Well inorganic chemistry contains many special terms necessary for quantitative calculations. Let's take a closer look at some of its main sections.
Inorganic chemistry was created with the aim of determining the characteristics of substances that are of mineral origin.
Among the main sections of this science are:
Inorganic chemistry is divided into several sections dealing with the study of certain fragments:
Inorganic chemistry is interconnected with physical and analytical chemistry, which have a powerful set of tools that allow mathematical calculations. The theoretical material considered in this section is used in radiochemistry, geochemistry, agrochemistry, and also in nuclear chemistry.
Inorganic chemistry in the applied version is associated with metallurgy, chemical technology, electronics, mining and processing of minerals, structural and building materials, industrial wastewater treatment.
General and inorganic chemistry developed along with human civilization, therefore it includes several independent sections. At the beginning of the nineteenth century, Berzelius published a table of atomic masses. This period was the beginning of the development of this science.
The basis of inorganic chemistry was the research of Avogadro and Gay-Lussac concerning the characteristics of gases and liquids. Hess managed to derive a mathematical relationship between the amount of heat and the state of aggregation of matter, which significantly expanded the horizons of inorganic chemistry. For example, the atomic-molecular theory appeared, which answered many questions.
At the beginning of the nineteenth century, Davy was able to decompose sodium and potassium hydroxides electrochemically, opening up new possibilities for obtaining simple substances by electrolysis. Faraday, based on the work of Davy, derived the laws of electrochemistry.
Since the second half of the nineteenth century, the course of inorganic chemistry has expanded significantly. The discoveries of van't Hoff, Arrhenius, Oswald introduced new trends into the theory of solutions. It was during this time period that the law of mass action was formulated, which made it possible to carry out various qualitative and quantitative calculations.
The doctrine of valency, created by Würz and Kekule, made it possible to find answers to many questions of inorganic chemistry related to the existence of various forms of oxides, hydroxides. At the end of the nineteenth century, new chemical elements were discovered: ruthenium, aluminum, lithium: vanadium, thorium, lanthanum, etc. This became possible after the introduction of the technique spectral analysis. The innovations that appeared in science at that time not only explained chemical reactions in inorganic chemistry, but also made it possible to predict the properties of the products obtained, their areas of application.
By the end of the nineteenth century, 63 different elements were known to exist, and information about various chemicals. But due to the lack of their complete scientific classification, it was not possible to solve all problems in inorganic chemistry.
The periodic law, created by Dmitry Ivanovich, became the basis for the systematization of all elements. Thanks to the discovery of Mendeleev, chemists managed to correct their ideas about the atomic masses of elements, to predict the properties of those substances that had not yet been discovered. The theory of Moseley, Rutherford, Bohr, gave a physical justification to the periodic law of Mendeleev.
In order to understand what chemistry studies, it is necessary to review the basic concepts included in this course.
The main theoretical issue studied in this section is Mendeleev's periodic law. Inorganic chemistry in the tables presented in the school course introduces young researchers to the main classes of inorganic substances and their relationship. Theory chemical bond considers the nature of the connection, its length, energy, polarity. The method of molecular orbitals, valence bonds, the theory of the crystal field are the main questions that make it possible to explain the features of the structure and properties of inorganic substances.
Chemical thermodynamics and kinetics, answering questions relating to changes in the energy of the system, describing the electronic configurations of ions and atoms, their transformation into complex substances based on the theory of superconductivity, gave rise to a new section - the chemistry of semiconductor materials.
Inorganic chemistry for dummies involves the use of theoretical questions in industry. It was this section of chemistry that became the basis for a variety of industries related to the production of ammonia, sulfuric acid, carbon dioxide, mineral fertilizers, metals and alloys. Using chemical methods in mechanical engineering, alloys with desired properties and characteristics are obtained.
What does chemistry study? This is the science of substances, their transformations, as well as areas of application. For this time period, there is reliable information about the existence of about a hundred thousand different inorganic compounds. During chemical transformations, the composition of molecules changes, substances with new properties are formed.
If you are studying inorganic chemistry from scratch, you must first get acquainted with its theoretical sections, and only after that you can proceed to the practical use of the knowledge gained. Among the numerous questions considered in this section of chemical science, it is necessary to mention the atomic and molecular theory.
A molecule in it is considered as the smallest particle of a substance that has its chemical properties. It is divisible down to atoms, which are the smallest particles of matter. Molecules and atoms are in constant motion, they are characterized by electrostatic forces of repulsion and attraction.
Inorganic chemistry from scratch should be based on the definition of a chemical element. By it it is customary to mean the type of atoms that have a certain nuclear charge, the structure of electron shells. Depending on the structure, they are able to enter into various interactions, forming substances. Any molecule is an electrically neutral system, that is, it fully obeys all the laws that exist in microsystems.
For each element that exists in nature, you can determine the number of protons, electrons, neutrons. Let's take sodium as an example. The number of protons in its nucleus corresponds to the serial number, that is, 11, and is equal to the number of electrons. To calculate the number of neutrons, it is necessary to subtract its serial number from the relative atomic mass of sodium (23), we get 12. For some elements, isotopes have been identified that differ in the number of neutrons in the atomic nucleus.
What else characterizes inorganic chemistry? The topics covered in this section involve formulating substances, making quantitative calculations.
To begin with, we analyze the features of compiling formulas for valency. Depending on which elements will be included in the composition of the substance, there are certain rules for determining valency. Let's start with making binary connections. This issue is considered in the school course of inorganic chemistry.
For metals located in the main subgroups of the periodic table, the valency index corresponds to the group number, is a constant value. Metals in side subgroups may exhibit different valences.
There are some features in determining the valency of non-metals. If in the compound it is located at the end of the formula, then it exhibits a lower valency. When calculating it, the number of the group in which this element is located is subtracted from eight. For example, in oxides, oxygen exhibits a valence of two.
If the non-metal is located at the beginning of the formula, it demonstrates a maximum valency equal to its group number.
How to formulate a substance? There is a certain algorithm that even schoolchildren know. First, you need to write down the signs of the elements mentioned in the name of the compound. The element that is indicated last in the name is placed in the first place in the formula. Further, over each of them put, using the rules, the valency index. Between the values, the least common multiple is determined. When it is divided into valences, the indices are obtained, located under the signs of the elements.
