Leak in hot pipe or in a radiator - this is a nuisance, and a leak that began in a pressurized circuit is an even bigger problem. If the heating pipe is leaking, then the accident must be urgently eliminated.
Methods for sealing a leak depend on the place of its manifestation:
Each of these accidents can be eliminated by improvised means and different ways, but only in one case - if the leak in the radiator or in the pipe is small, and water or coolant flows in a thin stream or drips. A more serious leak is repaired and more radical methods, which we will talk about. Anyone who has ever repaired a leak in his heating system knows how much trouble he saved himself and his family from.
Both with a large and a small leak, it is necessary to immediately close the shut-off valve for supplying the working fluid to the system. The problem is solved by using the following options:
Steel pipes with hot water rust quickly, even if they are painted, and this causes thinning of the pipe walls. In the most thin places over time, a leak may appear and, if it is not eliminated in time, the drops will imperceptibly turn into a stream.
If a colored spot appears on the pipe, the paint begins to swell, traces of rusty water streaks are visible or rust on the pipe, water drips imperceptibly, you should not wait in the hope that this will stop on its own. It is better if you find a suspicious place in the summer, with the heating turned off - it will less problems with shutdown and maintaining the temperature in the room during the repair.
Other ways to eliminate the accident, if the heating pipe is flowing, will not work - only dry surfaces can be sealed with cold welding, although then the hardened composite can even work in water. It will not work to seal a hole or a gap with sealing compounds for the same reason - the surface to be repaired must be dry, and preferably clean. Therefore, sealant for heating pipes, epoxy resin, dichloroethane and other fast-hardening composites are used only on disconnected dry sections of the heating route. This also applies to the repair of the water supply line in the DHW or cold water pipe.
If the leak is strong, and it cannot be closed with a simple clamp, and the heating circuit with liquid will have to be turned off. It does not matter where a leak is detected - on a heating or water supply pipe - the elimination of the leak will be possible only when the water supply is turned off. A disabled circuit gives room for repairs: you can check the entire track at the same time, and repair (replace) all suspicious areas.
Let's start with the most simple ways repairing a leak in a heating pipe:
Seal the gap or hole with a fabric (fiberglass) patch, generously lubricated epoxy glue. Patches (there should be 2-3 pieces) are cut twice as wide as the diameter of the pipe, the length should allow wrapping the pipe 5-7 times. Around the violation, the metal is cleaned sandpaper, file or grinder, the area is well dried, and epoxy is applied to it. The fabric can be impregnated with glue in advance, or you can coat it as it is wound on the pipe - as it will be more convenient on the spot. The last fabric layer is not impregnated with glue, and the end of the fabric is fixed with a cord or wire. Epoxy dries on the pipe in different ways: at a temperature of 20 0 C-25 0 C, several hours are enough, at temperatures below 18 0 C, even a day is not enough.
If you have repaired a central heating pipe, then the system is operating at a higher pressure than individual heating, and during the initial supply of water to the circuit after repair, a noticeable water hammer can occur, which can simply disrupt the patch. Therefore, the supply valve should be opened slowly, visually tracking the place with the patch.
You can increase the strength of the patch by adding bronze or aluminum powder to the epoxy adhesive. If it was not possible to buy powder, it can be made at home by grinding off the surface of any non-ferrous metal part with a small file or needle file. When adding such powder, you can make not 5-7 turns of fabric, but 2-3, and repairing such a section will become easier and faster.
From ready solutions, adhesives and liquids, you can use a heat-resistant waterproof sealant to seal the leak. Similar adhesive compositions produced specifically for the repair of heating systems. When buying, make sure that the word “neutral” is on the label - this means that your glue will not corrode non-ferrous metal and materials adjacent to it.
Cold welding is also well suited to eliminate leaks:
Both liquid and solid cold welding contain toxins, so it is recommended to work with it with rubber gloves.
If connections at the junction of pipes or fittings are leaking, then, depending on the difference in diameters, it is possible to seal the pipeline with a metal clamp immediately or first wind the rubber in place with a smaller diameter. rubber band easily wound even under pressure, stopping strong leakage.
For sealing threaded connection in the place of winding tow or FUM tape, BF-2 glue helps a lot. The tow is pre-impregnated with alcohol, then coated with glue. The glue dissolved in alcohol impregnates the winding, and after drying it forms a dense waterproof layer.
