Address: Italy, Florence
Start of construction: 1296
Completion of construction: 1436
Architect: Arnolfo di Cambio and Filippo Brunelleschi
Coordinates: 43°46"23.2"N 11°15"24.0"E
Numerous historical documents indicate that in the 8th century BC, the lands surrounded by the Arno and Mugnone rivers were inhabited by ancient tribes. At the same time, the ancient Florentines, on the site where the majestic Duomo Cathedral stands today, created a forum, which over time turned into a trading area.
In the Middle Ages, the center of Florence was also a place where large public gatherings were held. A little later, when the Republicans came to power, it was at central square the orders of the commune rulers were announced. It would not be out of place to say that during the reign of the Medici dynasty, various events were held at this place: from solemn wedding ceremonies to blood-curdling executions.
Today, just like many centuries ago, the center of Florence is still always crowded. Every day crowds of tourists gather at this place in order to see with their own eyes one of the largest cathedrals in Italy, Santa Maria del Fiore. In addition, on the square you can meet quite a lot of merchants inviting travelers to their stalls with souvenirs, beggars and law enforcement officers - life in this place does not calm down for a minute.
Santa Maria del Fiore, which also has a second name - Duomo, is the most famous cathedral in Florence. It is rightfully considered the symbol of this Italian city, and is the most visited architectural structure by tourists. The temple arouses genuine interest among all guests of Florence without exception. The name of one of the most important cathedrals in Italy, Santa Maria del Fiore, is literally translated into Russian as “flower of St. Mary”. This is one of the largest structures in the country, crowned with the world's largest (!) brick dome. The majestic complex, built in the Gothic style, consisting of a cathedral, baptistery and bell tower, is currently listed World Heritage UNESCO.
Bird's eye view of the cathedral
The Florence Cathedral surprises and delights at the same time. Its impressively sized dome seems to hover over the city, and the severity of clear lines inherent in the Gothic style unique painting temple, medieval bas-reliefs, interesting ancient history, dating back to the XII-XIII centuries, attracts the attention of tourists from all over the world. “No matter how many times I visit the Duomo, every time I find something new and interesting for myself. The amazing thing is that, taking souvenir pictures of this Italian architectural masterpiece, every time you are amazed at how multifaceted the Cathedral of Santa Maria del Fiore is. It is impossible to take two identical photographs from the same angle. The sun, the cloudy sky, the mood - all this changes the “picture” and makes you look at the already familiar building in a new way!”, admires one of the tourists, after another visit to the Duomo Cathedral.
According to documents that have survived to this day, many historians have concluded that the Duomo temple was built at the end of the 13th century on the site of the Cathedral of Santa Reparata. This was not surprising, since the walls of the ancient cathedral, built in the 4th century, had become dilapidated and began to collapse. It was decided to demolish the outdated building also because it was at the end of the 13th century that economic and demographic growth was observed in Florence. The size of the temple could not accommodate everyone. The Florentines decided to emphasize their superiority over the dominant cities of Tuscany in terms of power and wealth with the largest cathedral, which surpassed in size the no less magnificent cathedrals of Siena and Pisa. Looking ahead a little, I would like to add that upon completion of all construction work, in 1434, the temple of Santa Maria del Fiore was recognized as the largest in Europe.
Cathedral facade
The first developer of the grandiose project, who laid the foundation of the temple in 1296, is considered to be Arnold di Cambio, however, Santa Maria del Fiore is the result of the fruitful work of many other artists and architects. Arnold di Cambio designed three wide naves, the top of which was crowned with an octagonal dome. In 1302, the architect died, construction was interrupted for almost three decades. In 1331, the guild of wool merchants decided to resume work on the construction of the temple, and appointed the then famous architect and artist Giotto to the post of chief architect. However, instead of continuing the construction of the cathedral, the new architect takes on the design of the bell tower or campanile. The death of the master, during whose lifetime only the first tier of the bell tower was erected, again stops the barely begun construction: at this time the plague “rules” in the city, mercilessly claiming the lives of thousands of citizens.
Work continued in 1355, this time they were led by three architects: Giovanni d'Ambrogio, Alberto Arnoldi, Neri di Fioravante. The construction of the nave was completed in 1380, but the dome remained unfinished. In 1418- year, a competition was announced for best project dome, in which Filippo Brunelleschi won. It was this architect who designed the legendary and largest octagonal brick dome in the world.
Baptistery of San Giovanni with the cathedral in the background
Construction of the dome began two years later and was completed only in 1436. At that time it was the only octagonal dome in the world huge size, at the base of which there was not a single wooden support. Despite the unfinished façade of the temple, it was consecrated by the Pope. Cathedral Santa Maria del Fiore was rebuilt many more times, with long interruptions and under the leadership of many architects. Today, numerous travelers who come to the Duomo can see the structure, which was finally completed in 1887.
The Cathedral of Santa Maria del Fiore attracts the attention of hundreds of thousands of tourists due to its impressive size and original façade, decorated with numerous statues.
