The course in inorganic chemistry contains many special terms necessary for carrying out quantitative calculations. Let us consider in detail some of its main sections.
Inorganic chemistry was created to determine the characteristics of substances of mineral origin.
Among the main sections of this science are:
Inorganic chemistry is divided into several sections dealing with the study of certain fragments:
Inorganic chemistry is interconnected with physical and analytical chemistry, which have a powerful set of tools that allow you to perform mathematical calculations. Theoretical material, discussed in this section, is used in radiochemistry, geochemistry, agrochemistry, and also in nuclear chemistry.
Inorganic chemistry in its applied version is associated with metallurgy, chemical technology, electronics, mining and processing of minerals, structural and building materials, industrial wastewater treatment.
General and inorganic chemistry developed along with human civilization, and therefore includes several independent sections. At the beginning of the nineteenth century, Berzelius published a table of atomic masses. It was this period that marked the beginning of the development of this science.
The basis of inorganic chemistry was the research of Avogadro and Gay-Lussac concerning the characteristics of gases and liquids. Hess managed to derive a mathematical connection between the amount of heat and the state of aggregation of a substance, which significantly expanded the horizons of inorganic chemistry. For example, the atomic-molecular theory appeared, which answered many questions.
At the beginning of the nineteenth century, Davy was able to electrochemically decompose sodium and potassium hydroxides, opening up new possibilities for obtaining simple substances by electrolysis. Faraday, based on Davy's work, derived the laws of electrochemistry.
Since the second half of the nineteenth century, the course of inorganic chemistry has expanded significantly. The discoveries of van't Hoff, Arrhenius, and Oswald introduced new trends in the theory of solutions. It was during this time period that the law of mass action was formulated, which made it possible to carry out various qualitative and quantitative calculations.
The doctrine of valency, created by Wurtz and Kekule, made it possible to find answers to many questions in inorganic chemistry related to the existence different forms oxides, hydroxides. At the end of the nineteenth century, new chemical elements were discovered: ruthenium, aluminum, lithium: vanadium, thorium, lanthanum, etc. This became possible after the introduction of the technique into practice spectral analysis. Innovations that appeared in science during that period not only explained chemical reactions in inorganic chemistry, but also made it possible to predict the properties of the resulting products and their areas of application.
By the end of the nineteenth century, the existence of 63 various elements, and also information appeared about various chemicals. But due to the lack of their complete scientific classification, not all problems in inorganic chemistry could be solved.
The periodic law, created by Dmitry Ivanovich, became the basis for the systematization of all elements. Thanks to Mendeleev's discovery, chemists were able to correct their ideas about the atomic masses of elements and predict the properties of substances that had not yet been discovered. The theory of Moseley, Rutherford, and Bohr gave a physical basis to Mendeleev's periodic law.
To understand what chemistry is taught, you need to review the basic concepts included in the course.
The main theoretical issue studied in this section is Mendeleev's periodic law. Inorganic chemistry in tables, presented in the school course, introduces young researchers to the main classes of inorganic substances and their relationships. Theory chemical bond considers the nature of the bond, its length, energy, polarity. The method of molecular orbitals, valence bonds, crystal field theory are the main issues that make it possible to explain the structural features and properties of inorganic substances.
Chemical thermodynamics and kinetics, answering questions regarding changes in the energy of a system, description of the electronic configurations of ions and atoms, their transformation into complex substances based on the theory of superconductivity, gave rise to a new section - the chemistry of semiconductor materials.
Inorganic chemistry for dummies involves the use of theoretical issues in industry. It was this section of chemistry that became the basis for various industries related to the production of ammonia, sulfuric acid, carbon dioxide, mineral fertilizers, metals and alloys. By using chemical methods in mechanical engineering, alloys with specified properties and characteristics are obtained.
What does chemistry study? This is the science of substances, their transformations, as well as areas of application. At this time period, there is reliable information about the existence of about one hundred thousand different inorganic compounds. During chemical transformations, the composition of molecules changes and substances with new properties are formed.
If you are studying inorganic chemistry from scratch, you must first become familiar with its theoretical sections, and only after that can you begin to put the acquired knowledge into practice. Among the numerous issues considered in this section of chemical science, it is necessary to mention the atomic-molecular theory.