Let us give as an example a variant of drawing up the formula of carbon monoxide (4). First, we place the signs of carbon and oxygen, which are part of this inorganic compound, side by side, we get CO. Since the first element has a variable valency, it is indicated in brackets, it is considered for oxygen, subtracting six (group number) from eight, two are obtained. The final formula of the proposed oxide will be CO 2 .
Among the many scientific terms used in inorganic chemistry, allotropy is of particular interest. It explains the existence of several simple substances based on one chemical element that differs in properties and structure.
There are four main classes of inorganic substances that deserve detailed consideration. Let's start with a brief description of oxides. This class involves binary compounds in which oxygen is necessarily present. Depending on which element begins the formula, there is a division into three groups: basic, acidic, amphoteric.
Metals with a valence greater than four, as well as all non-metals, form acidic oxides with oxygen. Among their main chemical properties, we note the ability to interact with water (an exception is silicon oxide), reactions with basic oxides, alkalis.
Metals whose valency does not exceed two form basic oxides. Among the main chemical properties of this subspecies, we single out the formation of alkalis with water, salts with acid oxides and acids.
Transition metals (zinc, beryllium, aluminum) are characterized by the formation of amphoteric compounds. Their main difference is the duality of properties: reactions with alkalis and acids.
Bases are a large class of inorganic compounds that have a similar structure and properties. The molecules of such compounds contain one or more hydroxyl groups. The term itself was applied to those substances that form salts as a result of interaction. Alkalis are bases that have an alkaline environment. These include hydroxides of the first and second groups of the main subgroups of the periodic table.
In acid salts, in addition to the metal and the residue from the acid, there are hydrogen cations. For example, sodium bicarbonate (baking soda) is a highly demanded compound in the confectionery industry. Basic salts contain hydroxide ions instead of hydrogen cations. Double salts are an integral part of many natural minerals. So, sodium chloride, potassium (sylvinite) is found in the earth's crust. It is this compound that is used in industry to isolate alkali metals.
In inorganic chemistry there is a special section dealing with the study of complex salts. These compounds are actively involved in metabolic processes occurring in living organisms.
This section involves consideration of all chemical transformations in terms of energy loss or gain. Hess managed to establish the relationship between enthalpy, entropy, and derive a law that explains the change in temperature for any reaction. The thermal effect, which characterizes the amount of energy released or absorbed in a given reaction, is defined as the difference between the sum of the enthalpies of the reaction products and the initial substances, taken taking into account the stereochemical coefficients. Hess's law is the main one in thermochemistry, it allows to carry out quantitative calculations for each chemical transformation.
Only in the twentieth century did this branch of chemistry become a separate science dealing with a variety of liquid, solid, gaseous systems. Suspensions, suspensions, emulsions, differing in particle size, chemical parameters, are studied in detail in colloid chemistry. The results of numerous studies are actively implemented in the pharmaceutical, medical, chemical industry, enable scientists and engineers to synthesize substances with desired chemical and physical characteristics.
Inorganic chemistry is currently one of the largest branches of chemistry, contains a huge number of theoretical and practical issues that allow you to get an idea about the composition of substances, their physical properties, chemical transformations, and the main fields of application. When mastering the basic terms, laws, you can draw up equations of chemical reactions, carry out various mathematical calculations on them. All sections of inorganic chemistry related to formulating formulas, writing reaction equations, solving problems for solutions are offered to children at the final exam.
The directory contains 1100 inorganic substances, for which the equations of the most important reactions are given. The choice of substances was justified by their theoretical and laboratory-industrial importance.
The directory is organized according to the alphabetical principle of chemical formulas and a well-developed structure, provided with a subject index that makes it easy to find the right substance. It has no analogues in domestic and foreign chemical literature.
For students of chemical and chemical-technological universities. Can be used by university teachers, graduate students, scientific and engineering workers of the chemical industry, as well as teachers and high school students high school.
Al - aluminum.
White, light, ductile metal. Passivated in concentrated water nitric acid and a solution of potassium dichromate due to the formation of a stable oxide film; amalgamated metal reacts with water. Reactive, strong reducing agent. Shows amphoteric properties; reacts with dilute acids and alkalis.
AIN - aluminum nitride.
White, very hard, refractory, thermally stable. Does not react with liquid water, completely hydrolyzes with water vapor. Insoluble in ethanol. Reacts with acids and alkalis, but acid-resistant in a compact form.
ZnS - zinc(II) sulfide.
White, amorphous (precipitated from solution) or crystalline - cubic a-modification and hexagonal B-modification. Sensitive to UV radiation. AT amorphous more reactive. It is peptized (passes into a colloidal solution) during long-term treatment with hydrogen sulfide water. It does not dissolve in water, does not react with alkalis, ammonia hydrate. Reacts with strong acids wet 02 air is slowly oxidized.
Free download e-book in a convenient format, watch and read:
Download the book Reactions of inorganic substances, reference book, Molochko V.A., Andreeva L.L., Lidin R.A., 2007 - fileskachat.com, fast and free download.
Chemistry- the science of substances, the patterns of their transformations (physical and chemical properties) and applications.
Currently, more than 100 thousand inorganic and more than 4 million organic compounds are known.
Chemical phenomena: some substances turn into others that differ from the original composition and properties, while the composition of the nuclei of atoms does not change.
Physical phenomena: the physical state of substances changes (vaporization, melting, electrical conductivity, radiation of heat and light, malleability, etc.) or new substances are formed with a change in the composition of atomic nuclei.
Atomic - molecular doctrine.
1. All substances are made up of molecules.
Molecule - the smallest particle of a substance that has its chemical properties.
2. Molecules are made up of atoms.
Atom - the smallest particle of a chemical element that retains all of its chemical properties. Different elements correspond to different atoms.
3. Molecules and atoms are in continuous motion; between them there are forces of attraction and repulsion.
Chemical element - this is a type of atom, characterized by certain charges of the nuclei and the structure of the electron shells. Currently, 118 elements are known: 89 of them are found in nature (on Earth), the rest are obtained artificially. Atoms exist in a free state, in compounds with atoms of the same or other elements, forming molecules. The ability of atoms to interact with other atoms and form chemical compounds is determined by its structure. Atoms consist of a positively charged nucleus and negatively charged electrons moving around it, forming an electrically neutral system that obeys the laws characteristic of microsystems.
atomic nucleus - the central part of an atom Z protons and N neutrons, in which the bulk of the atoms are concentrated.
