Municipal state educational institution
"Borschenskaya secondary school"
Bolshesoldatsky district, Kursk region
Didactic material on the topic
"Formation of the communicative competence of students"
Done: teacher
Russian language and literature
Kuznetsova Svetlana
Valentinovna
Task number 1
Read. Indicate what mistakes were made when using foreign words. Make the necessary corrections and rewrite.
Nothing can take Oblomov out of his balance. Disputes constantly arise between Pavel Petrovich and Bazarov. Landscape plays an important role in the composition of the novel. At the classroom forum, urgent issues of academic performance and discipline were discussed. The writer demonstrated the true essence of the "bloodsucker" Judas. The poem clearly shows the whole antagonism of the contradictions between the landowners and the common people. The staging of the play on the stage was a great progressive step forward in the development of our dramaturgy. Sateen's monologue is a laudatory praise to Man.
Task number 2
Rewrite, replacing unsuccessfully used dialect and vernacular words in the following sentences. Find an example of the appropriate application of dialectism.
Prince Igor escaped from captivity. Prostakova frightens Sophia in every possible way. First I will describe Mitrofan. Khlestakov, talking about life in St. Petersburg, is lying much. The next Sunday, all the students in our class decided to go back on a field trip. On the stage of the village club we saw a choir of girls. They were wearing white blouses and bright plaid skirts - ponyovs. It was difficult to find out what Plyushkin's clothes consisted of.
Task number 3
Explain the errors in the use of verbs in these sentences. Correct the mistakes.
White clouds drift away in deep snow. The next day we were told the results of the game. The father spared nothing for his son. I went to bed and did not see how I fell asleep. Marya married a young man, they became husband and wife. A monument was built to the scientist in the city. There was a big blizzard. Vanya belonged to a very poor family and could not go to school.
Task number 4
Determine what are the errors in the use of adjectives.Correct the mistakes.
This day was the best, the most memorable day of my summer holidays. Alyonushka walks through dense forests, viscous swamps. This is a brave and strong-willed person. He is very calm about his idle life.
Task number 5
Read. What nouns are used in a meaning that is unusual for them? Rewrite to correct errors.
The boy was picking apples in the garden. We will have dance competitions in the House of Culture. This icon in my herbarium takes pride of place. It was interesting at the exhibition, there the tour told us about everything in detail. At the review of dog breeders, Tuman received the first prize. I really liked this verse.
Task number 6
What words are inappropriate?
Not far from the park spread the palace. In the morning, a ray of sunlight penetrated the hollow and warmed the cuckoo as it should. Wrestlers trained in the gym. The boy saw something tasty and licked his lips up to his ears. He rushed into the boat and began to row the yokes. The dog's fur stood on end.
Task number 7
2. Compose and write sentences with a verb dress (wear).
Dense fog ... valley, mountains, so the road was not visible. She combed her hair, ... a festive dress and, looking around the room, resolutely left. Daria Alekseevna thought out what ... the children will do when they go to the forest. It was warm, almost hot; young shiny leaves, in a hurry, ... trees. Igor ... put his denim jacket on the baby, took him in his arms and carefully carried him home. The crooked streets of this old town were gradually paved and ... in asphalt. Fishermen ... a worm on a hook, throw a fishing rod and stare at the float. Firefighters ... put on a face mask so as not to suffocate in the smoke.
Task number 8
Correct the mistakes in the formation of forms of comparison of adjectives. Write the sentences in correct form.
"Dig a hole more rocky," the brigadier commanded. The boy was treated more severely than his comrade. This man had the widest opportunities for creative work. “This dress is beautiful,” Nina expressed her opinion. The incident seemed to him less significant than those around him. He is in a worse position than my friend. The ship sailed on the most beautiful lake in the world. This is the simplest invention of a young designer. The bag was lighter than a suitcase. After processing, the bread became softer and more fluffy. There is no seasoning hotter than red pepper. Your voice is louder than a bell!
Task number 9
I can't forget one walk. Early autumn in the park. The trees are covered with golden foliage. The sky above is blue. Sparrows are chirping somewhere. The firs stand in their usual attire. But soon winter will come, and everything will calm down and fall asleep. What a beautiful park in autumn! There is also the singing of birds. It seems that they invite us to admire autumn nature. The sun shines in the sky and illuminates every leaf with gold.