A molecule is considered to be the smallest particle of a substance that has its chemical properties. It is divisible down to atoms, which are the smallest particles of matter. Molecules and atoms are in constant motion and are characterized by electrostatic forces of repulsion and attraction.
Inorganic chemistry from scratch should be based on the definition chemical element. By it we usually mean the type of atoms that have a certain nuclear charge, the structure of electronic shells. Depending on their structure, they are able to enter into various interactions, forming substances. The loving molecule is an electrically neutral system, that is, it fully obeys all the laws that exist in microsystems.
For each element that exists in nature, the number of protons, electrons, and neutrons can be determined. Let's take sodium as an example. The number of protons in its nucleus corresponds to the serial number, that is, 11, and is equal to the number of electrons. To calculate the number of neutrons, it is necessary to subtract its serial number from the relative atomic mass of sodium (23), we get 12. For some elements, isotopes have been identified that differ in the number of neutrons in the atomic nucleus.
What else is characterized by inorganic chemistry? The topics discussed in this section involve drawing up formulas of substances and carrying out quantitative calculations.
First, let's analyze the features of compiling formulas by valence. Depending on which elements will be included in the composition of the substance, there are certain rules for determining valency. Let's start by composing binary compounds. This issue is discussed in the school course of inorganic chemistry.
For metals located in the main subgroups of the periodic table, the valency index corresponds to the group number and is a constant value. Metals found in secondary subgroups can exhibit different valences.
There are some peculiarities in determining the valence of non-metals. If in a compound it is located at the end of the formula, it exhibits a lower valency. When calculating it, the number of the group in which this element is located is subtracted from eight. For example, in oxides, oxygen exhibits a valency of two.
If a nonmetal is located at the beginning of the formula, it exhibits a maximum valency equal to its group number.
How to make a formula for a substance? There is a certain algorithm that even schoolchildren know. First you need to write down the signs of the elements mentioned in the name of the connection. The element that is indicated last in the name is placed first in the formula. Next, using the rules, a valency indicator is placed above each of them. The least common multiple is determined between the values. When dividing it by valency, indices are obtained located under the signs of the elements.
Let us take as an example a variant of composing the formula for carbon monoxide (4). First, we place next to each other the signs of carbon and oxygen that are part of this inorganic compound, we get CO. Since the first element has a variable valency, it is indicated in parentheses; for oxygen, it is calculated by subtracting six from eight (group number), you get two. The final formula of the proposed oxide will be CO 2.
Among the many scientific terms used in inorganic chemistry, allotropy is of particular interest. It explains the existence of several simple substances based on one chemical element, differing in properties and structure.
There are four main classes of inorganic substances that deserve detailed consideration. Let's start with brief description oxides This class involves binary compounds in which oxygen is necessarily present. Depending on which element begins the formula, they are divided into three groups: basic, acidic, amphoteric.
Metals with a valency greater than four, as well as all non-metals, form acidic oxides with oxygen. Among their main chemical properties, we note the ability to interact with water (the exception is silicon oxide), reactions with basic oxides, and alkalis.
Metals whose valence does not exceed two form basic oxides. Among the main chemical properties of this subspecies, we highlight the formation of alkalis with water, salts with acidic oxides and acids.
Transition metals (zinc, beryllium, aluminum) are characterized by the formation of amphoteric compounds. Their main difference is the duality of properties: reactions with alkalis and acids.
Bases are a large class of inorganic compounds that have similar structures and properties. The molecules of such compounds contain one or more hydroxyl groups. The term itself was applied to those substances that, as a result of interaction, form salts. Alkalis are bases that have an alkaline environment. These include hydroxides of the first and second groups of the main subgroups of the periodic table.
In acid salts, in addition to the metal and the residue from the acid, there are hydrogen cations. For example, sodium bicarbonate (baking soda) is a sought-after compound in the confectionery industry. Basic salts contain hydroxide ions instead of hydrogen cations. Double salts are a component of many natural minerals. Thus, sodium and potassium chloride (sylvinite) is found in earth's crust. It is this compound that is used in industry to isolate alkali metals.
In inorganic chemistry there is a special section devoted to the study of complex salts. These compounds actively participate in metabolic processes occurring in living organisms.