The shape of the Gothic cathedral is a Latin cross, which has three naves, two side transepts and a semicircular apse. The dimensions of the temple are really large: its length is just over 153 meters, and its width is 90 meters (in the transept). The height of the arches exceeds 20 meters, and the height of the entire structure, from the very base to the top of the dome, is 90 meters. At that moment when florence cathedral had just begun to receive parishioners within its walls, it was the largest in Europe, its capacity was almost 30 thousand people. Over time, much larger buildings appeared, among which are the Milan Cathedral in Italy, St. Paul's Cathedral in Great Britain, Cologne Cathedral in Germany and the Cathedral of Our Lady of Peace in Cote d'Ivoire.
Cathedral interior
The interior decoration of the Duomo temple cannot leave any of its visitors indifferent. How could it be otherwise, since the most famous artists and sculptors worked on its interior. Many stained glass windows were created in the 1400s. In addition to this, on interior walls The dome contains frescoes dating back to the 16th century, which depict the scene of the Last Judgment.
Also in interior decoration The cathedral features an original clock from 1443, created by Uccello. Unlike the usual modern people movement of the clock hands on the dial - from right to left, these hands move in opposite direction. A similar clock can be seen on one of the town halls in the European quarter of Prague.
The architectural structure is also decorated with a bas-relief depicting Giotto laying out mosaics. On the walls of the cathedral you can see paintings depicting the English condottiere John Hawkwood and the Italian condottiere Niccolo da Tolentino, the poet Dante with his “Divine Comedy”. In addition, in the cathedral you can see busts of Brunelleschi, organist Antonio Squarcialuli, and philosopher Marsilio Ficino. Also of interest is the fact that two of its creators are buried on the territory of the temple: Brunelleschi and Giotto.
The total size of the fresco of the Cathedral of Santa Maria del Fiore is half the size of a football field!
We have already talked about how the architect Filippo Brunelleschi created a unique dome in Florence, and this dome remains the largest brick dome in the world. But who painted it? inner surface this dome with such unusual frescoes?
The frescoes inside the giant dome were created by the same Florentine artist and architect Giorgio Vasari, who, by order of Cosimo I de' Medici, designed and built a unique one, stretching over squares and streets, as well as over a bridge from one bank of the Arno River to the other and connecting two palaces - Palazzo Vecchio in Piazza della Senoria and Palazzo Pitti.
Immediately after the construction of the corridor in 1565, Vasari received an order from Cosimo I de' Medici to paint the dome, which he carried out starting in 1572, but did not have time to complete the work, which was completed after the death of Vasari (1574) by Federico Zucarro.
The total area of the fresco on the dome is about 3,600 square meters. meters, which is half a football field. The plot was the Last Judgment.
The devil devouring sinners is a clear influence of Bosch. Source http://24.media.tumblr.com/ Here it must be recalled that long before the time of Cosimo Medici and Giorgio Vasari, the great Florentine Dante Alighieri described in detail and vividly the pictures of Hell in the first part of the Divine Comedy, and Dante and his general ledger so revered in Florence that he himself is depicted in a huge painting that occupies a place of honor in the Cathedral of Santa Maria del Fiore, and in the same painting Florence is depicted, as well as the “three kingdoms” described by Dante, that is, Hell, Purgatory and Paradise. Of course, Vasari's frescoes were supposed to develop those ideas that are associated with Dante's book. In addition, in Florence they were also familiar with the paintings of the Last Judgment created by Bosch, and these paintings are much more terrible than Dante’s stories. Their “Last Judgments” were written by Giotto (the second architect of the Cathedral, who built the campanile and was buried in Santa Maria del Fiore), Botticelli and Michelangelo. This was the context that Vasari took into account.
Central fresco of the dome. Eastern part of the fresco (above the altar opposite the entrance). In the center of the third tier is Jesus, the Mother of God, with Saints around. All five rows of the fresco are clearly visible. Source http://st.depositphotos.com/ 
Nevertheless, he managed to create something that amazed his contemporaries and shocked tourists. The fact is that Vasari painted frescoes in the spirit of the best traditions of the Renaissance, that is, his sinners accepting the torments of Hell, and even their tormentors look, if not realistic, then in any case very similar to the characters ancient myths how they appear on the canvases of Florentine artists. The result is a kind of aesthetic illustration of what is happening in Hell, moreover convincing of the authenticity of the events depicted. In addition, in some of the sinners one can recognize some of Vasari’s contemporaries, and they suffer in accordance with the earthly sins that the Florentines were gossiping about at that time.
One of these shocking fragments is the depiction of a scene of punishment of a lecher and a homosexual. A certain character who looks like a devil burns a harlot’s private part with fire on a long handle, and another tailed servant of Satan burns a supporter of same-sex love at the place below his back, which is associated with his sin.
