interactions of people with each other, spontaneous and organized, etc.
The factors that primarily determine the complexity of knowing the “internal through observing the external” are, firstly, the polysemy of connections between external manifestations and the subjective mental reality behind it, and, secondly, the multi-level hierarchical structure of mental phenomena. Due to the first, the same behavioral event can be associated with different mental processes. For example, the famous Russian psychologist A.F. Lazursky, who relied mainly on observations in the “Science of Characters” he developed, considered the presence of a large number of automatic reflex “spontaneous” movements after a period of rest as a manifestation of mobility - a stable characteristic of the human motor sphere, noting that a sharp increase in the number of such movements can be caused by a number of other reasons - affect, excitement under the influence of alcohol, etc. And vice versa, the same emotional experience can have different manifestations: one person turns pale in anger, another blushes. Due to the second of these points, the same observed motor act may indicate different levels of mental regulation of the effector. For example, prolonged fixation of gaze on any object may be a manifestation of perceptual attention during a person’s conscious attempts to identify this object, that is, a consequence of high-level regulation of the oculomotor center. But the same immobility of gaze can manifest itself as a result of the lack of activation of the oculomotor centers due to the “load” of consciousness with some other task.
In connection with these specific features of the subject studied by psychology, a number of rules have been formulated for the application of observation:
1. Conduct repeated systematic observations of this behavior in repeating and changing situations, which makes it possible to separate random coincidences from stable regular relationships.
2. Do not make hasty conclusions; be sure to put forward and test alternative assumptions regarding what mental reality is behind the observed behavior.
3. Compare the particular conditions for the appearance of the observed behavior with the general situation. Consideration in the general context of large communities (the general situation, the individual as a whole, in relation to the child - the stage of mental development, etc.) often changes the psychological meaning of the observed.
Another feature of psychological observation is that presence of observer can significantly change the observed behavior, since both the person and the animal are not indifferent to the fact that they are being observed. To minimize this influence, it is necessary to make sure that the observer can see while remaining invisible. There are several ways to do this: a) “become familiar,” that is, often be present in the environment surrounding the observed, being deep in one’s work and, as if not paying attention to the observed; b) explain the presence of the observer for some purpose acceptable to the observed, for example, explain to the school teacher his presence in the lesson with the desire to master the methodology of teaching his subject; c) replace the observer with recording equipment (cinema camera, video recorder, television transmitter), which, firstly, confuses the observed somewhat less and, secondly, ensures accurate recording; d) conduct observation from a dark room, separated from the room where the observed are located, by glass with one-way light conductivity - Gesell glass and e) photography and filming with a hidden camera. The last three methods are not always available, and the last two, moreover and mainly, pose a difficult ethical problem, since they encroach on a person’s inner world without his permission. Therefore, we can agree with P. Fress, who believes that since the observer is most often openly present and thereby introduces new conditions into the observed process itself, only his modesty, tact, and ability to be as close as possible to the observed weaken the inevitable influence of his presence.
Specific difficulties for observation in psychology are represented by such features of mental phenomena as their unique nature, uniqueness And very small(fractions of a second) or very long duration. Due to the dependence on many factors, which may also be present in different combinations, the manifestations of the same mental property or process are unique. Here we mean not only such complex formations as personality or interpersonal interactions - even simple working movements in strictly constant conditions become stereotypical, identical to one another after thousands of repetitions. In Landis' experiments in which subjects experienced genuine emotions of fear and embarrassment, it was not possible to establish the typical involuntary facial expressions that expressed them: each subject had his own characteristic set of facial reactions 3.
Very short-term actions are not directly visible. For example, some distinguishable emotional expressions last 1/8 s and go unnoticed even by experienced observers, as Haggard and Isaacs showed. To observe and record them, high-speed filming is usually used. If the duration of the process under study is too long, when it is not possible to observe it continuously (for example, the development of interaction between a group of people while performing a common task throughout the entire working day), a time sampling technique is used, that is, observation is carried out intermittently.
The second group of specific characteristics of observation in psychology is associated with the characteristics of the human observer.