This section involves consideration of all chemical transformations from the point of view of loss or gain of energy. Hess managed to establish the relationship between enthalpy and entropy, and derive a law that explains the change in temperature for any reaction. The thermal effect, which characterizes the amount of energy released or absorbed in a given reaction, is defined as the difference in the sum of the enthalpies of the reaction products and starting substances, taken into account stereochemical coefficients. Hess's law is fundamental in thermochemistry and allows for quantitative calculations for each chemical transformation.
Only in the twentieth century did this section of chemistry become a separate science, dealing with a variety of liquid, solid, and gaseous systems. Suspensions, suspensions, emulsions, differing in particle sizes and chemical parameters, are studied in detail in colloid chemistry. The results of numerous studies are actively being implemented in pharmaceutical, medical, chemical industry, enable scientists and engineers to synthesize substances with specified chemical and physical characteristics.
Inorganic chemistry is currently one of the largest branches of chemistry; it contains a huge number of theoretical and practical issues that allow one to obtain ideas about the composition of substances, their physical properties, chemical transformations, main industries. If you know the basic terms and laws, you can draw up equations of chemical reactions and carry out various mathematical calculations using them. All sections of inorganic chemistry related to drawing up formulas, writing reaction equations, and solving problems involving solutions are offered to students at the final exam.
2nd ed., revised. and additional - M.: 2007 - 637 p.
The directory contains 1100 inorganic substances, for which equations of the most important reactions are given. The choice of substances was justified by their theoretical and laboratory-industrial importance. The directory is organized according to the alphabetical principle of chemical formulas and a clearly developed structure, equipped with a subject index that makes it easy to find the desired substance. It has no analogues in domestic and foreign chemical literature. For students of chemical and chemical-technological universities. Can be used by university teachers, graduate students, scientific and engineering workers in the chemical industry, as well as teachers and high school students.
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The reference book presents the chemical properties (reaction equations) of the most important compounds of 109 elements of the Periodic Table from hydrogen to meitnerium. More than 1,100 inorganic substances are described in detail, selected according to their industrial importance (starting materials for chemical processes, mineral raw materials), the breadth of prevalence in engineering, technical and educational laboratory practice (model solvents and reagents, reagents qualitative analysis) and application in the latest branches of chemical technology.
The reference material is divided into sections, each of which is devoted to one element, the elements are arranged alphabetically by their symbols (from actinium Ac to zirconium Zr).
Any section consists of a number of headings, the first of which relates to a simple substance, and all subsequent ones - to complex substances, in chemical formulas in which the section element is in the first (left) place. The substances of each section are listed alphabetically by their nomenclature formulas (with one exception: at the end of the sections of acid-forming elements all the acids corresponding to them are placed). For example, in the “Actinium” section there are the headings Ac, AcC13, AcF3, Ac(N03)3, Ac203, Ac(OH)3. The formulas of compounds with a complex anion are given in inverted form, i.e.
Each section contains short description substances, where its color, thermal stability, solubility, interaction (or lack thereof) with common reagents, etc. are indicated, as well as methods for obtaining this substance, presented in the form of links to the headings of other substances. The links contain the symbol of the section element, the section number and the superscript number of the reaction equation.
Next in the section is a numbered set of reaction equations, reflecting the main chemical properties of a given substance. In general, the order of the equations is as follows:
- thermal decomposition of the substance;
- dehydration or decomposition of crystalline hydrate;
- attitude towards water;
- interaction with common acids (if the reactions are of the same type, the equation is given only for hydrochloric acid);
- interaction with alkalis (usually sodium hydroxide);
- interaction with ammonia hydrate;
- interaction with simple substances;
- metabolic reactions with complex substances;
- redox reactions;
- complexation reactions;
- electrochemical reactions (electrolysis of the melt and/or solution).
The reaction equations indicate the conditions for their conduct and occurrence, when this is important for understanding the chemistry and degree of reversibility of the process. These conditions include:
- state of aggregation of reagents and/or products;
- coloring of reagents and/or products;
- state of the solution or its characteristics (diluted, concentrated, saturated);
- slow reaction;
- temperature range, pressure (high or vacuum), catalyst;
- formation of sediment or gas;
- the solvent used, if it is different from water;
- inert or other special gas environment.