All frescoes are divided into 5 rows, or tiers, each of which consists of 8 episodes (which is determined by the octagonal shape of the dome). The bottom row depicts sins, sinners and their punishment in Hell. The second row from the bottom is filled, by contrast, with images of the Virtues, the Beatitudes and the Gifts of the Holy Spirit. Third row - composition center the entire painting of the dome is given to images of Christ, the Virgin Mary and the Saints. The fourth row from the bottom, located near the hole in the center of the dome, is occupied by Angels with the instruments of the Passion of Christ (this is the cup in which Pilate washed his hands, handing over the fate of Jesus to his tormentors; 30 pieces of silver received by Judas; the pillar to which Jesus was tied in the time of scourging; the crown of thorns; the cross on which Jesus was crucified; the nails that pierced the flesh of the Son of God; the spear with which the Roman legionnaire Longinus finished off Jesus, ending his torment; the grail, in in this case representing the cup in which the blood of Jesus was collected; the ladder that was used to remove Jesus' body from the cross; the shroud in which the dead body was wrapped and on which traces were imprinted; as well as other instruments of the Passion of Christ). Finally, in the uppermost row, which is also the smallest in size, since it adjoins the opening at the top of the dome, are the Elders of the Apocalypse, about whom in the Book of Revelation, prophesying the Last Judgment, it is said this way: “And around the throne are twenty-four thrones; and on the thrones I saw twenty-four elders, who were dressed in white robes and had golden crowns on their heads.” Since there are only eight sectors of the dome, and in the upper tier they are quite cramped, Vasari depicts the elders in threes, with one of each three in the foreground, and two seem to be peeking out from behind the left and right shoulders of the central figure.
After the death of Vasari and Cosimo I, the new ruler of Florence, Francesco I, invited the artist Federico Zucarro to complete the interior painting of the dome, and he, in fulfillment of the will of the ruler, in the third tier, eastern part which (above the altar and opposite the entrance) is occupied by Jesus and the Virgin Mary, and the neighboring sectors are the Saints, he also depicted the “redeemed”, that is, those who contributed to the prosperity of Florence and the construction of the Cathedral and thereby, as was proclaimed, atoned for sins, which allows entry straight to Paradise, bypassing Purgatory. Moreover, the sense of proportion had already completely failed both Francesco I himself and the artist Zucarro, who depicted the Medici, the Emperor, the King of France, Vasari and other artists among the “redeemed”, as well as himself and even his relatives and friends.
The frescoes of the dome of Santa Maria del Fiore have caused a lot of controversy since their creation to the present day. Some say that this is an outright political order, and therefore cannot be considered a masterpiece and a monument. Others object that the painting of any large temple was done to order, and that the frescoes of Vasari and Zucarro precisely express the peculiar spirit of that Late Renaissance, which the Dutch researcher Huizinga wittily and accurately called “Autumn of the Middle Ages.” Be that as it may, the internal painting of the dome was restored in 1978-1994, and 11 billion lire were spent on this, although this also caused outrage and protests from some Florentines.
In 1294, the church and city authorities of Florence decided to expand the small building of the Church of Santa Reparata and consecrate it in honor of St. Maria. A little over 100 years later, Florentines could see the walls of the Cathedral of Santa Maria del Fiore, which did not yet have a dome, towering over the center of their city. Covering the open space of a building with a vault at that time was a very complex technical task, and in 1418 the managers of the Opera del Duomo, the workshop of builders who built the cathedral, found themselves in a very difficult situation.
The architects who designed the cathedral over the years (among them Arnolfo di Cambio, Francesco Talenti and Giovanni di Lapo Ghini) built eight walls of the choir where the high altar would be located. A majestic dome was supposed to rest on these walls. For the first time in construction practice, such a huge (54.8 m in diameter) octagonal dome had to be built. The complete model of the cathedral, including the dome, which was proposed by Arnolfo and which the builders used, has been lost.
Traditional methods and mechanisms used by builders at that time were not suitable for this task. One such method was to fill the space enclosed by an octahedron, wooden scaffolding, which could support the stone dome until the mortar hardens. But the timber was expensive, and there was no unity among the builders in choosing one method or another. Therefore, the Opera del Duomo and the Wool Workers' Guild are an influential guild responsible for the implementation of the cathedral construction project since 1331. - a competition was announced among architects, as was customary in the Florentine Republic.
In 1420 the choice fell on two famous architects. One of them, Filippo di Ser Brunelleschi (1377-1446), a Florentine sculptor and goldsmith, described, but had not yet submitted, a model and a new, if not revolutionary, method of constructing the dome. His main rival, Lorenzo Ghiberti (1378-1455), also a sculptor and goldsmith, was widely known, since it was he who received the order in 1402 to make the bronze doors of the baptistery in front of the cathedral. Brunelleschi then failed to get that order.
Brunelleschi proposed building a dome in the form of a double vault, having an outer and an inner shell (this design still has no analogue). The method he proposed did not require the construction of expensive wooden scaffolding and circles to support the vault during its construction. Besides,. Each level of the vault turned out to be strong enough for the construction of the next level. To implement this new and safe method Brunelleschi invented mechanisms such as the hoist, cranes and the horizontal winch.