Core charge - positive, equal in magnitude to the number of protons in the nucleus or electrons in a neutral atom and coincides with the serial number of the element in the periodic system.
The sum of protons and neutrons of an atomic nucleus is called the mass number A = Z + N.
isotopes
- chemical elements with the same nuclear charges, but different mass numbers due to the different number of neutrons in the nucleus.
|
Mass |
A |
63 |
Cu and |
65 |
35 |
Cl and |
37 |
Chemical formula - this is a conditional record of the composition of a substance using chemical signs (proposed in 1814 by J. Berzelius) and indices (the index is the number to the lower right of the symbol. It indicates the number of atoms in the molecule). Chemical formula shows which atoms of which elements and in what relation are interconnected in a molecule.
Allotropy - the phenomenon of the formation by a chemical element of several simple substances that differ in structure and properties. Simple substances - molecules, consist of atoms of the same element.
Cfalse substances Molecules are made up of atoms of various chemical elements.
Atomic mass constant is equal to 1/12 of the mass of the isotope 12 C - the main isotope of natural carbon.
m u = 1 / 12 m (12 C ) \u003d 1 amu \u003d 1.66057 10 -24 g
Relative atomic mass (A r) - a dimensionless value equal to the ratio of the average mass of an element atom (taking into account the percentage of isotopes in nature) to 1/12 of the mass of an atom 12 C.
Average absolute mass of an atom (m) is equal to the relative atomic mass times the a.m.u.
Ar(Mg) = 24.312
m(Mg) = 24.312 1.66057 10 -24 = 4.037 10 -23 g
Relative molecular weight (Mr) - a dimensionless quantity showing how many times the mass of a molecule of a given substance is greater than 1/12 of the mass of a carbon atom 12 C.
M g = m g / (1 / 12 m a (12 C))
m r - mass of a molecule of a given substance;
m a (12 C) is the mass of a carbon atom 12C.
M g \u003d S A g (e). The relative molecular mass of a substance is equal to the sum of the relative atomic masses of all elements, taking into account the indices.
Examples.
M g (B 2 O 3) \u003d 2 A r (B) + 3 A r (O) \u003d 2 11 + 3 16 \u003d 70
M g (KAl (SO 4) 2) \u003d 1 A r (K) + 1 A r (Al) + 1 2 A r (S) + 2 4 A r (O) \u003d
= 1 39 + 1 27 + 1 2 32 + 2 4
16 = 258
Absolute mass of a molecule is equal to the relative molecular weight times the a.m.u. The number of atoms and molecules in ordinary samples of substances is very large, therefore, when characterizing the amount of a substance, a special unit of measurement is used - the mole.
Amount of substance, mol . Means a certain number of structural elements (molecules, atoms, ions). Denotedn , measured in moles. A mole is the amount of a substance that contains as many particles as there are atoms in 12 g of carbon.
Avogadro's number (NA ). The number of particles in 1 mole of any substance is the same and equal to 6.02 10 23. (The Avogadro constant has the dimension - mol -1).
Example.
How many molecules are there in 6.4 g of sulfur?
The molecular weight of sulfur is 32 g / mol. We determine the amount of g / mol of a substance in 6.4 g of sulfur:
n (s) = m(s) / M(s ) = 6.4g / 32 g/mol = 0.2 mol
Let us determine the number of structural units (molecules) using the constant Avogadro N A
N(s) = n (s)N A = 0.2 6.02 10 23 = 1.2 10 23
Molar mass shows the mass of 1 mole of a substance (denotedM).
M=m/ n
The molar mass of a substance is equal to the ratio of the mass of the substance to the corresponding amount of the substance.
The molar mass of a substance is numerically equal to its relative molecular mass, however, the first value has the dimension g / mol, and the second is dimensionless.
M = N A m (1 molecule) = N A M g 1 a.m.u. = (N A 1 amu) M g = M g
This means that if the mass of a certain molecule is, for example, 80 a.m.u. ( SO 3 ), then the mass of one mole of molecules is 80 g. Avogadro's constant is a proportionality factor that ensures the transition from molecular to molar ratios. All statements regarding molecules remain valid for moles (with the replacement, if necessary, of a.m.u. by g) For example, the reaction equation: 2 Na + Cl 2 2 NaCl , means that two sodium atoms react with one chlorine molecule or, which is the same thing, two moles of sodium react with one mole of chlorine.
The course of chemistry in schools begins in the 8th grade with the study common ground sciences: described possible types bonds between atoms, types of crystal lattices and the most common reaction mechanisms. This becomes the foundation for the study of an important, but more specific section - inorganics.
This is a science that considers the principles of structure, basic properties and reactivity of all elements of the periodic table. An important role in inorganics is played by the Periodic Law, which streamlines the systematic classification of substances according to changes in their mass, number, and type.
The course also covers compounds formed during the interaction of the elements of the table (the only exception is the area of hydrocarbons, which is considered in the chapters of organics). Tasks in inorganic chemistry allow you to work out the received theoretical knowledge in practice.
The name "inorganic" appeared in accordance with the idea that it covers a part of chemical knowledge that is not related to the activities of biological organisms.
Over time, it has been proven that most of the organic world can also produce "non-living" compounds, and hydrocarbons of any type are synthesized in the laboratory. So, from ammonium cyanate, which is a salt in the chemistry of the elements, the German scientist Wehler was able to synthesize urea.
To avoid confusion with the nomenclature and classification of types of research in both sciences, the program of school and university courses, following general chemistry, involves the study of inorganics as a fundamental discipline. AT scientific world the same sequence is maintained.
Chemistry provides for such a presentation of material in which the introductory chapters of inorganics consider the Periodic Law of the Elements. of a special type, which is based on the assumption that the atomic charges of nuclei affect the properties of substances, and these parameters change cyclically. Initially, the table was built as a reflection of the increase in the atomic masses of the elements, but soon this sequence was rejected due to its inconsistency in the aspect in which inorganic substances require consideration of this issue.