At the end of the reference book there is a list of references and a subject index of substances under headings.
Lecture: Classification of chemical reactions in inorganic and organic chemistry
Types of chemical reactions in inorganic chemistry
A) Classification according to the amount of initial substances:
Decomposition – as a result of this reaction, from one existing complex substance, two or more simple and also complex substances are formed.
Example: 2H 2 O 2 → 2H 2 O + O 2Compound - this is a reaction in which two or more simple, as well as complex substances, form one, but more complex one.
Example: 4Al+3O 2 → 2Al 2 O 3
Substitution - this is a certain chemical reaction that takes place between some simple and also complex substances. Atoms of a simple substance, in this reaction, are replaced by atoms of one of the elements found in the complex substance.Example: 2КI + Cl2 → 2КCl + I 2
Exchange - This is a reaction in which two substances of complex structure exchange their parts.Example: HCl + KNO 2 → KCl + HNO 2
B) Classification by thermal effect:
Exothermic reactions - These are certain chemical reactions in which heat is released.S + O 2 → SO 2 + Q
2C 2 H 6 + 7O 2 → 4CO 2 +6H 2 O + Q
Endothermic reactions
- These are certain chemical reactions in which heat is absorbed. As a rule, these are decomposition reactions.
Examples:
CaCO 3 → CaO + CO 2 – Q
2KClO 3 → 2KCl + 3O 2 – Q
The heat that is released or absorbed as a result of a chemical reaction is called thermal effect.
Chemical equations that indicate the thermal effect of a reaction are called thermochemical.
B) Classification by reversibility:
Reversible reactions - these are reactions that occur under the same conditions in mutual opposite directions.Example: 3H 2 + N 2 ⇌ 2NH 3
Irreversible reactions - these are reactions that proceed in only one direction, and also end with the complete consumption of all starting substances. In these reactions, release there is gas, sediment, water.D) Classification by change in oxidation state:
Redox reactions – during these reactions, a change in the oxidation state occurs.Example: Cu + 4HNO 3 → Cu(NO 3) 2 + 2NO 2 + 2H 2 O.
Not redox – reactions without changing the oxidation state.Example: HNO 3 + KOH → KNO 3 + H 2 O.
D) Classification by phase:
Homogeneous reactions – reactions occurring in one phase, when the starting substances and reaction products have the same state of aggregation.Example: H 2 (gas) + Cl 2 (gas) → 2HCL
Heterogeneous reactions – reactions occurring at the interface, in which the reaction products and starting substances have different states of aggregation.Classification by catalyst use:
A catalyst is a substance that speeds up a reaction. A catalytic reaction occurs in the presence of a catalyst, a non-catalytic reaction occurs without a catalyst.
Example: 2H 2 0 2 MnO2 →
2H 2 O + O 2 catalyst MnO 2
The interaction of alkali with acid occurs without a catalyst.
Example: KOH + HCl →
KCl + H 2 O
Inhibitors are substances that slow down a reaction.
Catalysts and inhibitors themselves are not consumed during the reaction.
Types of chemical reactions in organic chemistry
Accession - These are reactions in which several molecules of a substance combine into one. Addition reactions include:
Example: CH 3 -CH = CH 2 (propene) + H 2 → CH 3 -CH 2 -CH 3 (propane)
Hydrohalogenation– reaction that adds hydrogen halide.
Example: CH 2 = CH 2 (ethene) + HCl → CH 3 -CH 2 -Cl (chloroethane)
Alkynes react with hydrogen halides (hydrogen chloride, hydrogen bromide) in the same way as alkenes. Addition in a chemical reaction takes place in 2 stages, and is determined by Markovnikov’s rule:
When protic acids and water add to unsymmetrical alkenes and alkynes, a hydrogen atom is added to the most hydrogenated carbon atom.
The mechanism of this chemical reaction. Formed in the 1st, fast stage, the p-complex in the 2nd slow stage gradually turns into an s-complex - a carbocation. In the 3rd stage, stabilization of the carbocation occurs - that is, interaction with the bromine anion:
I1, I2 are carbocations. P1, P2 - bromides.