Brunelleschi wanted to be the sole architect of the project, since he was the only one who knew how to implement it. He figured out how to remove Ghiberti from participating in the construction of the dome. Giorgio Vasari (1511-1574), a biographer of famous artists and architects of the Renaissance, wrote (referring to the biography of Brunelleschi written by Antonio Manetti) that Brunelleschi feigned illness so that Ghiberti alone would have to supervise the work. The latter did not know how to continue construction, and so it eventually stopped. Work resumed only when Brunelleschi reappeared at the construction site, thus establishing his authority.
Ironically, the most detailed drawings of the building mechanisms invented by Brunelleschi were made by Ghiberti's grandson Buanaccorso Ghiberti (1451-1516). In 1955 I found his sketchbook in the National Library of Florence. These sketches, as well as the published archives of the Opera del Duomo (preserved from 1293), which contained the names of workers, supervisors, dates and information about payments for work and supplies, provide a fairly clear idea of how the construction of the dome was carried out and about the role of Brunelleschi. These sources helped me learn how Brunelleschi used his machinery to construct the two shells of the dome and the lantern, and how the lantern was later fitted with a gilded ball weighing about one and a half tons and a cross.
Brunelleschi, considered the founder of Renaissance architecture, explored the architecture of ancient Roman buildings in search of elements of the classical orders (Doric, Ionic and Corinthian), thereby changing the appearance of later buildings. He also used contemporary mathematical methods to achieve architectural proportions commensurate with humans. Brunelleschi's technical improvements, including new mechanisms and subsequent designs for new buildings, contributed to the development of Renaissance architecture.
Brunelleschi managed to overcome the technical barriers facing his contemporaries. Vasari describes being captivated by thoughts of “time, motion, how weights act, how wheels must turn, so that he can build a very good and beautiful clock.” Brunelleschi also created paintings that illustrate the concept of perspective. In his famous painting of the baptistery, he introduced the concept of a vanishing point. With this, he revolutionized Renaissance painting by depicting three-dimensional objects on a flat surface. Brunelleschi's choice of proportions or geometric methods was influenced by the ideas of the Florentine mathematician and astronomer Paolo del Pozzo Toscanelli (1397-1482).
In addition to studying mechanics and mathematics, Brunelleschi spent some time in Rome, measuring and examining ruins of buildings. This was his direct acquaintance with the ancient Roman methods of constructing large vaults. According to Vasari, before 1428 Brunelleschi examined the foundations of all buildings in Rome built in the ancient era. At the same time, he noted what kind of binding material the builders used, and the grooves and marks on the stones helped him establish how they were cut and lifted. Some features of the dome of the Cathedral of Santa Maria del Fiore are the result of his discoveries. But most importantly, these studies helped Brunelleschi find a way to build the dome of this cathedral.
During the competition for the best dome design in 1418, Brunelleschi's ideas turned out to be very controversial, since the method he proposed for constructing the dome was unprecedented. All surviving domes were small and hemispherical, such as those of the cathedrals of Pisa and Siena or the Pantheon in Rome. The Pantheon's dome consists of a single shell and has an opening at the top through which the interior is illuminated (the only source of natural light in the temple). It is possible that Brunelleschi also suggested this dome and the remains of the vaults of ancient Roman buildings constructive solution domes of the Florentine Cathedral. Ultimately, the Florentines allowed Brunelleschi to begin work, although members of the Opera del Duomo, as documents from procedural meetings show, were still wary of his project.
The construction of a vault without circles was perhaps Brunelleschi's most important known achievement. The Gothic arches (pointed, in contrast to the semi-circular Roman arches) of the octagonal choir of the Cathedral of Santa Maria del Fiore had a lower height than the arches of the dome. In addition, the arches of the central choir had wooden supports. As for the dome, according to Brunelleschi's plan, during its construction the bricks in each of the rows of masonry were laid at an angle to the bricks of the underlying row, which gave strength to the entire structure and compensated for the weight of the vault being erected. The weight of each new layer of bricks was transferred to the pylons and walls of the octagon.
Brunelleschi also invented a system of stone rings to tie together the shells of the vault. These stones were connected at the edges of both shells and were reinforced with transverse metal rods. Interlocking stones bind each row of vault shells horizontally and vertically, thereby strengthening the entire structure. Without them, the ribs of the vaults could partially straighten, which would lead to a violation of the integrity of the dome.
Brunelleschi's model also had others characteristics. So, drainpipes were located outside the building, and openings in the outer vault dissipated wind loads and increased resistance to earthquakes. Brunelleschi used cast iron consoles as supports for scaffolding on which artists could work to paint frescoes and lay out mosaics. (Vasari wrote that Brunelleschi installed a kitchen on the upper tiers of the scaffolding so that workers would not have to waste time going down to eat).
The outer shell of the vault protected the stronger inner shell from the effects of rain and wind. The space between the shells was sufficient to create a passage there and place the stairs necessary both for the construction of the shells themselves and for their repair.
At the top of the dome, where the eight ribs of the outer and inner shells meet, Brunelleschi's design included a circular stone enclosure called a seraglio. The latter is located around a round hole (“oculus”) at the top of the dome. The oculus, which has a diameter of 6 m and a height of 3.6 to 4.5 m, serves as the keystone for the eight arches of the dome. Each of the 8 sides of the opening has three windows that allow light and air into the seraglio.