Task number 10
When I lived in the village with my grandmother, I often went to the forest with my brother. He joyfully greeted us with the singing of birds, the rustle of trees. They seemed to become our friends and guarded us. Here we are walking along the forest path. Suddenly my brother screams! It turns out that he was frightened by a little hare. He is gray and fluffy. He must have gotten lost. He decided to take it home. He put it in a basket and carried it home. For a long time he looked after him, and after a month he let him go to the forest. He did the right thing.
Task number 11
Visit to the museum
Last Sunday, the whole family went to the local history museum. The local history museum is located in the very center of our city. We had to travel by tram for a long time, then by bus. My brother and I looked out the window and rejoiced. We love to ride. My brother liked to ride the tram more because it looks more like a train. He was in good mood. In the museum, I liked the halls that tell the nature of our region. It turns out that it is huge and includes many cities, villages. We have many swamps and forests. And different animals live in them. They are beautiful and I feel sorry for them. I wanted to know more about our city. Lived in the city famous people. Tour guides talked about them interestingly. They have done a lot for people. We decided to go to the museum more often in order to know the history of our native land well.
Task number 12
Expand the brackets by choosing your preferred option.
He was the father of (two children - two children). They walked towards him (three men - three men). We still had in stock (five days - five days). The headquarters remained (four generals - four generals). Our cat brought (six kittens - six kittens - six kittens). The owner did not count (four sheep - four sheep). There were five of us left. In our class there were only (six girls - six girls). I'm ready to work three people for three people). Joyfully met after parting (three friends - three friends). When the patient was inseparable (three servants - three servants). There were (three sons - three sons) in the family, all (three - three) were excellent hunters.
Task number 13
Read the sentences, correct the mistakes in the use of numerals.
The 205th season opens with the Bolshoi Theatre. Athletes from eighty-one countries took part in the games of the 22nd Olympiad. Overfulfillment of the plan for this item amounted to three and five percent. In one of the cities of China, a procession was held on the occasion of the seven hundred and fifty-third anniversary of the death of Genghis Khan. Welfare is characterized by about two hundred indicators. The bloc of right-wing parties has one hundred and thirty-one seats in parliament. Glenn, nicknamed Harelip, is now worth more than two hundred million dollars.
Task number 14
Choose the right form, explain your choice.
Two (best, best) athletes represented our school at regional athletics competitions. For three (last, last) years, nothing has changed. Two (new, new) models of monitors have gone on sale. Three men left on the bench (suspicious, suspicious) three bundles. After waiting for the guests (kind, good) for three hours, he ate out of boredom (whole, whole) two chickens and drank (full, full) two decanters of wine. Three (old living rooms, old living rooms) and two (dark billiard rooms, dark billiard rooms) were subject to repair. (Four-fifths, four-fifths) of the territory of Karelia are covered with forests. Twelve blue firs, (planted, planted) last autumn, became the decoration of the park. And two (dark, dark) palm trees, (brought, brought) from Sukhumi, were planted in the botanical garden. (Three-eighths, three-eighths) of the land remain in the ownership of the former owner. Three (new, new) computers (purchased, purchased) last month should be installed in the classroom as soon as possible. Behind last years three (modern laundries, modern laundries), four (inexpensive pancake shops, inexpensive pancake shops), two (chic patisserie, chic patisserie) and two (cheap eateries, cheap eateries) opened in the city. All three (modern laundromats, modern laundries, four (inexpensive pancake shops, inexpensive pancake shops), two (chic patisserie, chic patisserie) and two (cheap eateries, cheap eateries) are located in new neighborhoods.
Task number 15
Choose the correct form of the predicate:
No one: neither deputies, nor ministers, nor the president has (has, have) the right to violate the Constitution. Suffice it to recall those who (became, became) victims of repression. Dressings, in particular cotton wool, bandages, swabs, tourniquets, should always (must, must) be at hand. The modern cinematic beau monde, especially well-known directors, screenwriters, actors (try, try) not to quarrel with the authorities. Those who cannot (can, can) find a job on their own turn to employment centers. You, who on the facts (maybe can) prove the correctness of your own decision, should not put up with the incompetence of others. none of official representatives, not to mention numerous journalists and relatives, did not (know, knew) when the plane with our athletes would land.