Halogen-containing organic derivatives are considered the most important compounds that are used both in organic synthesis and as target products. Halogen derivatives of hydrocarbons are considered starting products in a large number of nucleophilic substitution reactions. As for the practical use of halogen-containing compounds, they are used in the form of solvents, for example chlorine-containing compounds, refrigerants - chlorofluoro derivatives, freons, pesticides, pharmaceuticals, plasticizers, monomers for the production of plastics.
Polymerization - This special kind a reaction in which molecules of a substance having a relatively small molecular weight, attach to each other, subsequently forming molecules of a substance with a high molecular weight.
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The classification of chemical reactions in inorganic and organic chemistry is carried out on the basis of various classification characteristics, information about which is given in the table below.
The first sign of classification is based on the change in the oxidation state of the elements that form the reactants and products.
a) redox
b) without changing the oxidation state
Redox are called reactions accompanied by a change in the oxidation states of the chemical elements that make up the reagents. Redox reactions in inorganic chemistry include all substitution reactions and those decomposition and combination reactions in which at least one simple substance is involved. Reactions that occur without changing the oxidation states of the elements that form the reactants and reaction products include all exchange reactions.
Chemical reactions are classified by the nature of the process, that is, by the number and composition of reagents and products.
Compound reactions are chemical reactions as a result of which complex molecules are obtained from several simpler ones, for example:
4Li + O 2 = 2Li 2 O
Decomposition reactions are called chemical reactions as a result of which simple molecules are obtained from more complex ones, for example:
CaCO 3 = CaO + CO 2
Decomposition reactions can be considered as the reverse processes of combination.
Substitution reactions are chemical reactions as a result of which an atom or group of atoms in a molecule of a substance is replaced by another atom or group of atoms, for example:
Fe + 2HCl = FeCl 2 + H 2
Their distinguishing feature is the interaction of a simple substance with a complex one. Such reactions also exist in organic chemistry.
However, the concept of “substitution” in organic chemistry is broader than in inorganic chemistry. If in the molecule of the original substance any atom or functional group is replaced by another atom or group, these are also substitution reactions, although from the point of view of inorganic chemistry the process looks like an exchange reaction.
- exchange (including neutralization).
Exchange reactions are chemical reactions that occur without changing the oxidation states of elements and lead to the exchange components reagents, for example:
AgNO 3 + KBr = AgBr + KNO 3
If possible, flow in the opposite direction - reversible and irreversible.
Reversible are chemical reactions occurring at a given temperature simultaneously in two opposite directions with comparable speeds. When writing equations for such reactions, the equal sign is replaced by oppositely directed arrows. The simplest example of a reversible reaction is the synthesis of ammonia by the interaction of nitrogen and hydrogen:
N 2 +3H 2 ↔2NH 3
Irreversible are reactions that occur only in the forward direction, resulting in the formation of products that do not interact with each other. Irreversible reactions include chemical reactions that result in the formation of slightly dissociated compounds and the release of large quantity energy, as well as those in which the final products leave the reaction sphere in gaseous form or in the form of a precipitate, for example:
HCl + NaOH = NaCl + H2O
2Ca + O2 = 2CaO
BaBr 2 + Na 2 SO 4 = BaSO 4 ↓ + 2NaBr
Exothermic are called chemical reactions that occur with the release of heat. Symbol change in enthalpy (heat content) ΔH, and the thermal effect of the reaction Q. For exothermic reactions Q > 0, and ΔH< 0.
Endothermic are chemical reactions that involve the absorption of heat. For endothermic reactions Q< 0, а ΔH > 0.
Compounding reactions will generally be exothermic reactions and decomposition reactions will be endothermic. A rare exception is the reaction of nitrogen with oxygen - endothermic:
N2 + O2 → 2NO – Q
Homogeneous are called reactions occurring in a homogeneous medium (homogeneous substances in one phase, for example g-g, reactions in solutions).
Heterogeneous are reactions that occur in a heterogeneous medium, on the contact surface of reacting substances that are in different phases, for example, solid and gaseous, liquid and gaseous, in two immiscible liquids.
A catalyst is a substance that accelerates a chemical reaction.
Catalytic reactions occur only in the presence of a catalyst (including enzymatic ones).
Non-catalytic reactions go in the absence of a catalyst.