These windows were also used for other purposes, which once again demonstrates Brunelleschi's ingenuity. You could put long ones through them wooden beams, which could serve as temporary flooring. The cranes were located on this deck during the construction of the marble lantern and the installation of the ball and cross. All materials needed for the lantern were fed upward through an opening in the platform.
Although the lantern was a critical element of the dome designed by Brunelleschi in 1418, a competition for its design was not announced until after the dome was completed. In 1436, Brunelleschi's model won, which has survived to this day. The eight buttresses of the lantern serve to transmit the weight to the ribs of the vault, and through them to the eight large pylons of the octagon.
Brunelleschi's indifference to politics was reflected in his design for the lantern: one of its eight columns is hollow and contains a steep staircase that provides access to a tent on which is mounted a ball and a cross. When Brunelleschi submitted his model to the authorities, he carefully disguised the staircase, revealing it only when the jury became interested in how workers would get to the top to complete the tent. Cathedrals in Italy are often crowned with a ball and a cross - symbols of the rule of the cardinal and St. Peter's in Rome
To implement his plans, Brunelleschi invented mechanisms designed to lift heavy loads to great heights directly to the place of their installation. These mechanisms, including hoists, cranes, horizontal winches and specially designed hooks, demonstrate his extensive mechanical knowledge and innovative approach. It should also be noted that these mechanisms were safe and allowed construction to be completed relatively quickly.
Since the spirit of competition reigned in the creative environment of Florence at that time, Brunelleschi tried to keep his developments secret, including the model of the dome and the designs of the mechanisms he invented. He was afraid that his ideas might be stolen from him, and therefore he never trusted them to paper (patents, which had just appeared in Venice, were not yet known in Florence). He had to order each part of the lift from different foundries, blacksmiths and other craftsmen, and those who lived outside of Florence. He gave each of the masters only a schematic profile drawing parts, but assembled the entire mechanism myself.
Brunelleschi's mechanisms were integral part his general method construction of the dome. The construction of the lift undoubtedly testifies to the ingenuity of its author and how deep his knowledge of mechanics was. Some parts of the lift had no analogues in the past, and the crane and horizontal winch were of a completely new design.
The lift piles (see top and left middle drawing on page 39) were driven into the ground in the center of the choir, directly below the dome. The lift remained on this site for 50 years until the dome and lantern topped with a ball and cross were completed. With the help of this mechanism, the construction material- stone, marble blocks, mortar and long chestnut beams.
The lift was relatively easy to use. One end of the rope was tied to the drum. The load (stone, logs, etc.) was attached to the other end of the rope using hooks - devices (used by the ancient Romans, which were rediscovered by Brunelleschi) in the form of stirrups that fit into the grooves of the stone. A horse or ox was harnessed to a rotating beam, which powered the mechanism. The wheels of the lift rotated the drum, the load rose to the top, right under the dome, where the workers accepted it. At the right moment, they gave a signal by shouting, and the rise stopped.
Brunelleschi's merit is that the wooden lift he invented was a two-way one: it had two wheels, one of which served to raise and the other to lower the load. These wheels were activated alternately with the help of a wooden screw in the vertical axis of the lift. With such a two-way clutch system, the draft animal could move in the water direction, i.e., there was no need to untie it each time and then tie it again in order to change the direction of movement. (The rope weighed about 500 kg and was made by shipbuilders in Pisa.)
Brunelleschi also invented new mechanical parts for the lift, called palai (rotating wooden rollers mounted on U-shaped cast iron supports), which acted as gear teeth. The main wheel had 91 paleos. They made it possible to reduce energy losses due to friction in the wheel drive.
To lift the stones, Brunelleschi adapted brackets, or arms, that fit into the recesses of the stone blocks. These brackets were clamped using turnbuckles, thereby ensuring lifting safety. Iron girders consisted of three loose systems of iron wedges that fit into a slot in the stone to form a "tenon and socket" type lock.
The load, lifted upward using a hoist, was received by a crane designed by Brunelleschi. This crane could turn, and its carriage carried the building material to the place where the masonry was being carried out. The winch moved the load horizontally, after which, using a worm gear (the worm was located at the opposite end of the winch), the load was lowered where needed. The crane and horizontal winch worked in concert with the hoist.
Another crane was used to construct the lantern. It was located on a round platform that rested on rollers and could be turned like a rotating tray for food. The load moving system was the same as in a horizontal winch. The crane was located above the hole in the top of the dome, while the support for the scaffolding was provided by beams inserted into the windows of the seraglio.
Some idea of how the crane used to construct the lantern worked is given by the notes of Leonardo da Vinci, who made copies of all the drawings made by Buanoccorso for Brunelleschi. Leonardo da Vinci notes that the crane had “four wooden worms that lift the scaffolding, and after this it was possible to build a solid platform under it.”