Task number 16
Put the predicate in the correct form. Explain the choice.
On the wall hung ... a rifle and a Cossack hat. On one side stood ... three or four stacks of hay, half-covered with snow, on the other - a twisted windmill, with popular print wings lazily lowered. The captain and the captain went to sleep, and I went to Shvabrin, with whom I spent the whole evening. Shvabrin had ... several French books. At that moment, Ivan Ignatich and about five disabled people suddenly appeared from behind a stack. He began to undress two disabled people ... a Bashkir. Across the steppe, not far from the fortress, rode ... about twenty people on horseback. He stopped, he was surrounded, and, apparently, at his command, four people separated ... and galloped at full speed ... under the very fortress. Father Gerasim and his wife went out ... l ... onto the porch. The guards did not think to hold me back, and I ran straight into the room where about six hussar officers were playing ... at the bank. With me sat ... two hussars with sabers drawn, and I drove along the high road. Two people led ... me through the yard to the commandant's house. At a table covered with papers sat ... two people: an elderly general, looking stern and cold, and a young guards captain, about twenty-eight, very pleasant-looking, dexterous and free to handle.
Task number 17
Find and explain usage errors participle turnover. Correct the sentences:
After losing public money, she had to justify herself to the whole class. Listening to the songs of birds and inhaling the aroma of a summer evening, it seemed to her that life was beautiful and still ahead. With sadness, remembering the possible, but departed happiness, a print of longing and long-standing resentment appeared on her face. Looking at the photographs of past years, he could not believe that everything was already behind him. Passing a difficult mountain pass, they often had to stop and wait for the rest of the expedition. As a child, he was always interested in issues related to technology. Without feeling tired and hungry, our way to the top continued. Turning to his subordinates, it never occurred to the boss that he was facing the same person, with his sorrows and joys, problems and grievances. Describing the beauty of Russian nature, the writer notes various features middle lane Russia.
Task number 18
Find and fix bugs.
I was asked if I knew where the local history museum was located. The teacher asked the student what difficulties you had while doing the home exercise. Pushkin challenges society, saying that "in my cruel age I glorified freedom." Socrates said that "I know that I know nothing." Leaving for Moscow, Andrey promised that he would definitely let me know how he got a job. Igor suggested that let's go out of town on Saturday. When I asked my brother what is your favorite poem by Pushkin, he replied that it was difficult to say. Lermontov said about his generation that "we both hate and we love by chance." Tatyana says that "I am given to another and I will be faithful to him for a century." The long-awaited call rang out, and Sasha asked Katya if he could see her today. Raskolnikov is constantly tormented by the problem that “Am I a trembling creature or do I have a right?” he said that let's better try to solve this problem together. Waking up in the morning and seeing that the day promises to be warm and sunny, Katya exclaimed that let's run to the river as soon as possible. I have not yet decided whether I will go to university.
Task number 19
In which sentence can the subordinate clause be replaced by a participial phrase?
A. The rivers Euphrates and Tigris, which originate in the mountains south of the Caucasus, flow into the Persian Gulf.
B. Clusters of stars form galaxies, between which vast regions of empty space extend.
Q. On the map, longitude is indicated by lines called meridians.
D. The royal primrose, which is common in Indonesia, is called the earthquake flower.
Task number 20
In which sentence can the subordinate clause be replaced by a participial phrase?
A. The body of the water strider is covered with small hairs that prevent it from wetting with water.
B. Ecological problems, which are talked about so much these days, are in the center of attention of scientists.
B. There are several layers in the atmosphere, which have different physicochemical characteristics.
D. On the way, Odysseus had many adventures, which Homer tells about in the poem.
Task number 21
found need to use the word substantiate?
A. The city of Moscow was founded in 1147.
B. Long-term observations confirm and base the conclusions of the theory.
B. Igor's thoughts founded on the fact that he saw other people's footprints in the yard.
G. I want to know what based your guess.
Task number 22
In which sentence instead of the word home need to use the word homey?