Homolytic and heterolytic reactions are distinguished based on the type of chemical bond cleavage in the starting molecule.
Homolytic are called reactions in which, as a result of breaking bonds, particles are formed that have an unpaired electron - free radicals.
Heterolytic are reactions that occur through the formation of ionic particles - cations and anions.
Radical(chain) are chemical reactions involving radicals, for example:
CH 4 + Cl 2 hv →CH 3 Cl + HCl
Ionic are chemical reactions that occur with the participation of ions, for example:
KCl + AgNO 3 = KNO 3 + AgCl↓
Electrophilic reactions are heterolytic reactions of organic compounds with electrophiles - particles that carry a whole or fractional positive charge. They are divided into electrophilic substitution and electrophilic addition reactions, for example:
C 6 H 6 + Cl 2 FeCl3 → C 6 H 5 Cl + HCl
H 2 C =CH 2 + Br 2 → BrCH 2 –CH 2 Br
Nucleophilic reactions are heterolytic reactions of organic compounds with nucleophiles - particles that carry a whole or fractional negative charge. They are divided into nucleophilic substitution and nucleophilic addition reactions, for example:
CH 3 Br + NaOH → CH 3 OH + NaBr
CH 3 C(O)H + C 2 H 5 OH → CH 3 CH(OC 2 H 5) 2 + H 2 O
The classification of organic reactions is given in the table:
Inorganic chemistry- a branch of chemistry associated with the study of the structure, reactivity and properties of all chemical elements and their inorganic compounds. This area covers all chemical compounds except organic substances (a class of compounds that includes carbon, with the exception of a few simple compounds, usually classified as inorganic). The distinction between organic and inorganic compounds containing carbon is, according to some ideas, arbitrary. Inorganic chemistry studies chemical elements and the simple and complex substances they form (except organic compounds). Provides the creation of materials of the latest technology. The number of inorganic substances known in 2013 is approaching 400 thousand.
The theoretical foundation of inorganic chemistry is the periodic law and based on it periodic table D. I. Mendeleev. The most important task of inorganic chemistry is the development and scientific substantiation of methods for creating new materials with the properties necessary for modern technology.
In Russia, research in the field of inorganic chemistry is carried out by the Institute of Inorganic Chemistry named after. A. V. Nikolaev SB RAS (Institute of Chemistry SB RAS, Novosibirsk), Institute of General and Inorganic Chemistry named after. N. S. Kurnakova (IGINKh RAS, Moscow), Institute of Physico-Chemical Problems ceramic materials(IFKhPKM, Moscow), Scientific and Technical Center “Superhard Materials” (STC SM, Troitsk) and a number of other institutions. The research results are published in journals (Journal of Inorganic Chemistry, etc.).
History of definition
Historically, the name inorganic chemistry comes from the idea of the part of chemistry that deals with the study of elements, compounds, and reactions of substances that are not formed by living beings. However, since the synthesis of urea from the inorganic compound ammonium cyanate (NH 4 OCN), which was accomplished in 1828 by the outstanding German chemist Friedrich Wöhler, the boundaries between substances of inanimate and living nature have been erased. Thus, living beings produce a lot of inorganic substances. On the other hand, almost all organic compounds can be synthesized in the laboratory. However, division into various areas chemistry is relevant and necessary as before, since reaction mechanisms and the structure of substances in inorganic and organic chemistry differ. This makes it easier to systematize research methods and methods in each industry.
Oxides
Oxide(oxide, oxide) - a binary compound of a chemical element with oxygen in the oxidation state −2, in which the oxygen itself is associated only with the less electronegative element. The chemical element oxygen is second in electronegativity after fluorine, therefore almost all compounds of chemical elements with oxygen are classified as oxides. Exceptions include, for example, oxygen difluoride OF 2.
Oxides are a very common type of compounds found in the earth's crust and in the Universe in general. Examples of such compounds are rust, water, sand, carbon dioxide, a number of dyes.
Oxides are a class of minerals that are compounds of a metal with oxygen.
Compounds that contain oxygen atoms linked together are called peroxides (peroxides; contain the −O−O− chain), superoxides (contain the O−2 group), and ozonides (contain the O−3 group). They are not classified as oxides.