Another crane was used to construct the lantern tent. This crane was definitely also designed by Brunelleschi because, as the author of the lantern project, he prepared all stages of the work. In addition, since this project includes a ball and a cross, he also designed the devices with which they were erected.
The crane load handling system used in the construction of the tent consists of a horizontal crane beam from which a rope crane block is suspended. The drawing by Buanaccorso shows only the main parts of this crane. It does not show the massive scaffolding required to install the crane, and it does not indicate how the round platform could be rotated. However, this drawing shows the entire crane (it is installed on the marble cornice of the lantern) and the hole in the top of the tent in which the ball and cross were fixed (the latter are held in place by wooden beams located inside the tent).
When Brunelleschi died, the lantern had not yet been completed, and the ball and cross had yet to be installed. Since there are very few written documents and drawings from which to extract more complete information about Brunelleschi's methods, fragmentary information left by some members of the Opera del Diomo about the difficult task of constructing the lantern, installing the ball and cross (and re-installing them) installation after natural disaster) are of particular importance for recovery original method, designed by Brunelleschi. This information is complemented by drawings by Buanaccorso and Leonardo da Vinci.
In 1468, the Florentine sculptor Andrea del Verrocchio (1435-1488) received an order to make the ball and its copper frame. (The cross was made by other craftsmen, who later attached it to the ball.) According to the records of the Opera del Duomo, Verrocchio was supposed to make a ball consisting of 8 sections and a bronze belt. The central pin of the belt was to fit into the hole of a hollow cone - as envisioned by Brunelleschi's lantern model. Later that year, after the 8 sections of the ball had been welded together on the 2.7 m wide lantern terrace, the 2.1 m ball was installed into place using a lift, which, as mentioned in the documents, had a pyramidal shape. Outwardly, it resembled a crane used to build a tent.
Although further details are not available, the system that Buanaccorso depicted in the drawing of the said crane must have been used to move the parts of the ball laterally when the ball was raised on the desired height. (Interestingly, the installation of the ball was probably observed by Leonardo da Vinci, since he was a student of Verrocchio at the time.)
The wooden scaffolding that Brunelleschi built to build the lantern had not yet been removed when the ball and cross were installed. (One of the Opera del Duomo documents notes that the scaffolding was expensive, difficult to construct, and would be dismantled immediately after the installation of the ball.) One of the paintings by Giovanni Batista Utili, painted around 1470, shows the dome of the Florentine Cathedral , on which forests are still preserved. Although the scaffolding is roughly depicted, Utili's painting gives an idea of what was on the dome terrace and around the lantern at that time.
In 1602, Gherardo Mechini designed similar scaffolding and built a new marble tent after the old tent, along with the ball and cross, was thrown to the ground by lightning. However, some sections of the ball survived the fall and were reused. Lightning struck the cathedral quite often (in 1492, 1494, 1495, 1498, 1511, 1536, 1542, 1561, 1570, 1577, 1578 and 1586), causing some damage. However, a lightning strike in 1600 was so devastating to the Cathedral of Santa Maria del Fiore that the Pope ordered the Opera del Duomo to place a holy relic inside the cross in order to protect the cathedral from future lightning.
A written document has been preserved in which Mechini describes the height of the scaffolding and in what place the tent should be remade so that the ball could be installed. “The top deck of the scaffolding is almost level with the ball, so another deck would need to be built about 7 meters higher to get the ball into place,” he writes. In all likelihood, Brunelleschi built his scaffolding to construct the lantern at the same height.
Mechini's drawing further demonstrates the function of the lantern and the opening at the top of the dome provided in Brunelleschi's design. Since the lantern tent was three-quarters destroyed by lightning and only 20 of the 32 steps of the staircase in the lantern column leading to the tent survived, Mechini built the first level of scaffolding so that it rested on the buttresses of the lantern.
To build the floor in the hole at the top of the dome, beams were used that were inserted through the seraglio windows. A simple tripod winch was assembled on the upper decks. Through a hole in the flooring, small marble blocks for a tent and long chestnut beams intended for installing a ball were lifted onto the terrace. As can be seen from Utili's painting, the scaffolding constructed by Mechini is unlikely to have been very different from the scaffolding used by Brunelleschi.
In 1602, new 8 sections of the ball were made. Each of them was raised separately through narrow windows lantern onto the terrace, where they were soldered into a ball shape. The latter was then covered with gold. The workers used fire very carefully during soldering, and it did not harm the scaffolding. However, there were no casualties. According to documents from the Opera del Duomo, eight workers died from poisoning from mercury vapor, which was used for gilding. (Mercury is widely used to achieve a strong bond between gold and the base metal; during gilding it is evaporated by heating).
Years after Brunelleschi's death, the lantern continued to provide surprises. In 1511, the managers of the Opera del Duomo decided to make a hole in it with a diameter of 2.5 cm, framed by a bronze ring. Through this hole Sun rays should have fallen on the gnomon, or sundial on the choir floor. These rays produced a shadow, the length and position of which indicated the summer and winter solstices.