What else is the winding impregnated with and how can the pipe be wrapped so that it does not flow: in most cases, ordinary oil (not nitro) paint is used. To do this, wrap the tow around the thread, apply the paint with a brush, and after tightening the thread, paint over this area 2-3 more times. You can turn on heating or running water only after 2-3 days.
If it is not possible to seal the leak with your own hands, you need to turn off the heating or water supply, and redo the place of the threaded connection: completely remove the old winding, clean and degrease the thread. A new tow or FUM tape must be wrapped with pre-impregnation with sealant or paint.
If you do not know what to do with a leak between battery sections, then the most common repair is to replace the gasket between the radiator elements, or replace the nipple. To do this, the system is turned off, the failed part is replaced with a new one. There are no other options, except for a temporary repair - applying a patch according to the method described above. This is a rather complicated process, since aluminum radiators have a very small distance from section to section.
To seal the leak on the aluminum surface between the sections, you need to contrive to clean it somehow hard-to-reach places. To do this, you can use a cable - you need to wrap it around the leak, and pull it alternately by the ends until all the paint is rubbed off. A clean aluminum surface is sealed with epoxy mixed with aluminum powder, or by cold welding.
Few people know, but you can cover up the heating pipe with ordinary table salt! A small hole in a water line or heating pipe will immediately stop flowing if you rub it with a pinch of salt. If the hole is rather big, then salt is used together with an ordinary bandage - rewinding the leak, sprinkle the bandage with salt.
If aluminum radiator drip, then repair is a temporary measure for one season. For passing next winter the radiator needs to be changed - it will definitely leak in another place.
Not between sections, not on threads, but simply on the body of the radiator - such cases occur mainly with cast-iron or steel appliances due to cavities that come across in the casting. Temporary repairs can be done as follows:
It is clear that this is the biggest trouble that can be imagined in a newly renovated apartment. There are two options for how to cover up so that the pipe does not flow in the wall or under the floor:
Mustard can only be used for water, and factory solutions can be used for both water and antifreeze.
There are a lot of ways to seal large and small holes and crevices in pipes and heating radiators - both folk and scientific. But they are united by one drawback - it is temporary and necessary measure. The pipe, fitting or radiator must be replaced at the end of the heating season.
Of all possible breakdowns occurring in a house or apartment, a pipeline accident is one of the most unpleasant.
Moreover, if in the event of a leak in the pipes of cold or hot water they can simply be blocked and quietly repaired, then the fistula in the heating system requires immediate elimination.
And all this is accompanied by fuss, confusion and a host of other negative emotions. Therefore, to emergency better to prepare in advance. It is impossible to foresee all the options, but it is still better to have some fixtures and materials in the house.
In order to effectively deal with an unpleasant situation, you need to understand the cause of the leak.
If a leak occurs anywhere in the pipeline, first of all, you need to decide for what period of time the accident should be eliminated. If you just want to wait for the arrival of the emergency team, then you can simply limit yourself to removing the leaking water.
If you need to somehow wait for the end of the heating season, then more serious measures will have to be taken.
Don't fool yourself: quality repair heating pipes is possible only when the heating system is empty.
There are not many such ways. After all, when water circulates in the pipe, the most reliable ways to eliminate the accident are simply not available: there is no way to replace the defective section or use welding.
This is the most reliable and easiest way to eliminate an accident on both plumbing and heating pipes.
Every self-respecting home master there should be several clamps in stock. They are sold on construction markets and specialized plumbing departments. Better to have collars different sizes in accordance with the diameters of the pipes available in the house.
If you don’t have a factory clamp at hand, you can use a homemade rubber bandage.
For its manufacture, any rubber available in the house is suitable - a tourniquet, a strip cut from a bicycle chamber. This rubber is tightly wrapped around the leak and secured with a homemade clamp or wire. The main thing is that the width of the rubber patch covers the fistula by several centimeters, and its length is sufficient to cover the entire circumference of the pipe.
This option can only be used for small defects. Their size should not exceed 4 mm. To seal the hole, it is better to use a galvanized self-tapping screw and a press washer to it. It is simply wrapped in a hole and fixed by blocking the water. After such a repair, the pipe can stand for 2-3 years, but it is better to replace the section of the burst pipe as soon as possible.