One of the main characteristics of human perception is selectivity, which is determined by the general focus of the activity (toys are “catchy” for a child, tailoring is “catchy” for a tailor, etc.). Selection in perception occurs under the influence of semantic, target and operational installations person, and also depends on the physical parameters of the object - its intensity, proximity, size, etc. It is known that the beneficial effect of attitudes consists in sensitizing perception (that is, increasing sensitivity) to influences that are significant to the observer. However, overly fixed attitudes are a kind of blinders on the eyes, leading to errors of perception when there is some uncertainty of stimulation and contain the danger of unnecessary bias in the interpretation of what is observed.
Another source of observer bias may be the well-known phenomenon of self-projection onto observed behavior. He appeared most clearly in anthropomorphic interpretations of animal behavior. The phenomenon of projection is provoked by the fact that the inner side of behavior is open to self-observation; a person has the illusion that much is becoming clear, and therefore there is a temptation to transfer this explanation to the behavior of another. A special critical position of the observer is needed when interpreting observation data in order to eliminate the influence of this source of error.
The possibilities of direct observation are also limited by a number of individual characteristics of the observer. The volume of human simultaneous perception does not exceed 5-7 discrete objects. To simultaneously observe a large number of objects, it is necessary either to increase the number of observers, or to use recording equipment (cinema, video recording) in addition to human perception. Observers differ in their susceptibility to influences from different modalities (mainly visual or auditory types), the predominant development of the ability to concentrate or distribute attention, memory characteristics, cognitive style, temperament, emotional stability, etc. 4 All these individual properties of the observer leave an imprint on the quality and content of observations and are one of the reasons leading to significant differences in observations made simultaneously by several observers of the behavior of the same object. Some reduction in the influence of these factors can only be achieved through targeted observation training.
Relationship between observation and theory. One of the significant specific characteristics of the psychological method of observation is the much closer connection between observation and the theoretical position of the observer than in any other science. Here we mean the influence of the initial theoretical premises of the study (up to the understanding of the subject of psychology) not only on the choice of object and subject of observation, but also on the organization of the observation process itself and the interpretation of its results. Let's illustrate this with an example. For a behaviorist, the whole interest lies in the study of behavior. Thinking for Watson is a “skill of the larynx,” and therefore, when exploring the nature of thinking, he limits himself to observing subtle movements of the muscles of the speech apparatus. For the Gestalt psychologist Köhler, the main thing in solving intellectual problems was “insight” (sudden grasp of the relations of the situation as a whole), therefore, in his studies of the thinking of great apes, he observed the whole variety of their behavior in a free field, isolating from it behavioral acts leading to a solution. Consequently, with a common goal - studying the nature of thinking - different theoretical positions led to the creation of fundamentally different observation methods (different subjects of research, different objects and objects of observation, different observation schemes and interpretation of its results) and, of course, to fundamentally different conclusions.
Thus, the theoretical idea of the nature and properties of the psychic reality being studied is included in the observation methodology as its determining component. This state of affairs is consistent with the understanding of the essence of the scientific method as “a theory put into action,” in the words of the Bulgarian Marxist N. Stefanov.
The validity of the statement about the connection between observation and theory is obvious for observations aimed at testing hypotheses. It seems, however, that this statement should also be extended to exploratory studies, in which the general direction of interpretation of observations is determined by the entire sum of psychological knowledge and ideas of the researcher and, consequently, his theoretical orientation.
Let's move on to the issues of organizing scientific research using the observation method. All the main points of the organization are recorded, as noted above, in a specific observation method.
Scientific knowledge as a way of reflecting reality invariably involves the perception of the characteristics of natural phenomena and spheres of human activity. Broadly speaking, any method of empirical research contains elements of observation of objects in order to study their specificity and changes. Moreover, experiment, testing, oral or written survey, expert assessment, content analysis, etc. can well be considered as types of observations, differing in their conditions and the nature of the procedures performed. However, the scientific tradition has long been entrenched in the identification of a special observational method, relatively independent from all others, combining observation and introspection (introspection).