Chemistry, in addition to the periodic table, suggests the presence of about a hundred figures, clusters and diagrams that reflect the periodicity of properties.
At present, a consolidated version of the consideration of such a concept as classes of inorganic chemistry is popular. The columns of the table indicate the elements depending on physical and chemical properties, in lines - periods similar to each other.
A sign in the periodic table and a simple substance in a free state are most often different things. In the first case, only specific view atoms, in the second - the type of connection of particles and their mutual influence in stable forms.
The chemical bond in simple substances determines their division into families. Thus, two broad types of groups of atoms can be distinguished - metals and non-metals. The first family includes 96 elements out of 118 studied.
The metallic type assumes the presence of a bond of the same name between the particles. The interaction is based on the socialization of the electrons of the lattice, which is characterized by non-directionality and unsaturation. That is why metals conduct heat and charges well, have a metallic luster, malleability and plasticity.
Conventionally, metals are on the left in the periodic table when a straight line is drawn from boron to astatine. Elements close in location to this line are most often of a boundary nature and exhibit a duality of properties (for example, germanium).
Most metals form basic compounds. The oxidation states of such substances usually do not exceed two. In a group, the metallicity increases, while in a period it decreases. For example, radioactive francium exhibits more basic properties than sodium, and in the halogen family, iodine even has a metallic sheen.
Otherwise, the situation is in the period - they complete the sublevels in front of which there are substances with opposite properties. In the horizontal space of the periodic table, the manifested reactivity of elements changes from basic through amphoteric to acidic. Metals are good reducing agents (accept electrons when bonds are formed).
This type of atoms is included in the main classes of inorganic chemistry. Non-metals occupy the right side of the periodic table, showing typically acidic properties. Most often, these elements occur in the form of compounds with each other (for example, borates, sulfates, water). In the free molecular state, the existence of sulfur, oxygen and nitrogen is known. There are also several diatomic non-metal gases - in addition to the two above, these include hydrogen, fluorine, bromine, chlorine and iodine.
They are the most common substances on earth - silicon, hydrogen, oxygen and carbon are especially common. Iodine, selenium and arsenic are very rare (this also includes radioactive and unstable configurations, which are located in the last periods of the table).
In compounds, non-metals behave predominantly as acids. They are powerful oxidizing agents due to the possibility of adding an additional number of electrons to complete the level.
In addition to substances that are represented by one group of atoms, there are compounds that include several different configurations. Such substances can be binary (consisting of two different particles), three-, four-element, and so on.
Chemistry attaches particular importance to the binarity of bonds in molecules. Classes of inorganic compounds are also considered from the point of view of the bond formed between the atoms. It can be ionic, metallic, covalent (polar or non-polar), or mixed. Usually, such substances clearly show basic (in the presence of metal), amforteric (dual - especially characteristic of aluminum) or acidic (if there is an element with an oxidation state of +4 and higher) qualities.
Topics of inorganic chemistry include consideration of this type of association of atoms. Compounds consisting of more than two groups of atoms (most often inorganics deal with three-element species) are usually formed with the participation of components that differ significantly from each other in physicochemical parameters.
Possible bond types are covalent, ionic and mixed. Typically, three-element substances are similar in behavior to binary ones due to the fact that one of the forces of interatomic interaction is much stronger than the other: the weak one is formed in the second place and has the ability to dissociate faster in solution.
The overwhelming majority of substances studied in the inorganic course can be considered according to a simple classification depending on their composition and properties. So, oxides and salts are distinguished. Consideration of their relationship is better to start with an acquaintance with the concept of oxidized forms, in which almost any inorganic substance can appear. The chemistry of such associates is discussed in the chapters on oxides.
An oxide is a compound of any chemical element with oxygen in an oxidation state of -2 (in peroxides -1, respectively). The formation of a bond occurs due to the return and attachment of electrons with the reduction of O 2 (when oxygen is the most electronegative element).
They can exhibit both acidic, and amphoteric, and basic properties, depending on the second group of atoms. If in the oxide it does not exceed the oxidation state +2, if the non-metal - from +4 and above. In samples with a dual nature of the parameters, a value of +3 is achieved.
Acidic compounds have a medium reaction of less than 7 due to the content of hydrogen cations, which can go into solution and subsequently be replaced by a metal ion. By classification, they are complex substances. Most acids can be obtained by diluting the corresponding oxides with water, for example, in the formation of sulfuric acid after hydration of SO 3 .
The properties of this type of compounds are due to the presence of the OH hydroxyl radical, which gives the reaction of the medium above 7. Soluble bases are called alkalis, they are the strongest in this class of substances due to complete dissociation (decomposition into ions in a liquid). The OH group in the formation of salts can be replaced by acidic residues.
Inorganic chemistry is a dual science that can describe substances from different perspectives. In the protolytic theory, bases are considered as hydrogen cation acceptors. This approach expands the concept of this class of substances, calling alkali any substance that can accept a proton.
This type of compounds is between bases and acids, as it is the product of their interaction. Thus, a metal ion (sometimes ammonium, phosphonium or hydroxonium) usually acts as a cation, and an acid residue acts as an anionic substance. When a salt is formed, hydrogen is replaced by another substance.
Depending on the ratio of the number of reagents and their strength in relation to each other, it is rational to consider several types of interaction products:
Inorganic chemistry is a science that involves the division of each of the classes into fragments that are considered at different times: some earlier, others later. With a more in-depth study, 4 more types of salts are distinguished:
Other substances included in the practice of inorganic chemistry, which can be classified as salts or as separate chapters of knowledge, are hydrides, nitrides, carbides and intermetallides (compounds of several metals that are not an alloy).
Inorganic chemistry is a science that is of interest to every specialist in this field, regardless of his interests. It includes the first chapters studied at school in this subject. The course of inorganic chemistry provides for the systematization of large amounts of information in accordance with an understandable and simple classification.
TUTORIAL
In the discipline "General and inorganic chemistry"
Collection of lectures on general and inorganic chemistry
General and inorganic chemistry: textbook / author E.N. Mozzhuhina;
GBPOU "Kurgan Basic Medical College" - Kurgan: KBMK, 2014. - 340 p.