The “astronomical properties” of the lantern and gnomon were discovered by the Jesuit astronomer P. Leonardo Jimenez in 1755. He wanted to observe the winter and summer solstice and re-calibrated the gnomon. Until recently, historians believed that it was he who made the hole in the lantern, but in 1979, archivist Enzo Settesoldi, who studied the archives of the Opera del Duomo, published a receipt for payment dated 1475 for the manufacture of a bronze ring that was to be placed on a lantern so that you can see where the sun's rays fall on certain days of the year. The inventor of this gnomon device was the Florentine mathematician and astronomer Toscanelli, who encouraged Brunelleschi to study geometry.
Brunelleschi's mathematical abilities and knowledge of mechanics helped him become the foremost architect of his time. Although his followers who completed the dome did not use the mechanisms he invented (they returned to conventional winches and rope pulleys), Brunelleschi's mechanisms anticipated those of the Industrial Revolution.
If you have been to Florence, then of course you have seen the Cathedral of Santa Maria del Fiore (1296-1436), it is impossible to pass by - it is one of the largest (it was designed so that it could accommodate the entire population of the city, at the time construction - 90,000 people) and the most beautiful cathedrals in the world, its dome seems to float above the city.
The spectacular white and green decoration of the facade seems so organic and natural - it is hard to believe that the Duomo stood without it for most of its life.
f Assad Duomo today
and this is what it looked like in the middle of the 19th century
The cathedral has changed its external appearance more than once, and the history of the decoration of the facade that we see today is called “scandalous” by the Florentines themselves.
Actually, until the 15th century the cathedral had decorative facade, decorated with sculptures by Arnolfo di Cambio, but in 1587 the court architect Bernardo Buontalenti ordered all the decorations to be removed in order to make something more elegant and beautiful in its place. There is nothing more permanent than temporary; as a result, the poor Duomo stood with its torn facade until the middle of the 19th century...
Attempts to decorate the outer walls of the cathedral have been going on all these centuries. In the same year, 1587, a competition was held in which the presenters contemporary artists provided drawings and wooden models, which are today stored in the Opera - Duomo Museum.
Arnolfo di Cambio design project
But nothing was implemented. In the seventeenth century, Ferdinando II de' Medici commissioned Giovanni Antonio Dosio to design the façade. But his version caused protests, and in 1635 a new model was prepared, now by artists from the Academy of Art and Design. The work, however, was soon interrupted as a result of a conflict between Silvani and the president of the academy, Giovanni Batista Pieratti.
Project of the Academy of Art and Design
By the way, none of the 17th-century artists who proposed their designs for the facade thought of linking together the Gothic architecture of the cathedral and the dome created in the Renaissance. Not to mention spatially integrating the façade into the surrounding buildings.
From time to time, the façade was dressed up in false decorations made of wood, painted canvas and plaster. The first time such decoration was made was in 1589 for the wedding of Ferdinando I de' Medici with Christina of Lorraine. The façade was decorated with paintings, stucco moldings and statues.
The second set was prepared for the arrival of Margaret Louise of Orleans in the city.
The third - in 1688 for the wedding of Prince Ferdinand. This facade decoration - painted plaster - was made according to the design of Ercole Graziani and it survived until the nineteenth century, the remains of this painting can be seen in these photographs.
In the 19th century, various artists offered their own versions of the facade design, mainly in the Gothic style, which then again became very popular. I won’t bore you with stories about disputes and scandals between designers, but I’ll tell you about final stage, when Emilio de Fabris began decorating the facade. By that time, from 1861 to 1865, 3 (!) international competition. De Fabris emerged victorious and became officially known as the “architect of the façade of Santa Maria del Fiore.” But he failed to complete what he started; he died.
Project De Fabris 1866-67
The project was completed in 1876 by Luigi Del Moro. But even here everything was not, thank God: a debate broke out over how to decorate the facade - with Gothic spiers, in the manner of the Duomo in Siena, or like a classical basilica?
The Cathedral of Santa Maria del Fiore is truly the most popular building in Florence. The temple is located in historical center, striking with its grandeur, beauty, grace both specialists and simply lovers of architecture. After the Roman Basilica of St. Peter, Santa Maria del Fiore is the most grandiose religious building in Italy.
Upon inspection, attention is drawn, first of all, to the huge dome of a reddish hue. It was designed by the famous Brunelleschi, an innovative architect and amateur who had no specialized education, whose specialty was jewelry. This is not surprising, because in the 1st half of the 15th century the term “architect” simply did not exist. The authors of all kinds of architectural structures were artists, sculptors or jewelers.
The dome of Santa Maria del Fiore is Brunelleschi's largest work in Florence. By the way, medieval Europe was not famous for its craftsmen who knew how to build huge domes. This technology died along with the architects ancient Rome. That is why Brunelleschi’s masterpiece simply could not go unnoticed.
At the end of the 12th century, Florence became significantly richer due to wool merchants and bankers, and the small church located in it no longer corresponded to the cult status of the city. That is why the most influential city merchants decided to build a new cathedral and dedicate it to the Virgin Mary. In honor of the name of Florence itself, which means “blooming,” it was decided to give the temple the name “Cathedral of St. Mary with a Flower.”