Of course, within the framework of a particular science, this method acquires its specific content. However, it is certainly based on two principles:
Passivity of the subject of cognition, expressed in refusal to interfere in the processes being studied in order to preserve the naturalness of their flow;
Immediacy of perception, which implies limiting the possibility of obtaining data within the limits of a clearly presented situation of the present time (what is usually observed is what is happening “here and now”).
In psychology, observation is understood as a method of studying the mental characteristics of individuals based on recording manifestations of their behavior.
It is impossible to observe the internal, subjective essences of thinking, imagination, will, temperament, character, abilities, etc., taken by themselves, outside of specific external manifestations. The subject of observation is verbal and non-verbal acts of behavior that take place in a certain situation or environment. It is they, identified and registered properly, that become characteristics of intellectual and personal development, the dynamics of achievements, the severity of states and much more.
Thus, when studying people, a researcher can observe:
1) speech activity (content, sequence, duration, frequency, direction, intensity...);
2) expressive reactions (expressive movements of the face, body);
3) position of bodies in space (movement, immobility, distance, speed, direction of movement...);
4) physical contacts (touching, pushing, hitting, passing, joint efforts...).
In this case, a lot depends, naturally, on observation - the ability to notice significant, characteristic, including subtle, properties of objects and phenomena. Without developing this quality in oneself, it is impossible to effectively carry out research activities. However, the matter does not stop there.
If, for example, a very observant person looks around, without having specific goals for observation and without recording its results in any way, then he will only see many faces and witness various events. The information he collects cannot be considered as evidence or refutation of facts, patterns, or theories. Such a person saw and heard a lot, but did not conduct observations in the strict sense of the word.
Scientific observation differs from everyday observation in the following properties:
Purposefulness; the observer must clearly understand what he is going to perceive and why, otherwise his activity will turn into the registration of individual bright and distinct secondary stimuli, and essential material will remain unaccounted for;
Systematicity, which will reliably distinguish the random from the typical, natural;
Planned, since following a plan or program helps to increase the effectiveness of the study, determining how the observation will be carried out; when, where, under what conditions;
Analyticity, because it involves not only a statement of observed facts, but also their explanation, the identification of their psychological nature;
Registration of results, which eliminates memory errors, thereby reducing the subjectivity of conclusions and generalizations;
Operating with a system of unambiguous concepts, special terms that contribute to a clear and unambiguous designation of the observed material, as well as the uniformity of possible interpretations.
Because of this, scientific observation acquires fundamental repeatability of results. The data obtained by a researcher under certain conditions will most likely be confirmed by another researcher if he works under the same conditions and the object of observation has not changed. For the results of scientific observation, while maintaining a certain subjectivity, depend less on the personality of the perceiver than the results of everyday observation.
As a method of psychological research, observation has its strengths and weaknesses. Let's look at their approximate list:
| 1. The wealth of information collected (provides analysis of both verbal information and actions, movements, deeds); 2. The naturalness of the operating conditions has been preserved; 3. It is acceptable to use a variety of technical means; 4. It is not necessary to obtain the prior consent of the subjects. |
1. Subjective (the results largely depend on the experience, scientific views, qualifications, interests, passions, and performance of the researcher); 2. It is impossible to control the situation, to interfere in the course of events without distorting them; 3. Due to the passivity of the observer, it requires a significant investment of time. |
Psychological research is not complete without using the observation method at any stage, but it is extremely rare that the matter is limited to using only this method, without including others. The study of complex mental phenomena requires the researcher, as a rule, to consistently apply a whole complex of empirical methods of cognition.
So far we have been talking about the general characteristics of psychological observation. However, this method has many varieties, distinguished for one reason or another. Let's move on to the question of classification of observations.
Depending on the degree of involvement of the researcher in the environment being studied, two types of observations are distinguished:
Included when there is personal participation of the observer in the activity perceived and recorded by him. At the same time, other people usually consider him a participant in the event, and not an observer;
Third-party, when an event occurs without the direct participation of an observer acting as if “from the outside.”