Published by decision of the Editorial and Publishing Council of the State Autonomous Educational Institution "Institute for the Development of Education and Social Technologies"
Reviewer: NOT. Gorshkova - Candidate of Biological Sciences, Deputy Director for IMR GBPOU "Kurgan Basic Medical College"
| Introduction. | |
| SECTION 1. Theoretical basis chemistry | 8-157 |
| 1.1. The periodic law and the periodic system by the element D.I. Mendeleev. Theory of the structure of substances. | |
| 1.2. Electronic structure of atoms of elements. | |
| 1.3. Types of chemical bond. | |
| 1..4 The structure of substances of inorganic nature | |
| 1 ..5 Classes of inorganic compounds. | |
| 1.5.1. Classification, composition, nomenclature of oxides, acids, bases Production methods and their chemical properties. | |
| 1.5.2 Classification, composition, nomenclature of salts. Production methods and their chemical properties | |
| 1.5.3. Amphoteric. Chemical properties amphoteric oxides and hydroxides. Genetic relationship between classes of inorganic compounds. | |
| 1..6 Complex compounds. | |
| 1..7 Solutions. | |
| 1.8. Theory electrolytic dissociation. | |
| 1.8.1. electrolytic dissociation. Basic provisions. TED. dissociation mechanism. | |
| 1.8.2. Ionic reactions exchange. Salt hydrolysis. | |
| 1.9. Chemical reactions. | |
| 1.9.1. Classification of chemical reactions. Chemical equilibrium and displacement. | |
| 1.9.2. Redox reactions. Their electronic essence. Classification and formulation of OVR equations. | |
| 1.9.3. The most important oxidizing and reducing agents. OVR involving dichromate, potassium permanganate and dilute acids. | |
| 1.9.4 Methods for placing coefficients in the OVR | |
| SECTION 2. Chemistry of elements and their compounds. | |
| 2.1. R-elements. | |
| 2.1.1. General characteristics of the elements of group VII of the periodic system. Halogens. Chlorine, its physical and chemical properties. | |
| 2.1.2. Halides. Biological role halogens. | |
| 2.1.3. Chalcogens. General characteristics of the elements of group VI of the PS D.I. Mendeleev. oxygen compounds. | |
| 2.1.4. The most important sulfur compounds. | |
| 2.1.5. The main subgroup of the V group. General characteristics. The structure of the atom, the physical and chemical properties of nitrogen. The most important nitrogen compounds. | |
| 2.1.6. The structure of the phosphorus atom, its physical and chemical properties. Allotropy. The most important compounds of phosphorus. | |
| 2.1.7. General characteristics of the elements of group IV of the main subgroup of the periodic system D.I. Mendeleev. Carbon and silicon. | |
| 2.1.8. The main subgroup of group III of the periodic system D.I. Mendeleev. Bor. Aluminum. | |
| 2.2. s - elements. | |
| 2.2.1. General characteristics of metals of group II of the main subgroup of the periodic system D.I. Mendeleev. alkaline earth metals. | |
| 2.2.2. General characteristics of the elements of group I of the main subgroup of the periodic system D.I. Mendeleev. alkali metals. | |
| 2.3. d-elements. | |
| 2.3.1. Side subgroup of group I. | |
| 2.3.2.. Secondary subgroup of group II. | |
| 2.3.3. Side subgroup of group VI | |
| 2.3.4. Secondary subgroup of group VII | |
| 2.3.5. Side subgroup of group VIII |
Explanatory note
At the present stage of development of society, the primary task is to take care of human health. The treatment of many diseases has become possible thanks to the achievements of chemistry in the field of creating new substances and materials.
Not having deep and versatile knowledge in the field of chemistry, not knowing the significance of the positive or negative influence of chemical factors on environment, you can not be a competent medical worker. Medical students must have necessary minimum knowledge in chemistry.
This course of lecture material is intended for students studying the basics of general and inorganic chemistry.
The purpose of this course is to study the provisions of inorganic chemistry, presented at the current level of knowledge; expanding the scope of knowledge, taking into account professional orientation. An important direction is the creation of a solid base on which the teaching of other special chemical disciplines (organic and analytical chemistry, pharmacology, drug technology) is built.
The proposed material provides for the professional orientation of students on the connection between theoretical inorganic chemistry and special and medical disciplines.
Main goals training course this discipline is to master the fundamentals of general chemistry; in the assimilation by students of the content of inorganic chemistry as a science that explains the relationship between the properties of inorganic compounds and their structure; in the formation of ideas about inorganic chemistry as a fundamental discipline on which professional knowledge is based.
The course of lectures on the discipline "General and Inorganic Chemistry" is built in accordance with the requirements of the State Educational Standard (FSES-4) to a minimum level of training of graduates in the specialty 060301 "Pharmacy" and developed on the basis curriculum this specialty.
The course of lectures includes two sections;
1. Theoretical foundations of chemistry.
2. Chemistry of elements and their compounds: (p-elements, s-elements, d-elements).
The presentation of the educational material is presented in development: from the simplest concepts to complex, holistic, generalizing ones.
The section "Theoretical Foundations of Chemistry" covers the following issues:
1. Periodic law and Periodic system of chemical elements D.I. Mendeleev and the theory of the structure of substances.
2. Classes of inorganic substances, the relationship between all classes of inorganic substances.
3. Complex compounds, their use in qualitative analysis.
4. Solutions.
5. Theory of electrolytic dissociation.
6. Chemical reactions.
When studying the section "Chemistry of elements and their compounds" the following questions are considered:
1. Characteristics of the group and subgroup in which this element is located.
2. Characteristics of the element, based on its position in the periodic system, from the point of view of the theory of the structure of the atom.
3. Physical properties and distribution in nature.
4. Methods of obtaining.
5. Chemical properties.
6. The most important connections.
7. The biological role of the element and its use in medicine.
Special attention given to drugs of inorganic nature.
As a result of studying this discipline, the student should know:
1. Periodic law and characteristics of the elements of the periodic system D.I. Mendeleev.
2. Fundamentals of the theory of chemical processes.
3. Structure and reactivity of substances of inorganic nature.
4. Classification and nomenclature of inorganic substances.
5. Obtaining and properties of inorganic substances.
6. Application in medicine.
1. Classify inorganic compounds.
2. Compose the names of the compounds.
3. Install genetic connection between inorganic compounds.
4. Using chemical reactions to prove the chemical properties of substances of inorganic nature, including medicinal ones.