In addition, a self-tapping screw sticking out inside the pipe will sooner or later cause clogging.
This method of eliminating the accident can only be used under the condition of a small pressure in the pipe.
If the water flows actively, it is better not to try this option.
This modern facility, which is a two-component mixture consisting of metal dust and epoxy resin. The kit includes a hardener, which is necessary for the rapid polymerization of the mixture.
Works are carried out with gloves, as the mixture can irritate the skin of the hands.
This is an old way to fix a small leak that has arisen in a place that is hard to reach or inconvenient for applying a clamp. It is not very reliable, but as a temporary measure it is quite suitable. Often this option is used to repair defects that have arisen in connecting nodes- corners, couplings, tees.
The method is simple: the place of leakage is wrapped with a bandage, sprinkling its layers with salt. Dissolving, it cokes the place of leakage.
Thus, to repair pipes under pressure, it is necessary to have at least repair clamps at home. This is the fastest and most reliable way troubleshooting.
Hello our subscribers and readers. Hello everyone who came to visit us for the first time!
Have you ever been “drowned” by neighbors, and you by neighbors? It’s good if not, and if you have already experienced this “happiness”, then our material will be useful to you. And we will tell you how, how to heat without draining the water
Heating systems are all built according to the same scheme - boiler - supply pipes - appliances - return pipes - boiler. It is looped. The pressure and circulation of the coolant in central heating systems are supported by pumps. In private sector houses with an autonomous open heating system, pressure and circulation are provided by the boiler when heated. In cottages, the heating system is autonomous closed, the coolant is always under pressure.
IN heating systems pressure control occurs according to instruments, but it is still difficult to fix small leaks, automation evens out a slight pressure drop. In private houses, pressure gauges are not installed. Therefore, in both cases, the residents have only one way to control the tightness - visual.
When inspecting heating appliances and pipes suitable for them, pay attention to damp places. In places of obvious leaks, water will drip or flow,. But those who hid the metal risers in the boxes that one of them is leaking, most likely, will learn from the neighbors, to whom the water flowed
There are only two reasons for leaks. The first is mechanical damage. Everything is clear here, but the second reason is corrosion. The cause of corrosion in heating is poor water treatment. IN central heating water treatment equipment purifies water from mechanical impurities and salts. This is not the case in private houses and cottages.
The presence of salts and electricity leads to increased rust formation.
Most of all, threaded joints, welds, bends made by heating rust. Often the fistula appears in straight sections without welds and threads. Perhaps these are pipe defects or a pipe not intended for heating is installed.
During the inspection, they saw a heating pipe flowing what to do. When some confusion passes, the answer will become obvious - immediately eliminate the leaks. But, how and when to start a thorough repair? Of course in the summer. When it is warm and you can safely stop heating and drain the water.
But with the elimination of leaks, you should not pull. If it breaks for real, the damage will be significant. It is necessary to temporarily repair the damage and after the end of the heating season, proceed with the repair.
IN modern systems, which are designed and installed in houses, it is possible to completely turn off one or more branches, without stopping the boiler or riser. In this case, it is possible to carry out repairs without waiting for the end of the heating season.
There are several types of heating repairs without draining the water, but with depressurizing the system, but all of them are only a temporary solution:
If circumstances force you to fix the problem with your own hands, then with some ingenuity and skill, you can use other methods. Using improvised means - wire, rubber, self-tapping screws, wooden chopsticks, etc.
A working heating system is always under pressure, even in open systems small houses where extensions are used. Therefore, you need to understand how to close the leak. And one method is suitable here - the use of a clamp and rubber or a bandage.
The sequence is this. Having found the place of damage, measure the diameter of the pipe. Clamp make or buy according to this size. It must be taken into account that with a clamp you close not only the damage, but also several centimeters of the pipe in different sides. Be sure to put rubber under the clamp.
If the area of damage is small, and the pipe diameter is more than 50 mm, it is better to use a factory bandage. It sits tighter than a clamp.
On low pressure heating systems, a rubber band and wire can be used. With a tourniquet, stretching it as much as possible, wrap it, and fix it with a wire.
It is easier to work when the heating is turned off. The pumps are switched off or the supply is blocked. You need to release the pressure. Find the leak and, depending on access to the damaged area, choose the most appropriate repair method.