It should be noted that in most cases, people's behavior changes dramatically if they notice that they have become the object of research. This violates the requirement to preserve the naturalness of the conditions of the activity being studied. But in practice, for ethical or other reasons, it is not always possible to study their mental characteristics without being noticed by the subjects.
Therefore, according to the nature of interactions with an object, there are the following types of observations:
Hidden, in which people do not know that they are being observed. (In this case, the psychologist is either “disguised” as an ordinary participant in events, that is, his behavior for others is quite consistent with what is expected in a given situation, does not arouse suspicion, or he observes them indirectly, “from the outside,” using, say, Gesell’s mirror or a hidden video camera);
Open, in which people are aware of the observation being made. Usually, after some time, they get used to the presence of a psychologist and begin to behave more naturally, unless, of course, the observer provokes close attention to themselves.
External, behind the behavior of other people;
Introspection (from the Latin “I look inside”, “I peer”), that is, introspection. The results of the latter in modern psychology are not taken for granted, but are taken into account as facts that require objective scientific interpretation.
Regarding the time of the study, observations are distinguished:
One-time, single, produced only once;
Periodic, carried out over certain periods of time;
Longitudinal (from the English “longitude”), characterized by a special extent, constancy of contact between the researcher and the object for a long time.
By the nature of perception, an observation can be:
Continuous, when the researcher turns his attention equally to all objects available to him;
Selective, when he is interested only in certain parameters of behavior or types of behavioral reactions (say, such as the frequency of manifestations of aggression, the time of interaction between mother and child during the day, the characteristics of speech contacts between children and teachers, etc.).
Based on the nature of data recording, observation is divided into:
Ascertaining, where the researcher’s task is to clearly record the presence and characteristics of significant forms of behavior and collect facts;
Evaluative, where the researcher compares facts according to the degree of their expression in a certain range. At the same time, he uses a rating scale, which will be discussed later.
And finally, according to the degree of standardization of procedures, they are distinguished:
Free or exploratory observation, which, although associated with a specific goal, is devoid of clear restrictions in the choice of what to pay attention to, what points to record, etc. It is permissible to change the subject of research and rules if the need arises . Observation of this kind is usually used in the early stages of scientific work;
Structured or standardized, when events occurring are recorded without the slightest deviation from a pre-developed program. At the same time, the rules of observation are clearly defined, the entire content of research activities is prescribed, and uniform methods of recording and analyzing data are introduced. Such observation is usually used where the researcher is required to highlight already known and expected characteristics of reality, and not to look for new ones. This, of course, narrows the field of observation to some extent, but increases the comparability of the results obtained.
These are the main types of observation. As a training exercise, we will try, as far as possible, to characterize the examples of research given below according to all the classification bases we have considered.
So, what kind of observation are we talking about exactly?
EXAMPLE 1. In the 60s, Jane Goodall studied the life of wild chimpanzees. During the research, the observer usually sat quietly in the thickets until the objects, having become accustomed to him, ceased to pay attention to the strange viewer and returned to their normal course of action. At the same time, in several cases, episodes were captured on film indicating that chimpanzees use and even make tools. In particular, having cleared the twig of leaves, they slowly lowered the “fishing rod” inside the termite mound. Insects that clung to a foreign object were pulled up and eaten by cunning catchers... (According to Jan Lindblad).
EXAMPLE 2. If an outside observer simply characterizes a teenager from the “Skillful Hands” circle as “inclined to cooperate,” then the psychologist “working” on a nearby machine records that this teenager, during one lesson, lent his tool to other members of the circle five times, eight times provided assistance and asked for help himself twice. In addition, the behavior of the observed is compared with quantitatively expressed similar characteristics of the behavior of the people around him. (According to K. Ingenkamp).
EXAMPLE 3. In a famous study by Kurt Lewin, subjects spent 10-15 minutes in an empty room, expecting that they were about to be approached, and were unaware of the observation being carried out. Each of them, finding himself in such a situation, began to examine the surrounding things; his actions were determined by what he saw. Things seemed to attract to themselves, causing behavior that K. Levin called field behavior. (According to I. Yu. Kulagina).