A. Inna got good home education.
B. In the morning, a whirlwind swirled me household worries.
B. Entering the hallway, Galina changed into house shoes.
G. Viktor Andreevich was known in the district home owner.
Task number 23
Indicate the sentence that does not contain a grammatical error.
A. The discontent of the workers was expressed in strikes.
B. That day the boy returned early from school.
C. Thanks to the hard work of the grain growers, good harvest wheat.
D. Due to the upcoming trip, we will study the map of the area.
Task number 24
Give an example with an error in the formation of the word form.
a) leather belts; c) near estates;
b) a guarantee of success; d) the first two months.
Task number 25
Indicate the grammatically correct continuation of the sentence
Only by training systematically and purposefully
Task number 26
In the following sentences, from the words in brackets, choose those that can be combined with the words next to them:
The performance (had, made) a strong impression on the child. Aristotle was one of the first (put forward, expressed) a hypothesis about the connection between language and thinking. This problem should be given serious (meaning, attention). The flood (did, caused) serious damage to the farm buildings. The government (adopted, undertook) a decision to raise pensions in March of this year. After the suppression of the Decembrist uprising, the tsarist government (takes, takes) steps to restrict the press and education. Defending the Motherland, Russian soldiers (performed, fulfilled) their duty. Just as in 1812 the Russian army (provided, gave) resistance to the enemy, and then (won, won) a victory over him, so in 1941 our army first (provided, gave) a heroic rebuff to the enemy, and then (won, won) the battle near Moscow.
Task number 27
Indicate which synonyms of the following pairs have a narrower meaning:
Neighbor - close; fortification - fortress; landscape - view; baggage - cargo; spectacle - performance; to notice - to see; to lock - to close; builder - architect; specialty - profession; teacher - teacher; outfit - clothes; income - profit; understanding - smart; extinguish - blow out; boundless - boundless; service - work; estate - manor; protect - guard; feed - food; buy - buy.
Task number 28
Is there a difference in meaning between the words within the following pairs?
Falseness is a lie, evening is a ball; wealth - splendor; stinginess - greed; ability is talent.
Task number 29
Arrange the following synonyms in ascending order:
Task number 30
Arrange the following synonyms in descending order:
Witness, contemplative, spectator, observer. Blizzard, snowstorm, blizzard, blizzard, blizzard. Enmity, enmity, hatred, enmity. Mistake, blunder, error, omission. Misfortune, disaster, catastrophe, grief, misfortune.
Task number 31
Find a word (expression) leading to misunderstanding, ambiguity:
For ease of use, the school almanac is provided with content. The author divides the characters of his novel into two parts. This ruling will put an end to truants. Timur Baimuratov, having finished his service in aviation, came to the circle and gives the children what he loves dearly. Dovator's cavalry dealt a crushing blow to the rears of the attackers. Raskolnikov killed his grandmother. 25 product names are presented at the exhibition. We have a self-service canteen: eat - get out yourself. Diesel fuel- is always one of the scarce oil products, and the Hermes cooperative is ready to help you with this. A figure jumped out of the club. I invite the guys now to express themselves too.
Task number 32
Rewrite, inserting instead of points the words you need in meaning and explaining (orally) their meaning.
Task number 33
Read. Indicate what mistakes were made in the use of words (inaccurate knowledge of the lexical meaning of the word, confusion of the meaning of words with the same root, violation of the compatibility of the word with other words, etc.). In case of difficulty, refer to the explanatory dictionary. Make the necessary corrections and rewrite the sentences.
Friends, let's look to the future. Reading the "Young Guard", we, young men and women who did not know the war, see how our contemporaries fought heroically against the invaders. The plot of patriotism runs through the whole novel. Both plot lines, personal and public, develop in a comedy in parallel, mutually intersecting. At the time of his stay in the south, Pushkin writes romantic works. Very early I realized that biology is a fascinating science. At first, a double impression is formed about Manilov. At first glance, he may even seem like a very nice person. The author solves in a new way the question of the place of the poet in life, of the citizenship of poetry. The most gifted works were created by the writer already in the post-revolutionary years. The sudden departure of Khlestakov and the news of the arrival of a real auditor lead the officials to a stupor. It is impossible to treat various Chichikovs, Plyushkins and Nozdrevs without angry indignation. Reading classical Russian literature enriches people's horizons. Dialects are found not only in the language of the heroes of the story, but also in the speech of the author himself.