Lecture #1
Subject: Introduction.
1. Subject and tasks of chemistry
2. Methods of general and inorganic chemistry
3. Fundamental theories and the laws of chemistry:
a) atomic-molecular theory.
b) the law of conservation of mass and energy;
c) periodic law;
d) the theory of chemical structure.
inorganic chemistry.
1. Subject and tasks of chemistry
Modern chemistry is one of the natural sciences and is a system of separate disciplines: general and inorganic chemistry, analytical chemistry, organic chemistry, physical and colloidal chemistry, geochemistry, cosmochemistry, etc.
Chemistry is a science that studies the processes of transformation of substances, accompanied by a change in composition and structure, as well as mutual transitions between these processes and other forms of motion of matter.
Thus, the main object of chemistry as a science is substances and their transformations.
At the present stage of development of our society, taking care of human health is a task of paramount importance. The treatment of many diseases has become possible thanks to the achievements of chemistry in the field of creating new substances and materials: medicines, blood substitutes, polymers and polymeric materials.
Without deep and versatile knowledge in the field of chemistry, without understanding the significance of the positive or negative influence of various chemical factors on human health and the environment, one cannot become a competent medical worker.
General chemistry. Inorganic chemistry.
Inorganic chemistry is the science of the elements of the periodic system and the simple and complex substances formed by them.
Inorganic chemistry is inseparable from general chemistry. Historically when studying chemical interaction elements with each other, the basic laws of chemistry, the general laws of the course of chemical reactions, the theory of chemical bonding, the doctrine of solutions, and much more were formulated, which is the subject of general chemistry.
In this way, general chemistry studies the theoretical concepts and concepts that form the foundation of the entire system of chemical knowledge.
Inorganic chemistry has long crossed the stage of descriptive science and is currently experiencing its “rebirth” as a result of the widespread use of quantum chemical methods, the band model of the electron energy spectrum, the discovery of valence chemical compounds of noble gases, and the targeted synthesis of materials with special physical and chemical properties. Based on a deep study of the relationship between the chemical structure and properties, it successfully solves the main problem - the creation of new inorganic substances with desired properties.
2. Methods of general and inorganic chemistry.
Of the experimental methods of chemistry, the most important is the method of chemical reactions. Chemical reaction - the transformation of some substances into others by changing the composition and chemical structure. Chemical reactions make it possible to study the chemical properties of substances. By the chemical reactions of the substance under study, one can indirectly judge its chemical structure. Direct methods for establishing the chemical structure are mostly based on the use of physical phenomena.
Also, on the basis of chemical reactions, inorganic synthesis is carried out, which recent times achieved great success, especially in obtaining highly pure compounds in the form of single crystals. This was facilitated by the use of high temperatures and pressures, deep vacuum, the introduction of containerless cleaning methods, etc.
When carrying out chemical reactions, as well as when isolating substances from a mixture in their pure form, preparative methods play an important role: precipitation, crystallization, filtration, sublimation, distillation, etc. At present, many of these classical preparative methods have been further developed and are leading in the technology of obtaining highly pure substances and single crystals. These are methods of directional crystallization, zone recrystallization, vacuum sublimation, fractional distillation. One of the features of modern inorganic chemistry is the synthesis and study of highly pure substances on single crystals.
Methods of physicochemical analysis are widely used in the study of solutions and alloys, when the compounds formed in them are difficult or practically impossible to isolate in an individual state. Then explore physical properties systems depending on the change in composition. As a result, a composition-property diagram is built, the analysis of which allows one to draw a conclusion about the nature of the chemical interaction of the components, the formation of compounds and their properties.
To understand the essence of the phenomenon, experimental methods alone are not enough, therefore Lomonosov said that a true chemist must be a theoretician. Only through thinking, scientific abstraction and generalization, the laws of nature are known, hypotheses and theories are created.
The theoretical understanding of the experimental material and the creation of a coherent system of chemical knowledge in modern general and inorganic chemistry is based on: 1) the quantum mechanical theory of the structure of atoms and the periodic system of elements D.I. Mendeleev; 2) the quantum-chemical theory of the chemical structure and the doctrine of the dependence of the properties of a substance on “its chemical structure; 3) the doctrine of chemical equilibrium, based on the concepts of chemical thermodynamics.
3. Fundamental theories and laws of chemistry.
Among the fundamental generalizations of chemistry and natural science are the atomic-molecular theory, the law of conservation of mass and energy,
Periodic system and theory of chemical structure.
a) Atomic-molecular theory.
The creator of atomic and molecular studies and the discoverer of the law of conservation of the mass of substances M.V. Lomonosov is rightfully considered the founder of scientific chemistry. Lomonosov clearly distinguished two stages in the structure of matter: elements (in our understanding - atoms) and corpuscles (molecules). According to Lomonosov, the molecules of simple substances consist of identical atoms, and the molecules of complex substances consist of different atoms. Atomic-molecular theory received universal recognition in early XIX century after the approval of Dalton's atomistics in chemistry. Since then, molecules have become the main object of study in chemistry.
b) Law of conservation of mass and energy.
In 1760 Lomonosov formulated a unified law of mass and energy. But before the beginning of the XX century. these laws were considered independently of each other. Chemistry mainly dealt with the law of conservation of the mass of matter (the mass of substances that entered into a chemical reaction is equal to the mass of substances formed as a result of the reaction).
For example: 2KSlO 3 \u003d 2 KCl + 3O 2
Left: 2 potassium atoms Right: 2 potassium atoms
2 chlorine atoms 2 chlorine atoms
6 oxygen atoms 6 oxygen atoms
Physics dealt with the law of conservation of energy. In 1905, the founder of modern physics A. Einstein showed that there is a relationship between mass and energy, expressed by the equation E \u003d mc 2, where E is energy, m is mass; c is the speed of light in vacuum.
c) Periodic law.