Let us now move on to a description of the stages of scientific observation. Traditionally, the following stages are distinguished:
1. Determining the purpose of observation (why, why is it being carried out?);
2. Selection of the object of research (what individual or what kind of group is to be studied?);
3. Clarification of the subject of research (which aspects of behavior reveal the content of the mental phenomena being studied?);
4. Planning observation situations (in what cases or under what conditions does the subject of research reveal itself most clearly?);
5. Selection of an observation method that has the least impact on the object and ensures the collection of the necessary information to the greatest extent (how to observe?);
6. Establishing the duration of the total research time and the number of observations (how many to observe?);
7. Selecting methods for recording the research material (how to keep records?);
8. Forecasting possible observation errors and searching for ways to prevent them;
9. Carrying out a preliminary, trial observation session necessary to clarify the actions of the previous stages and identify organizational shortcomings;
10. Correction of the monitoring program;
11. Observation stage;
12. Processing and interpretation of received information.
We should dwell in more detail on the question of methods for recording the observed material.
Let's start with the fact that the process of effective observation is impossible without artificially isolating certain units of object activity from the general course of events. This refers to the designation of what he is doing at the moment, how he is doing it. Such units of activity are expressed using ordinary words or scientific terminology. They are recorded in the observation protocol.
Typically, there are three types of procedures for recording results. Namely:
1) use of attribute (sign) systems. At the same time, in advance, during the preparation of observation forms, specific types of behavior characteristic of this area are described. In the future, they record which of them appeared and how often during the observation period. Each sign must be formulated unambiguously for understanding by different people and not require additional explanation.
For example, what signs of student interest in the content of the lesson can you name? What are the signs that they are not interested in the material they are learning?
Of course, among the designations you named there should not be words like “attentive”, “interested”, “understanding”, etc., which need to be specified in meaning. And such signs as “animated gestures”, “chewing a pencil”, etc. indicate both the intensity of interest and the complete absence of the latter.
It is obvious that the proposed system of features is not exhaustive. During the observation, some significant characteristic may well emerge that we had previously missed. With this method of recording results, the set of characteristics is considered open. If necessary, it is allowed to make certain additions to it after the start of observation.
2) application of the category system. Such a system contains a complete description of all types of possible behavior. You cannot add anything new to it during the observation process.
The fact is that the set of categories is compiled on a certain scientific basis. It is assumed that it covers all theoretically possible manifestations of the process being studied.
Bales, through free observation of the work of groups, identified more than eighty signs of interpersonal communication, which, when systematized, were combined into 12 categories, and the latter into four classes. Here's what they look like (according to T.V. Kornilova):
Lowercase Latin letters here indicate connections between categories. More precisely, a - problems of orientation, b - problems of assessment, c - problems of control, d - problems of finding a solution, e - problems of overcoming tension, f - problems of integration. The identification of these connections is based on the corresponding concept of the stages of group work when solving problems.
Working with R. Bales' system of categories, the observer has the opportunity to record the formal (but not substantive) side of the group discussion. To do this, he, having learned a list of categories, correlates them with the remarks of the participants in the communication. What is observed can be recorded as follows:
Who's speaking? (message source);
Who is he addressing? (destination);
When analyzing a recording, the category number indicates both the type of statement, its emotional coloring, and the stage of problem solving. The frequency of speech acts also reflects the peculiarities of the discussion, in particular, in the form of percentages of different types of acts at different stages of the discussion.
It is believed that the described system of categories is mainly adapted for observing discussions on a given topic in student groups. It is actively used to this day despite a number of significant criticisms (the formality of the analysis, the arbitrariness of identifying the number and content of categories, etc.).
3) Rating scale (from English “rating”, “order”, “classification”). With this method of recording results, the researcher’s attention is drawn not to the presence of this or that characteristic, but to the quantitative or qualitative degree of its presence and representation. In this case, the work is carried out according to a pre-prepared ordinal scale.