Classification
Depending on the chemical properties, they are distinguished:
Salt-forming oxides:
basic oxides (for example, sodium oxide Na 2 O, copper oxide (II) CuO): metal oxides whose oxidation state is I-II;
acid oxides (for example, sulfur oxide(VI) SO 3, nitrogen oxide(IV) NO 2): metal oxides with oxidation state V-VII and non-metal oxides;
amphoteric oxides (for example, zinc oxide ZnO, aluminum oxide Al 2 O 3): metal oxides with oxidation state III-IV and exclusion (ZnO, BeO, SnO, PbO);
Non-salt-forming oxides: carbon monoxide (II) CO, nitric oxide (I) N 2 O, nitric oxide (II) NO.
Nomenclature
According to IUPAC nomenclature, oxides are called “oxide” followed by the name of the chemical element in genitive case, for example: Na 2 O - sodium oxide, Al 2 O 3 - aluminum oxide. If an element has a variable oxidation state, then the name of the oxide indicates its oxidation state with a Roman numeral in parentheses immediately after the name (without a space). For example, Cu 2 O - copper (I) oxide, CuO - copper (II) oxide, FeO - iron (II) oxide, Fe 2 O 3 - iron (III) oxide, Cl 2 O 7 - chlorine (VII) oxide.
Other names for oxides based on the number of oxygen atoms are often used: if the oxide contains only one oxygen atom, then it is called monoxide or monoxide, if two - dioxide or dioxide, if three - then trioxide or trioxide, etc. For example: carbon monoxide CO , carbon dioxide CO 2 , sulfur trioxide SO 3 .
Also common are historical (trivial) names for oxides, e.g. carbon monoxide CO, sulfuric anhydride SO 3, etc.
IN early XIX centuries and earlier, refractory, practically insoluble oxides in water were called “earths” by chemists.
Oxides with lower oxidation states (suboxides) are sometimes called oxide (English analogue - protoxide) and suboxide (for example, carbon monoxide (II), CO - carbon monoxide; tricarbon dioxide, C 3 O 2 - carbon suboxide; oxide nitrogen(I), N 2 O - nitrous oxide; copper oxide (I), Cu 2 O - copper oxide). Higher oxidation states (iron(III) oxide, Fe2O3) are called oxide in accordance with this nomenclature, and complex oxides are called oxide-oxide (Fe 3 O 4 = FeO Fe 2 O 3 - iron oxide-oxide, uranium(VI) oxide) -diuranium(V), U 3 O 8 - uranium oxide). This nomenclature, however, is not consistent, so such names should be considered more traditional.
Chemical properties
Basic oxides
1. Basic oxide + strong acid → salt + water
2. Strong basic oxide + water → alkali
3. Strongly basic oxide + acidic oxide → salt
4. Basic oxide + hydrogen → metal + water
Note: the metal is less reactive than aluminum.
Acidic oxides
1. Acid oxide + water → acid
Some oxides, for example SiO 2, do not react with water, so their acids are obtained indirectly.
2. Acidic oxide + basic oxide → salt
3. Acid oxide + base → salt + water
If the acid oxide is an anhydride of a polybasic acid, the formation of acid or medium salts is possible:
4. Non-volatile oxide + salt1 → salt2 + volatile oxide
5. Acid anhydride 1 + anhydrous oxygen-containing acid 2 → Acid anhydride 2 + anhydrous oxygen-containing acid 1
Amphoteric oxides
When interacting with a strong acid or acidic oxide, they exhibit the following basic properties:
When interacting with a strong base or basic oxide, they exhibit acidic properties:
(in aqueous solution)
(when fused)
Receipt
1. Interaction of simple substances (with the exception of inert gases, gold and platinum) with oxygen:
When alkali metals (except lithium), as well as strontium and barium burn in oxygen, peroxides and superoxides are formed:
2. Roasting or combustion of binary compounds in oxygen:
3. Thermal decomposition of salts:
4. Thermal decomposition of bases or acids:
5. Oxidation of lower oxides into higher ones and reduction of higher ones into lower ones:
6. Interaction of some metals with water at high temperatures:
7. Interaction of salts with acid oxides during coke combustion with the release of volatile oxide:
8. Interaction of metals with oxidizing acids:
9. When water-removing substances act on acids and salts:
10. Interaction of salts of weak unstable acids with stronger acids:
Salts
Salts- a class of chemical compounds consisting of cations and anions.