The most important task of inorganic chemistry is to study the properties of elements, to identify general patterns their chemical interactions with each other. The largest scientific generalization in solving this problem was made by D.I. Mendeleev, who discovered the Periodic Law and its graphical expression - the Periodic System. Only as a result of this discovery did chemical prediction, the prediction of new facts, become possible. Therefore, Mendeleev is the founder of modern chemistry.
Mendeleev's periodic law is the basis of the natural
systematics of chemical elements. Chemical element - collection
atoms with the same nuclear charge. Patterns of changing properties
chemical elements are determined by the Periodic Law. The doctrine of
structure of atoms explained the physical meaning of the Periodic Law.
It turned out that the frequency of changes in the properties of elements and their compounds
depends on a periodically repeating similar structure of the electronic
shells of their atoms. Chemical and some physical properties depend on
structure of the electron shell, especially its outer layers. therefore
The periodic law is the scientific basis for studying the most important properties of elements and their compounds: acid-base, redox, catalytic, complex-forming, semiconductor, metal-chemical, crystal-chemical, radiochemical, etc.
The periodic system also played a colossal role in the study of natural and artificial radioactivity and the release of intranuclear energy.
The Periodic Law and the Periodic System are constantly being developed and refined. The proof of this is the modern formulation of the Periodic Law: the properties of the elements, as well as the forms and properties of their compounds, are in a periodic dependence on the magnitude of the charge of the nucleus of their atoms. Thus, the positive charge of the nucleus, and not the atomic mass, turned out to be a more accurate argument on which the properties of elements and their compounds depend.
d) Theory of chemical structure.
The fundamental task of chemistry is the study of the relationship between the chemical structure of a substance and its properties. The properties of a substance are a function of its chemical structure. To A.M. Butlerov believed that the properties of a substance are determined by its qualitative and quantitative composition. He was the first to formulate the main position of his theory of chemical structure. Thus: the chemical nature of a complex particle is determined by the nature of elementary composite particles, their number and chemical structure. Translated into modern language this means that the properties of a molecule are determined by the nature of its constituent atoms, their number and the chemical structure of the molecule. Initially, the theory of chemical structure referred to chemical compounds that have a molecular structure. At present, the theory created by Butlerov is considered a general chemical theory of the structure of chemical compounds and the dependence of their properties on the chemical structure. This theory is a continuation and development of Lomonosov's atomic and molecular theory.
4. The role of domestic and foreign scientists in the development of general and
inorganic chemistry.
| p/p | Scientists | Life dates | Major works and discoveries in chemistry | ||||
| 1. | Avogadro Amedo (Italy) | | 1776-1856 | Avogadro's law 1 | ||||
| 2. | Arrhenius Svante (Sweden) | 1859-1927 | Theory of electrolytic dissociation | ||||
| 3. | Beketov N.N. (Russia) | 1827-1911 | Activity series of metals. Fundamentals of aluminothermy. | ||||
| 4. | Berthollet Claude Louis (France) | 1748-1822 | Conditions for the flow of chemical reactions. Study of gases. Bertolet's salt. | ||||
| 5. | Berzelius Jene Jacob (Sweden) | 1779-1848 | Determination of the atomic weights of elements. Introduction of letter designations for chemical elements. | ||||
| 6. | Boyle Robert (England) | 1627-1691 | Establishing the concept of a chemical element. Dependence of gas volumes on pressure. | ||||
| 7. | Bor Niels (Denmark) | 1887-1962 | Theory of the structure of the atom. 1 | ||||
| 8. | Van't Hoff Jacob Hendrik (Holland) | 1852-1911 | Study of solutions; one of the founders of physical chemistry and stereochemistry. | ||||
| 9. | Gay-Lussac Joseph (France) | 1778-1850 | Gay-Lussac gas laws. Study of anoxic acids; sulfuric acid technology. | ||||
| 10. | Gess German Ivanov (Russia) | 1802-1850 | Discovery of the basic law of thermochemistry. Development of Russian chemical nomenclature. Mineral analysis. | ||||
| 11. | Dalton John (England) | 1766-1844 | Law of multiple ratios. Introduction of chemical signs and formulas. Substantiation of the atomic theory. | ||||
| 12. | Curie-Sklodowska Maria (France, native Poland) | 1867-1934 | Discovery of polonium and radium; study of the properties of radioactive substances. Isolation of metallic radium. | ||||
| 13. | Lavoisier Antoine Laurent (France) | 1743-1794 | The basis of scientific chemistry is the establishment of the oxygen theory of combustion, the nature of water. Creation of a chemistry textbook based on new views. | ||||
| 14. | Le Chatelier Lune Henri (France) | 1850-1936 | The general law of equilibrium shift depending on external conditions(Le Chatelier principle) | ||||
| 15. | Lomonosov Mikhail Vasilievich | 1741-1765 | The law of conservation of mass of substances. | ||||
| Application of quantitative methods in chemistry; development of the main provisions of the kinetic theory of gases. Foundation of the first Russian chemical laboratory. Compilation of a guide to metallurgy and mining. Creation of mosaic production. | |||||||
| 16. | Mendeleev Dmitry Ivanovich (Russia) | 1834-1907 | The Periodic Law and the Periodic Table of the Chemical Elements (1869). Hydrate theory of solutions. "Fundamentals of Chemistry". Study of gases, discovery of critical temperature, etc. | ||||
| 17. | Priestley Joseph (England) | 1733-1804 | Discovery and study of oxygen, hydrogen chloride, ammonia, carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxide and other gases. | ||||
| 18. | Rutherford Ernest (England) | 1871-1937 | Planetary theory of the structure of the atom. Proof of spontaneous radioactive decay with the release of alpha, beta, gamma rays. | ||||
| 19. | Jacobi Boris Semenovich (Russia) | 1801-1874 | Discovery of electroforming and its introduction into the practice of printing and monetary business. | ||||
| 20. | Other | ||||||
Questions for self-control:
1. Main tasks of general and inorganic chemistry.
2. Methods of chemical reactions.
3. Preparative methods.
4. Methods of physical and chemical analysis.
5. Basic laws.
6. Basic theories.
Lecture #2
Topic: “The structure of the atom and the periodic law of D.I. Mendeleev"
Plan
1. The structure of the atom and isotopes.
2. Quantum numbers. Pauli principle.
3. Periodic system of chemical elements in the light of the theory of atomic structure.
4. Dependence of the properties of elements on the structure of their atoms.
Periodic law D.I. Mendeleev revealed the interconnection of chemical elements. Studying periodic law posed a number of questions:
1. What is the reason for the similarities and differences between the elements?
2. What explains the periodic change in the properties of elements?
3. Why do neighboring elements of the same period differ significantly in properties, although their atomic masses differ by a small amount, and vice versa, in subgroups, the difference in atomic masses of neighboring elements is large, but the properties are similar?