The foundation of the temple was laid in 1296. The existing building design turned out to be quite expensive, and construction took a long time, but wealthy representatives of trade guilds and city authorities risked taking on all material costs. The construction of the cathedral was entrusted to Arnolfo di Cambio, at that time a popular architect who worked on the Church of Santa Croce and the legendary Palazzo Vecchio. While working on the temple, he introduced certain architectural innovations, using elements of Gothic and Norman architecture during construction.
Initially, the central and side naves, as well as an octagonal drum in the east of the cathedral. However, already in 1302 the architect died, which suspended construction for about 30 years. It was only in 1334, when the famous Florentine artist Giotto di Bondone was appointed to his post, that work on Santa Maria del Fiore resumed. Concentrating his efforts on the bell tower, he was never able to complete its construction, as he died in 1337. It was completed by another architect, Francesco Talenti, when in 1355 he was put in charge of the construction of the cathedral.
Thus, almost a century after the start of construction, only the domed vault of Santa Maria del Fiore was not built. Due to the constant change of craftsmen, errors in calculations surfaced, and the city authorities already refused to allocate money for the construction of scaffolding and scaffolding for workers.
It so happened that Santa Maria del Fiore is considered the same as the republic. And the huge dome (according to the plan - the tallest in Italy) adorning the cathedral was supposed to remind of the greatness of the prosperous city. That is why city authorities, trade guilds and other guild organizations allocated a lot of funds to complete the construction of the temple and its decoration.
The construction of the cathedral's dome was the most significant event in Florence during the 15th century. In 1418 a competition was announced for the design of the dome. Given the attitude of the local authorities towards the cathedral, the jury consisted only of citizens of Florence. Some of the proposals that came were more like science fiction. However, in the end, the innovative models of Ghiberti and Brunelleschi were recognized as the best, and the latter proposed a hitherto unknown method of laying bricks without the use of scaffolding. In this tandem, the brilliant Brunelleschi acted as a designer-engineer, and Ghiberti as a decorative artist. Having started work in 1420, the great architect of Florence successfully implemented the project already in 1434.
The talented craftsman incredibly accurately calculated all the parameters of the 8-sided tower structure and the elongated spire. In addition, he was able to implement a number of devices that made it possible to raise entire dome sections to great heights. To make the structure more stable, the Italian engineer installed 6 horizontal rings and 24 vertical stiffeners, which supported the total weight of 37,000 tons.
The vault of Santa Maria del Fiore in the form of an 8-sided two-layer dome, erected without reinforcement, covered with dark red tiles, entwined with white ribs and topped with a snow-white marble lantern, has become a true symbol of Florence. Filippo Brunelleschi's dome can rightfully be considered the first great achievement engineering in the early Renaissance. A painstakingly thought out system of connections ensured its strength and stability. The majestic vault still towers over Florence to this day.
The facade of Santa Maria del Fiore is no less impressive than its dome. It is made using special marble slabs, on which various sculptural compositions are applied. In addition to the facade, a rectangular bell tower was built, decorated big amount niches filled with statues, as well as hexagon medallions depicting biblical scenes.
The interior decoration of Santa Maria del Fiore, on the contrary, corresponds to the laconic spirit of the Catholic shrine. The Dominican priest Girolamo Savonarola, who was preaching at that time, was distinguished by the severity of his views, which was reflected in the interior of the cathedral under construction. The vaults here are decorated with frescoes depicting citizens of Florence who had a significant impact on the life of the country, church, and city. These are Dante Alighieri, Nicolo da Tollentino, Giovanni Acuto and others.
The stained glass windows of the famous cathedral deserve special attention. Here are 44 glass paintings adorning the arches of the naves. Each is dedicated to the deeds of the saints of the Old and New Testaments of the Bible. Semicircular stained glass windows visible in the drum of the dome tell the story of life path Our Lady and Jesus Christ. The extensive vault itself was painted in the 16th century by the great artists Federico Zuccari and Giorgio Vasari. The painting is dedicated Last Judgment, where the Antichrist and the inhabitants of Hell are depicted below, and subsequent rings going up are assigned to saints, angels, the Mother of God and Christ. The floor of the cathedral, which was created by several famous masters at the beginning of the 16th century, is made of marble.
Nowadays Santa Maria del Fiore is one of the 5 most majestic and grandiose religious buildings in the world, more than one and a half hundred meters long and almost a hundred meters wide. The cathedral can accommodate about 30,000 people at a time. Also at the temple there is a museum, an excellent observation deck, and a hall that has preserved the remains of an ancient church.
The cathedral is located at Cathedral Square, house no. 17. Getting here will not be a problem, because it is located in the center of Florence, being the most famous city landmark. Buses going to Piazza del Duomo are suitable for travel.
Do not be surprised by the queue at the main entrance, because a huge number of tourists come here every year. However, there is no charge to visit the cathedral.
Ticket to visit the baptistery, museum and observation deck(bell tower + dome) is 10 euros. It is valid for six days after purchase and one day after first use.