For example: What interest does the student show during class?
|
Shows no interest at all |
barely shows interest |
shows average interest |
shows great interest |
shows keen interest |
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|
Or: The child’s readiness to cooperate with peers |
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| weak | |||||||||
The specificity of the rating scale is that it is usually filled out either at the last stage of observation or at its end. Of all the data recording methods, this is the most subjective. The researcher acts here not so much as an observer, but as an expert, comparing behavioral signs with “standard” samples known only to him. Therefore, the rating scale is often used not independently of other registration methods, but along with them. Then filling it out on the basis of a system of signs or a system of categories becomes the beginning of procedures for interpreting the observation results.
Let's study the typical mistakes of researchers using observation. Here are the most common ones:
In an effort to confirm his hypothesis, the researcher sometimes unconsciously ignores everything that may contradict it;
Mixing the main and the secondary, the random and the natural in the process of observation;
Premature generalizations and conclusions;
The assessment of one mental phenomenon is made on the basis of a sign of behavior related to another phenomenon (for example, many are inclined to draw conclusions about intelligence based on fluency of speech);
Focusing the observer's attention on the opposite character traits or forms of behavior of the observed;
The determining influence on the results of observation is the first impression about a person or group:
Failure to take into account possible motives for actions, observed well-being, and significant changes in the conditions of the situation.
These are the “traps” of psychological observation. To increase its reliability, it is necessary to strictly follow the facts, record specific actions and resist the temptation to superficially interpret complex processes.
In order to objectify observation procedures in psychology, collective studies of an object by researchers working independently of each other are used, technical means of recording and processing data are used, observation programs are developed in detail, and repeated repeated observations of the same objects are practiced.
Theoretical part
Observation – a general scientific method of research. It is used both as a leading method and as an additional - reinforcing one (for example, during a survey). It is both the simplest and the most complex. Observation is a character trait of a true researcher in the following cases.
The observation method in psychology can be used:
It is important to distinguish between observation as a research method and everyday observation. As a research method, observation differs a chain of key questions: Why watch? – What to observe? – How to observe? – How to record? – How to analyze?
Its correct use is associated with the following rules and procedures.
There are various classification of types of observation.
Depending on whether the researcher’s position is known to other people, participant observation is divided into:
For most observed situations there is a general list of significant elements to be recorded.
Example: A group of 12 people (members of one expedition group - 5 boys 13 years old, 2 boys 10 years old, 4 girls 12 years old, 1 male teacher about 40 years old); The relationships between the group members are businesslike and calm. The teacher acts as an organizer of joint activities (discussion of the upcoming radial exit, distribution of responsibilities between participants). Girls demonstrate less activity in the discussion compared to boys in terms of the following parameters: number of clarifying questions, keeping their eyes on the teacher, distraction from the general discussion.
b) for an individual – full name. (or gender), age, social and educational status, nature of involvement in the observed situation, etc.;
Example: Shinkoev Bato Kokchendoevich, born in 1926, Evenk, elder of the clan, was born in the village of Pama, where he lives in the summer, and in the winter in the village. Yagdyg, storyteller. I remembered Evenki fairy tales from my grandfather in childhood, and now he tells them to his youngest great-grandson, Bato.
2. Setting – location of the observed situation, living conditions, social behavior typical for a given locus, possible deviations in the behavior of participants in the observed group.
Example: A clearing near the central fire, sunny weather, no wind, a lot of mosquitoes; behavior of group members characteristic of a given place.
Or: Republic of Buryatia, Kurumkansky district, village. Yagdyg, 07/21/2005. A conversation with the oldest member of the family - B.K. Shinkoevs - on the porch of his house in the presence of the owner’s wife and children. On this day, the family was planning to return to Nama's estate (they came to the village for several days to perform the naming ceremony for their youngest great-granddaughter).
3. The goals of the group’s work are to record a random or predicted situation; the presence of formal or informal goals for which the group gathered; the aspirations of observers are the same or opposite.