Depending on how you repair, the set of tools and materials will also change.
Let's try to unify:
In specialized stores or departments for the repair of heating and other pipes, there is a lot of interesting things. Bandages and clamps, adhesives of various composition and drying time, dry sanitary mixtures on a cement and polymer basis. There is also a wonderful thing on sale - plumbing tape. Sticks to any clean surface, so don't tear it off. Yes, foil and reinforced.
All heating elements are assembled into a single system using threaded, welded, soldered and fitting connections. Any one of them is the least reliable place and happens to be leaking. Leaks at the joints of pipes, whether metal or polypropylene, can be eliminated with an epoxy-based adhesive. For this surface metal pipe together the damage must be cleaned from old paint and rust. Cleaning can be done with a metal brush, sandpaper or scrape off with a knife.
If the water is still oozing, it's best to wait until it stops.
Prepare fiberglass or medical bandage. If the pipe has a diameter of 15 to 32 mm, the length of the fabric is approximately 30-35 cm. Then add a hardener to the glue base in the proportion indicated in the instructions. You can, to increase the speed of hardening, add more hardener. The main thing is not to overdo it, otherwise you won’t have time to finish how the glue hardens. Soak the fabric with glue and wrap the damaged area. After hardening, you can start heating. Work with rubber gloves. In the same way, leaks can be eliminated at the joints of polypropylene pipes.
Most often, the threaded connections of the radiator and pipes flow. In these places and at the joints, in addition to epoxy glue, cold welding and cement-gypsum bandages. The method is old, but quite efficient. Ready-made dressings are rarely found on sale. Therefore, they are prepared on their own. Cement is mixed with alabaster (building gypsum) in a ratio of 1 to 0.5, diluted with water to the state of thick rustic sour cream, the bandage is cut into strips of 30-35 cm, and placed in a bowl with cement-gypsum mortar, then impregnated, applied in layers over the threaded compounds, smeared on top with the remaining solution. Sometimes salt is added to the composition.
It is believed that as a result of increased oxidation of the metal, the fistula will heal faster.
There are damages in sections of a radiator. It is often not possible to close a hole in a radiator without dismantling it. You can close it only where there is access. If you are “lucky” and the hole is available, you can fix it with a roofing screw, bolt or chopstick. Well, everything is clear with the chopstick, sharpen and hammer into the hole, carefully cut off the excess.
Self-tapping is more difficult. The self-tapping screw must, first of all, be selected along the length so that it does not rest against the opposite wall. If there is one, you need to drill a hole 0.5 mm less than the thickness of the self-tapping screw, and use an 8 key to wrap it into the hole.
If the battery has a large hole, you can put a bolt. To do this, you need to drill a hole and cut the thread with a tap and dipping the body of the bolt into the paint, wrap it in place. This is easy to do only on paper, in reality everything is much more difficult. The same methods can be applied to pipe repair. If the pipe is thick-walled (3 or more mm.)
A leak between battery sections can be eliminated if it is cast iron. For aluminum and bimetallic, the sections are very close and you can’t get there.
Repair with cold welding or epoxy glue, in addition, a narrow clamp can be installed on top of the adhesive bandage or cold welding. He will press everything under him to the body of the battery. A heat-resistant sealant can also be used in combination with the clamp.
Hidden, this is the part of the heating system that is closed concrete screed floors, insulation or decorative boxes. In all these cases, the most difficult thing is to find and get to the place of damage. And after that, evaluate which repair method to choose. There is no way without professionals.
On straight and accessible sections, you can use any method that you like best and work best. But the most reliable mechanical way using clamps or bandages.
You can not save on clamps and put narrow ones. Remember, the clamp should close the pipe with a margin of 2-3 cm on each side of the fistula, because with inside the damage could be much greater.
Do not grab the pipe wrench and do not try to tighten the "current" threads, break off on old pipes.
Pipes, especially metal ones - "living" in old houses, are often "naughty" - they leak. As you understand, this is a kind of signal that the time has come to change communications. They usually try to combine such a step with repairs, and this is logical. But what to do when repairs for financial or some other reasons are not included in your immediate plans? Naturally, try to correct the situation, at least for a while - before the start of repairs or the arrival of a plumber, so that the house does not remain dehydrated. You may be surprised, but you can fix leaking pipes under pressure with your own hands. Do you want to know how?!