Task number 34
Rewrite, choosing synonyms for each underlined word.
Task number 35
Rewrite, inserting instead of dots the appropriate words given in brackets.
Task number 36
Rewrite the examples, eliminating repeated cognates.
The appearance of plays by A.N. Ostrovsky was a huge event in the history of our theater. The author satirically portrays the images of the landowners. Having inherited his uncle's inheritance, Onegin began to live in the village. The French emperor miscalculated, counting on a quick victory. When the enemy troops began to approach closer, the whole people marched against the enemies. "The Tale of Igor's Campaign" called on the Russian people to unite together.
Task number 37
Read, point out the repeated words. What synonyms can replace them? Make this substitution and rewrite the text.
After the report, the debate began. The locksmith Shutov was the first to speak. He talked about the renovation schedule. Mechanic Ovsov and dispatcher Tulin talked about the underutilization of production capacity. Other workers spoke of specific remedial measures. In conclusion... the head of the workshop spoke about the results of the debate. The adopted resolution ... spoke of measures to improve discipline and increase ... labor productivity.
Task number 38
Read, point out the repeated words. Rewrite the text, replacing them in different ways: using pronouns, synonyms, descriptive phrases.
Vladimir Klavdievich Arseniev was born in 1872. Arseniev very early began to prepare himself for the study of the remote outskirts of our Motherland. The greatest interest of the researcher was attracted by the Ussuri region. The researcher arrived in the Ussuri Territory in 1899, and from that time Arsenyev's activity began in the study of the Ussuri Territory.
During one of the expeditions in 1902, Arseniev met the gold (Nanai) Dersu Uzala, and this meeting played a huge role in Arseniev's subsequent activities. Dersu Uzala revealed to Arseniev many secrets of the Ussuri taiga.
As a result of a number of expeditions, Arseniev managed to collect a large scientific material about the animal and flora Ussuri region. Based on the travel diaries of Arseniev in 1918 - 1920. wrote two books: "On the Ussuri Territory" and "Dersu Uzala". A. M. Gorky received these books in Sorrento. When A. M. Gorky read these books, he warmly congratulated Arseniev.
Task number 39
Rewrite, inserting the necessary words from brackets instead of dots.
1) Speakers criticized ... in the work of housing and communal services. The technician for a long time could not detect ... the motor (shortcomings, defects). 2) Special devices serve to reduce ... the ship's hull. ... hands after a concussion prevented the carpenter from working (vibration, trembling). 3) Serious border ... exacerbated relations between the two neighboring states. A funny thing happened in our class the other day ... (accident, incident). 4) K.D. Ushinsky - the famous Russian ... . A new ... history arrived at the school (teacher, lecturer). 5) The laboratory assistant conducted ... blood. With phonetic ... words, the student did not make a single mistake (analysis, analysis). 6) Solving algebraic problems, we used the technique .... The daughter had more ... ... with her mother (analogy, similarity).
Exercise 21 Read the text. Define his style. Describe the lexical, morphological, syntactic features of the text.
How are calories measured?
A calorie is a unit of measure for energy, or heat. One calorie is the amount of heat required to measure the temperature of one gram of water per degree Celsius.
What does it have to do with food then? We eat food to provide energy to the body, and the energy of food is also measured in calories. When food is processed, combining with oxygen in the cells of the body, it gives off energy. When measuring the energy value of food, we use a large calorie, or kilocalorie, which is equal to one thousand ordinary calories.
Each type of food, "burning", allocates a certain amount of calories. For example, one gram of protein provides four kilocalories, and one gram of fat provides nine kilocalories.
The number of calories your body needs depends on the work it does. A person who weighs 68 kilograms needs 1680 kilocalories per day if he does nothing. If he does non-labor intensive work, he needs about 3360 kilocalories per day. And if he does hard work, 6720 kilocalories will be required to maintain the normal functioning of the body.