Example: The group gathered specifically to discuss the organization of the upcoming exit; The boys and the teacher share interest in the radial exit and willingness to participate in it. The girls' goals are to gain food for thought and decide among themselves whether they will participate in the upcoming event.
Or: Recording a fairy tale in the Evenki language. B.K. Shinkoev told a fairy tale in his native language, after which he translated it into Russian. The narration was emotional, with special gestures and facial expressions, highlighting the key points of the plot with intonation. In the Evenki and Russian versions of the story, gestures, facial expressions, and intonations were largely similar.
4. Frequency and duration - time, duration and repeatability of the observed situation, its uniqueness or typicality.
Example : The discussion of the prospects for visiting the Porzhensky churchyard lasted half an hour (from 16.40 to 17.10). This was the group's first meeting on this issue.
Or: The recording of the first fairy tale began 15 minutes after the meeting. Three tales were recorded (time – 1.5 hours).
The observation method has both advantages and disadvantages.
TO merits can be attributed to: obtaining information directly from the source, the researcher is personally involved in the process, the likelihood of data distortion is reduced.
As shortcomings It should be noted: a lot of time is spent, the facts remain without comment; a very high risk of subjective errors in the perception of the researcher (the influence of differences in the social status of the observer and the observed, the dissimilarity of their interests, value orientations, behavioral stereotypes, etc.), “staged” space when using technical means of observation or the open position of the observer.
It should be noted that in connection with the development of audiovisual technical means of recording and their availability, observation can be called one of the leading methods.
The transition to the digital format of audio, photo, and video recordings makes it possible to create clearly structured catalogs of various materials with the necessary recordings, comments, and protocols.
However, the development of technology does not eliminate the problem of mastery - the ability to pay attention to the right moments, minimizing one’s impact on the observation process, the ability to correctly and accurately record, etc.
Practical part. The practical part of the classes may have several stages.
It is important to pay special attention to teaching correct, adequate and complete recording of what is observed, depending on the goals and methods of observation. The rule well known to naturalists should work here: “Not recorded - not observed!”
Initially, it is advisable to play various games to develop attention and observation. Even such well-known games as the children's game "Traffic Light" or distinguishing distinct elements from similar objects or changes in an object ("find 10 differences"), etc. can be useful.
It is productive to start mastering observation methods with non-participant observation. Perhaps even for animals. In such trial observations, it is easier to set observation criteria and methods for recording them. Particular attention should be paid to the distinction between the observed fact and its interpretation.
In the future, training in observation methods can be carried out directly on various manifestations of behavior of members of the group in which the students are included. However, we remind you once again that participant observation is initially more difficult when mastering observation methods. After determining the goals, objectives, object and subject of observation, it is important that the criteria by which the observed facts will be recorded are clearly defined. It is interesting to trace changes in the results of observations on one issue in different situations and among different observers.
Separately, practical work should be carried out on mastering technical means of visual recording (photos, videos) with a discussion of visual results. Tasks can be formulated both for filming a separate topic or plot (for example, a “joyful child” - recording a certain emotional state in children), and for filming a process that lasts over time (for example, the process of interaction between a teacher and a student at school from the beginning to the end of a lesson) .
At the same time, the norm of keeping observation diaries by students should be included. At the same time, it is necessary to distinguish between the genres of diaries: recording external events, facts, information received; recording socio-psychological observations and their interpretations; reflective recordings of one’s own thoughts or recording one’s emotional states, experiences, and feelings. Each of these diary genres is valuable in its own right. It is important to develop the depth and accuracy of recording observations in the form of diary entries. Text analysis will be discussed in more detail in the next topic of the program.
The final part. When discussing the results, it is necessary to track and identify the presence of certain subjective factors that influenced the choice of the object of observation.
Compare protocols of observations of one situation by different people.
When comparing diaries, special attention should be paid to differences in the observer's position and differences in the statement and interpretation of facts.
When discussing photographs and video recordings, attention should be paid to how accurately what was happening was recorded, whether the natural state of a person was captured, or whether the frame was staged.
We can discuss with illustrative examples typical observation errors (according to A. A. Ershov).
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