Metal cation and onium cations can act as cations in salts
(ammonium, phosphonium, hydronium cations and their organic derivatives),
complex cations, etc., as anions - anions of the acid residue of various Bronsted acids - both inorganic and organic, including carbanions, complex anions, etc.
Types of salts
A special group consists of salts of organic acids, the properties of which differ significantly from the properties of mineral salts. Some of them can be classified as a special class of organic salts, so-called ionic liquids or otherwise “liquid salts,” organic salts with a melting point below 100 °C.
Names of salts
The names of salts are formed from two words: the name of the anion in nominative case and the name of the cation in the genitive case: - sodium sulfate. For metals with a variable oxidation state, it is indicated in brackets and without a space:- iron(II) sulfate,- iron(III) sulfate.
The names of acid salts begin with the prefix “hydro-” (if there is one hydrogen atom in the salt) or “dihydro-” (if there are two). For example, - sodium bicarbonate, - sodium dihydrogen phosphate.
The names of the main salts contain the prefix “hydroxo-” or “dihydroxo-”. For example, - hydroxomagnesium chloride,- dihydroxoaluminum chloride.
In hydrate salts, the presence of crystalline water is indicated by the prefix “hydrate-”. The degree of hydration is reflected by a numerical prefix. For example, - calcium chloride dihydrate.
The lowest oxidation state of the acid-forming element (if there are more than two oxidation states) is indicated by the prefix “hypo-”. The prefix “per-” indicates the highest degree of oxidation (for acid salts with the endings “-ova”, “-eva”, “-na”). For example: - sodium hypochlorite,- sodium chlorite, - sodium chlorate, - sodium perchlorate.
Receipt methods
Exist various methods obtaining salts:
1) Interaction of acids with metals, basic and amphoteric oxides / hydroxides:
2) Interaction of acidic oxides with alkalis, basic and amphoteric oxides / hydroxides:
3) Interaction of salts with acids and other salts (if a product leaving the reaction sphere is formed):
Interaction of simple substances:
The interaction of bases with non-metals, for example, with halogens:
Chemical properties
Chemical properties are determined by the properties of the cations and anions included in their composition.
Salts interact with acids and bases if the reaction results in a product that leaves the reaction sphere (precipitate, gas, slightly dissociating substances, for example, water or other oxides):
Salts interact with metals if the free metal is to the left of the metal in the salt in the electrochemical series of metal activity:
Salts interact with each other if the reaction product leaves the reaction sphere (gas, precipitate or water is formed); including these reactions can take place with a change in the oxidation states of the reactant atoms:
Some salts decompose when heated:
Base
Reasons- class of chemical compounds.
Bases (basic hydroxides) are complex substances that consist of metal atoms or ammonium ions and a hydroxyl group (-OH). In an aqueous solution they dissociate to form OH− cations and anions.
The name of the base usually consists of two words: “metal/ammonium hydroxide.” Bases that are highly soluble in water are called alkalis.
According to the proton theory of acids and bases, bases are one of the main classes of chemical compounds, substances whose molecules are
proton acceptors.
In organic chemistry, traditionally, bases also refer to substances that can form adducts (“salts”) with strong acids; for example, many alkaloids are described both in the “alkaloid-base” form and in the form of “alkaloid salts.”
The concept of a base was first introduced into chemistry by the French chemist Guillaume François Ruel in 1754. He noted that acids, known in those days as volatile liquids (for example, acetic or hydrochloric acid), turn into crystalline salts only in combination with specific substances. Ruel suggested that such substances serve as “bases” for the formation of salts in solid form.
Receipt
The interaction of a strong base oxide with water produces a strong base or alkali.
Weakly basic and amphoteric oxides do not react with water, so the corresponding hydroxides cannot be obtained in this way.
Hydroxides of low-active metals are obtained by adding alkali to solutions of the corresponding salts. Since the solubility of weakly basic hydroxides in water is very low, the hydroxide precipitates from solution in the form of a gelatinous mass.
The base can also be obtained by reacting an alkali or alkaline earth metal with water.
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