So, how to fix a leak in a pipe under pressure at the attachment points of the system elements?
The easiest way, often, by the way, helping: simply tighten the fitting using a special key for this.
The failure of pipes knocks us out of the usual rhythm of life
Didn't help, do you see that water is still flowing from under the connection? This means that there is little pull-up, the tow has worn out. What to do under such circumstances? On the contrary, unscrew the fitting - up to half. Remove the old tow, clean the threads, wind a new one. Just act with lightning speed, because the pressure in the pipes can provoke a break in the connection, and, consequently, a flood.
It happens that neither tightening nor changing the tow can save the fitting. This happens if the thread of the part is damaged. Then you can’t do without an “operation” - you need to cut out the overhang and mount a new one. It is better to entrust this matter to the specialized service, and while she is driving, wrap the place of the leak with raw rubber, tightening the “bandage” tightly. If you feel confident in the role of a plumber, then change it yourself, just do not forget to turn off the water or ask the Housing Office to do it.
Worth paying attention! Leakage at the threaded joint can be prevented by painting over the transitions and spurs abundantly (in several layers).
Most often, the failure of the fitting leads to a leak.
And now we will consider how to eliminate a leak in a pipe with water, and before that - the causes of such a disaster. Most often a crack / breakdown in engineering networks contribute to the abundant accumulation of condensate on the pipes, as well as the current wandering through the structures. All this happens due to improper care of communications. But if an oversight led to a breakdown, then, by and large, the reason no longer matters - it needs to be repaired, right?
Ready to roll up your sleeves? Then let's start!
The simplest and reliable option restoring the health of the water supply - use a special clamp, which is sold in abundance in the construction markets and in plumbing stores. Naturally, it is worth buying them in advance, moreover, the stock should be from clamps of different sizes in order to patch up any pipe in the house. They are cheap, so you definitely won't go bankrupt buying emergency plumbing supplies.
The clamp is a rubberized pad with a pair of rods, consisting of a pair of screws. For self repair- it’s better not to come up with, and professionals often use this “magic wand” - to “revive” even the oldest pipes, at least to their complete replacement.
There are no stocks, but full of different building materials? Make your own collar. Cut a strip from thick metal, and an overlay from rubber. Arm yourself with washers, nuts, bolts and “heal” the pipe with your own hands.
Worth paying attention! The clamp is suitable for stopping a leak due to damage that does not occupy more than 30% of the pipe circumference.
This is how the “wound” on the pipe looks like after putting on the clamp
Homeowner's Helper No. 1 - a self-tapping screw, useful for flood protection. But only if the crack does not exceed 4 mm in size.
So, how to fix a leak in a pressure pipe with a self-tapping screw? Find a galvanized, unused screw and a press washer to it ( perfect option- aircraft part equipped with a rubber gasket). Screw the self-tapping screw into the pipe and forget about the damage for a while (up to 3 years).
If the hole is small - the water does not spout, then you can try to cement the pipe. In addition to cement, you will also need a bandage (usual - medical).
If possible, the water should be turned off, otherwise the solution may not harden. Dilute the cement with water in some kind of bowl, mix the mixture thoroughly. Cut the bandage into pieces of about 25 cm each (be guided so that the material is enough to wrap the pipe twice). Soak the pieces with cement mixture and wind them around the pipe one by one. Coat the “dressing” on top with plenty of the remaining solution. Leave the "cocoon" alone for a day, letting it dry thoroughly. The patch can even be painted on top. For a while, the design will help you avoid major network repairs.
Manufacturers offer a ready-made composition, or rather, components that need to be mixed to make pipe glue. In the construction language, the mixture is called an emergency metal polymer. The kit includes mixed with resin metal dust and hardener. Before repairing the pipe, they just need to be thoroughly mixed, and the glue is ready.
A couple of spoons of glue, and the leak is fixed
Such networks rarely leak, if this happens, then, as a rule, the fitting is the culprit of the accident. Sometimes it is enough to tighten it, moreover, this can be done without turning off the water - directly under pressure. However, do not overtighten the part, otherwise the plastic will burst, and you will be guaranteed trouble.
If the pipe nevertheless bursts, then you will have to sweat thoroughly, however, in this case, you can do everything yourself, however, you will have to run around and look for tools and equipment.