4. Why the arrangement of elements in ascending order of atomic masses is disturbed by the elements argon and potassium; cobalt and nickel; tellurium and iodine?
Most scientists recognized the real existence of atoms, but adhered to metaphysical views (the atom is the smallest indivisible particle of matter).
At the end of the 19th century, the complex structure of the atom and the possibility of transformation of some atoms into others under certain conditions were established. The first particles discovered in the atom were electrons.
It was known that under strong incandescence and under UV light from the surface of metals, negative electrons and metals are positively charged. In elucidating the nature of this electricity great importance had the work of the Russian scientist A.G. Stoletov and the English scientist W. Crooks. In 1879, Crookes investigated the phenomena of electron beams in the magnetic and electric fields Under the influence electric current high voltage. The property of cathode rays to set bodies in motion and experience deviations in magnetic and electric fields made it possible to conclude that these are material particles that carry the smallest negative charge.
In 1897, J. Thomson (England) investigated these particles and named them electrons. Since electrons can be obtained regardless of the substance of which the electrodes are composed, this proves that electrons are part of the atoms of any element.
In 1896, A. Becquerel (France) discovered the phenomenon of radioactivity. He discovered that uranium compounds have the ability to emit invisible rays that act on a photographic plate wrapped in black paper.
In 1898, continuing the research of Becquerel, M. Curie-Skladowska and P. Curie discovered two new elements in uranium ore - radium and polonium, which have a very high radiation activity.
| |
radioactive element
The property of atoms of various elements to spontaneously transform into atoms of other elements, accompanied by the emission of alpha, beta and gamma rays that are not visible to the naked eye, is called radioactivity.
Therefore, the phenomenon of radioactivity is a direct proof of the complex structure of atoms.
Electrons are integral part atoms of all elements. But the electrons are negatively charged, and the atom as a whole is electrically neutral, then, obviously, there is a positively charged part inside the atom, which, with its charge, compensates for the negative charge of the electrons.
Experimental data on the presence of a positively charged nucleus and its location in the atom were obtained in 1911 by E. Rutherford (England), who proposed a planetary model of the structure of the atom. According to this model, the atom consists of a positively charged nucleus, very small in size. Almost all the mass of an atom is concentrated in the nucleus. The atom as a whole is electrically neutral, therefore, the total charge of electrons must be equal to the charge kernels.
Research by G. Moseley (England, 1913) showed that the positive charge of an atom is numerically equal to the ordinal number of the element in the periodic system of D.I. Mendeleev.
So, the serial number of the element indicates the number of positive charges of the atomic nucleus, as well as the number of electrons moving in the field of the nucleus. This is the physical meaning of the ordinal number of the element.
According to the nuclear model, the hydrogen atom is most simply arranged: the nucleus carries one elementary positive charge and a mass close to unity. It is called a proton ("simple").
In 1932, physicist D.N. Chadwick (England) established that the rays emitted during the bombardment of an atom by alpha particles have a tremendous penetrating power and represent a stream of electrically neutral particles - neutrons.
Based on the study of nuclear reactions D.D. Ivanenko (physicist, USSR, 1932) and at the same time W. Heisenberg (Germany) formulated the proton-neutron theory of the structure of atomic nuclei, according to which the nuclei of atoms consist of positively charged particles-protons and neutral particles-neutrons (1 P) - a proton has relative mass 1 and relative charge + 1. 1
(1 n) - the neutron has a relative mass of 1 and a charge of 0.
Thus, the positive charge of the nucleus is determined by the number of protons in it and is equal to the ordinal number of the element in PS; mass number - A (relative mass of the nucleus) is equal to the sum of protons (Z) neutrons (N):
A=Z+N; N=A-Z
isotopes
Atoms of the same element that have the same nuclear charge and different mass numbers are isotopes. Isotopes of one element the same number protons, but different number neutrons.
Hydrogen isotopes:
1 H 2 H 3 H 3 - mass number
1 - nuclear charge
protium deuterium tritium
Z=1 Z=1 Z=1
N=0 N=1 N=2
1 proton 1 proton 1 proton
0 neutrons 1 neutron 2 neutrons
Isotopes of one element have the same chemical properties and are designated by one chemical symbol, occupy one place in PS. Since the mass of an atom is practically equal to the mass of the nucleus (the mass of electrons is negligible), then each isotope of an element is characterized, like the nucleus, by a mass number, and an element by an atomic mass. Atomic mass element is the arithmetic average between the mass numbers of the isotopes of the element, taking into account the percentage of each isotope in nature.
The nuclear theory of the structure of the atom proposed by Rutherford was widely used, but later researchers encountered a number of fundamental difficulties. According to classical electrodynamics, an electron must radiate energy and move not in a circle, but along a spiral curve and eventually fall onto the nucleus.
In the 20s of the XX century. Scientists have established that the electron has a dual nature, has the properties of a wave and a particle.
The mass of an electron is 1 ___ masses of hydrogen, relative charge
equals (-1) . The number of electrons in an atom is equal to the atomic number of the element. The electron moves throughout the volume of the atom, creating an electron cloud with an uneven negative charge density.
The idea of the dual nature of the electron led to the creation of a quantum mechanical theory of the structure of the atom (1913, Danish scientist N. Bohr). The main thesis of quantum mechanics is that microparticles have a wave nature, and waves are the properties of particles. Quantum mechanics considers the probability of finding an electron in the space around the nucleus. The region of the most probable location of an electron in an atom (≈ 90%) is called the atomic orbital.
Each electron in an atom occupies a certain orbital and forms an electron cloud, which is a collection of various positions of a rapidly moving electron.
The chemical properties of elements are determined by the structure of the electron shells of their atoms.
Similar information.