There are other factors that determine the body's need for calories, such as age, gender, physical condition of the body, and even climate. Imagine that you are consuming more calories than you need. The body processes the number of calories it needs and stores the rest in reserve. About one third of the amount needed daily by the body can be deposited in the reserve. It turns into fat. That is why it is very important to count the calories needed by the body.
("All About Everything")
Exercise 22.Read an excerpt from the draft federal law "On the Russian language as the state language of the Russian Federation." Prove that this text refers to the official business style of speech.
Real the federal law regulates public relations related to the status of the Russian language as the state language of the Russian Federation and its official use.
The purpose of the law is:
to strengthen the consolidating role of the Russian language as the state language of the Russian Federation in the political, socio-economic and cultural spheres as contributing to the preservation of the unity and integrity of the multinational Russian state;
ensure the use of the Russian language as a means of interethnic communication between the peoples of Russia;
to strengthen the legal basis for the use of the Russian language as the state language of the Russian Federation in the activities of federal bodies state power, public authorities of the constituent entities of the Russian Federation, local governments, state and other organizations;
establish the basic requirements for officials of government bodies or organizations operating on the territory of the Russian Federation in relation to the use, development, improvement and dissemination of the Russian language as the state language of the Russian Federation;
to delimit the powers between the federal state authorities and the state authorities of the constituent entities of the Russian Federation in the use of the Russian language as the state language of the Russian Federation;
to promote the formation of a careful attitude to the Russian language as the state language of the Russian Federation, the preservation of its originality, wealth and purity as a common cultural heritage of the peoples of Russia and world culture;
promote the spread of the Russian language as one of the world languages.
Exercise 23Read the text, determine what style of speech it belongs to; justify your answer.
Conclusion
Legal Department
Office of the State Duma
according to the draft federal law
"On the Russian language as a state language
Russian Federation"
Having re-examined the mentioned bill, the Legal Department of the State Duma Administration reports the following.
In accordance with the preamble and Article 6 of the draft law, the purpose of this law is "the delimitation of powers between the federal state authorities and the authorities of the constituent entities of the Russian Federation in the use of the Russian language." This provision contradicts Part 3 of Article 11 of the Constitution of the Russian Federation, which establishes that the delimitation of powers between the state authorities of the Russian Federation and the state authorities of the constituent entities of the Russian Federation is carried out by the constitution, Federal and other treaties on the delimitation of jurisdiction and powers.
The bill needs significant legal, technical and stylistic revisions.
Head of Department V.B. Isakov
Exercise 24 For which language styles the given language means are characteristic (fill in the table, remembering that the same means can be characteristic of two or even three styles).
Words and word combinations: colloquial, professional, terms, clericalisms, socio-political vocabulary and phraseology, abstract, vernacular words in figurative meanings, words in basic (conceptual) meanings, bookish, dialectal, slang, created by the author, interjection words, abbreviations, stamps , obsolete, borrowed, neologisms, diminutives.
Offers: exclamatory, with appeal, with homogeneous members, with introductory words, with direct speech, interrogative, incentive, definitely personal, indefinitely personal, impersonal, nominative, incomplete with separate members sentences, replicas, quotations, compound, compound, complex non-union, complex sentences with various types of connection.
Exercise 25What styles do these genres of speech belong to? Fill in the table according to the sample.
Dissertation, abstract, report, novel, story, reportage, poem, agenda, statement, act, open letter, summary, memorandum, cover letter, indictment, dialogue, fable, phrase, slogan, leaflet, law, decree, questionnaire, characteristic , ode, fairy tale, article, note, announcement, contract, decree, speech (speech).
Exercise 26 Determine which of the following words form paronymic pairs. Make suggestions with them.
Regretfully, Sweden, refute, Austria, Switzerland, reject, Australia, surprised, crushingly, surprisingly, bewilderment, misunderstanding, ideal, courtier, idealistic, yard.
Exercise 27 Before you are “shifters” - stable expressions in which each word is replaced by an antonym. Restore them to their original state.
Authority (experienced thief), water area (section of the water surface), subsidy (state aid), cop (policeman), monik (monitor), soap ( Email), cool (excellent, lovely, respectable), idiom ( set expression, peculiar only to this language), ancestors (parents), deportation (forced resettlement of individuals and peoples), cash (cash), dude (young man), chaos (element), party (collective entertainment event), fan (fan) , eclecticism (mechanical combination of different views).