So, you have to replace the fragment plastic construction that leaked. If the pipes are polypropylene, then classical soldering will be enough, which can be done using a polyfus (a special model of a soldering iron). Is your network made of metal-plastic? Then you have to make inserts on the thread. However, sometimes - with a slight damage, sometimes it is enough to wrap it with an insulating tape (just choose a fresh one so that the material stretches and does not tear) or processing special glue(polyurethane, epoxy, thermal compound).
Worth paying attention! Can't find a soldering iron? Use the so-called "handicraft welding". The technology involves sealing the crack with the material of the pipeline itself. To do this, a red-hot nail should be applied to the hole (with proper skill, you can heat up the leak with a conventional lighter). The material will become pliable, so patching the hole is not difficult.
Ordinary duct tape can save your house from flooding
The heating network has its own differences: hot water is always present in the pipes, therefore cracks should be repaired using a special technology. For work, imagine, you only need a bandage and salt (usual - cooking).
So, a hole - like a wound, you simply bandage it, generously sprinkling each layer with salt. What is the "focus"? Salt, getting into the cracks, simply clogs them - better than other glue. Sometimes, when the cracks are completely microscopic, it is enough just to sprinkle the “wound” with salt.
If the leak is impressive, use the same clamp or turn off special service, after inserting a wood / fabric plug into the hole so that the battery does not turn into a fountain.
If you can’t solve the problem on your own, but the water stays, urgently call the masters
So you have learned how to fix leaking pipes under pressure, which means that the flood does not threaten your house.
Having found a leak in or a water pipe made of steel pipes, you can do without a plumber, quickly eliminating the leak on your own.
In the event of a leak, you have the opportunity to shut off the water supply (cold or hot, it doesn’t matter) to the apartment and calmly repair the pipe.
If water leaks from the heating system, it will be difficult to shut off the hot water supply during the heating season, and therefore all actions should be aimed at temporarily eliminating the leak with the prospect overhaul heating systems.
Turn off the water, prepare a small amount of such a consistency that it resembles thick sour cream in viscosity.
Having cut off a piece about 20 cm long from a medical bandage (the length of the bandage should allow it to be wound around the pipe in an amount of at least 2 turns), soak the bandage in cement mortar, and then tightly bandage the pipe with it at the leak site.
For fidelity, repeat the procedure for bandaging the pipe with one or two more pieces of bandage.
Coat the treated area on top cement mortar and refrain from using water for a day until the solution finally sets. If the repaired section of the pipe is covered with paint, it will become not only more aesthetic, but also stronger.
Paradoxical as it sounds, but salt effectively helps eliminate leaks in heating pipes. If the leak is insignificant, it is enough to rub a small amount of salt into the place of the leak with your hand and the leak will soon be delayed.
In case of a more serious leak, bandage the pipe with a medical bandage, accompanying each turn with a sprinkling of salt.
Do not forget that this method of fixing a leak is temporary, “salt patches” will only hold back the pressure of water until the water in the heating pipes cools down.
To make it, you need an elastic rubber bandage, which is used by athletes or an ordinary bicycle camera. It will have to be cut, preparing from it a kind of rubber bandage about 10 cm wide.
With a rubber bandage or a strip of the camera tightly, very tightly, wrap the pipe at the place of leakage, fixing it with 2-3 clamps or wrapping it with wire.
The use of a rubber band is a temporary measure to eliminate pipe leakage, although such a bandage can last more than one season.
In addition to the tourniquet, to eliminate the leak, you can use the factory bandage, consisting of sealing rubber and clamps.
There are also bandages, consisting of two halves, interconnected by bolts, a device resembling a clamp, with which you can temporarily neutralize the leakage of pipes of different diameters.
In order to adhere well, clean the surface of the pipe with a knife or coarse sandpaper from paint to bare metal.
An emery bar for sharpening knives will also work, the main thing is speed and accuracy. Try to clean the pipe so that the size of the leak does not increase.
Apply one-component cold welding immediately to the damaged section of the pipe or, two-component, thoroughly knead beforehand.
Press the adhesive mass with force into the place where the water flows, holding it with your hand for a while until the glue sets.
Each of the described methods for eliminating leaks in heating pipes is good in its own way. However, all of them are temporary in nature, the elimination of a pipe leak must be followed by its overhaul.
Good luck to you! May you succeed!