Exercise 33. Taking advantage explanatory dictionaries, determine the values obsolete words, distinguish between historicisms and archaisms.
Boyar, brow, oratay, cheeks, right hand, oprichnina, treasury, equestrian, lorgnette, this, cutting, art, tower, interpreter, yoke.
Exercise 34Analyze communicative qualities of his speech.
Answer questions in writing.
1. Correctness of speech:
− What are the norms literary language do I break more often?
− What prevents my speech from being correct?
− What are the ways to develop correct speech for me?
2. Speech efficiency:
− What prevents my speech from being effective?
− What are the ways to develop the effectiveness of speech for me?
the most efficient? Why?
3. Relevance of speech:
− What prevents my speech from being relevant?
− What are the ways to develop the appropriateness of speech for me?
the most efficient? Why?
4. Richness of speech:
− What means of increasing the level of richness of speech do I use?
− What are the most effective ways to increase the level of richness of speech for me? Why?
5. Speech Accuracy:
− What prevents my speech from being accurate?
− What are the most effective ways to develop speech accuracy for me? Why?
6. Purity of speech:
− What prevents my speech from being pure?
− What are the most effective ways to develop speech clarity for me? Why?
7. Logic of speech:
− What prevents my speech from being logical?
− What are the most effective ways to develop logical speech for me? Why?
8. Expressiveness of speech:
− What means of expression do I use?
− What prevents my speech from being expressive?
− What ways of developing expressiveness of speech are the most effective for me? Why?
9. Speech etiquette:
− What speech etiquette tools do I use?
Russian language and culture of speech
− What are the most effective ways to develop speech etiquette for me? Why?
The main manifestation of the regulatory activity of the central nervous system is the implementation of reflexes. Reflex - the reaction of organisms to irritation of receptors, carried out with the participation of the central nervous system. Thanks to reflexes, the body is able to quickly and accurately respond to changes in the internal and external environment and adapt to these changes. The morphological substrate of the reflexes is the reflex arc - a chain of neurons from the peripheral receptor to the working organ. This circuit includes the following elements:
Receptors - nerve formations that perceive the action of the stimulus are transformed into a packet of AP. The set of receptors, the irritation of which causes this reflex, is called receptive, reflex field, afferent nerve pathways - conduct PD to the center of the reflex arc, located in the central nervous system. the center of the reflex arc includes afferent, efferent and insertion neurons. In the simplest reflexes, intercalated neurons are absent. efferent nerve pathways - represented by axons of efferent neurons and transport AP to the working organ.
effector - a working organ to which an efferent nerve impulse is addressed. They can be both skeletal and smooth muscles, and secretory and endocrine cells.
Reflexes are classified according to several criteria: according to the number of synapses within the central part of the reflex arc, monosynaptic and polysynaptic reflexes are distinguished; Examples of monosynaptic reflexes are tendon reflexes: knee, elbow, Achilles, etc.
According to the type of effector, they are distinguished: motor reflexes - the effector is skeletal muscles and vegetative reflexes - the effectors are glands, blood vessels, internal organs.
according to the type of receptor, exteroceptive reflexes are distinguished - receptors are located on outer surface body; interoceptive
- Receptors are located in the internal organs; proprioceptive - receptors are located in skeletal muscles, tendons, joints, according to the mechanism of occurrence, unconditioned (genetically fixed) and conditioned (acquired during life) reflexes are distinguished.
The feedback principle lies in the fact that during the implementation of the reflex, the process is not limited to the performance of a certain action by the effector, but leads to the excitation of the upper receptors in it (not those that caused the given reflex). These receptors are called secondary) From them, afferent information about the consequences of the action of the effector enters the center of the reflex and corrects it. Afferent signals from secondary receptors are called reverse afferentation (feedback), in contrast to the primary afferentation that caused the reflex. Thanks to feedback, the intensity and sequence of switching on of various groups of neurons becomes strictly consistent with the result of the action, i.e. reaction efficiency is monitored. For example, when the proprioceptive sensitivity of the muscles is damaged, movements become very inaccurate due to the loss of feedback.
The principle of a common final path was introduced into physiology by Sherington. He considered the motor neurons of the spinal cord to be such a final path, to which numerous excitations from various centers converge. In most CNS neurons, the number of afferent inputs significantly exceeds the number of efferent outputs; therefore, the neurons that are the common final path integrate the excitatory and inhibitory processes of the overlying neurons. These processes compete for mastery of a common final path.
Reciprocal interaction of reflexes - lies in the fact that the excitation of the nerve center of one muscle group is accompanied by simultaneous inhibition of the center of the muscles of the antagonists.
Sensitivity is the ability to distinguish and evaluate afferent information from receptors. Distinguish general sensitivity associated with the excitation of receptors in various tissues of the body, and special - associated with irritation of receptors located in special sensory organs. Special sensitivities include sight, hearing, smell, taste, and balance.
General sensitivity is divided into superficial (exteroceptive) - associated with irritation of the receptors of the skin and mucous membranes, deep (proprioceptive) - associated with irritation of the proprioreceptors of muscles, tendons, ligaments, articular surfaces, and interoceptive - associated with irritation of the receptors. internal organs and blood vessels. In turn, within each type of sensitivity, various forms are distinguished depending on the modality of the receptors. So, exteroceptive sensitivity is divided into tactile, temperature, pain; proprioceptive - on muscle-articular sensitivity, vibration sensitivity, sensitivity to pressure. Unlike extero- and proprioceptive reception, interoceptive reception is connected around the clock with autonomic innervation and therefore is not realized. However, with excessive excitation of interoreceptors due to irradiation of excitation through the central nervous system, a feeling of discomfort and diffuse pains that do not have a clear localization may occur.
All activity of the nervous system has a reflex character, i.e. consists of a huge number of various reflexes of different levels of complexity. Reflex- this is the body's response to any external or internal influence involving the nervous system. Reflex- this is an adaptive reaction of the body, providing a subtle, precise and perfect balancing of the body with the state of the external or internal environment. "If all receptors are turned off, then a person should fall into a dead sleep and never wake up" (I.M. Sechenov). That. The nervous system works on the principle of reflection: stimulus - response. The authors of the reflex theory are the outstanding Russian physiologists I.P. Pavlov and I.M. Sechenov.
For the implementation of any reflex, a special anatomical formation is necessary - a reflex arc. A reflex arc is a chain of neurons through which a nerve impulse passes from the receptor (perceiving part) to the organ that responds to irritation.
The reflex arc consists of 5 links:
The reflex arcs of some reflexes do not have intercalary neurons, such as the knee jerk.
Each reflex has:
Classification of reflexes
Unconditioned reflexes are specific, permanent, hereditary, persist throughout life. In the process of embryonic development, reflex arcs of all unconditioned reflexes. The totality of complex innate reflexes are instincts. Conditioned reflexes are individual, acquired during a person's life, not inherited. A person has a complex social behavior, thinking, consciousness, individual experience (higher nervous activity) - this is a combination of a huge number of various conditioned reflexes. The material basis of conditioned reflexes is the cerebral cortex. The author of the doctrine of higher nervous activity is the outstanding Russian physiologist I.P. Pavlov, Nobel Prize winner (1904).
The coordination of all reflex reactions is carried out in the central nervous system due to the processes of excitation and inhibition of the activity of neurons.
The body's response to irritation from the external or internal environment, carried out with the participation of the central nervous system, is called a reflex. The path along which the nerve impulse passes from the receptor to the effector (acting organ) is called the reflex arc.
In the reflex arc (Fig. 104), five links are distinguished: 1) receptor; 2) a sensitive fiber that conducts excitation to the centers; 3) the nerve center, where the excitation switches from sensory to motor cells; 4) a motor fiber that transmits nerve impulses to the periphery; 5) acting organ - muscle or gland.
Rice. 104. Scheme of the reflex arc. A - somatic reflex; B - autonomic reflex; 1 - receptor; 2 - sensitive neuron; 3 - central nervous system; 4 - motor neuron; 5 - working body - muscle, gland; 6 - associative (intercalary) neuron; 7 - vegetative node (ganglion)
Any irritation: mechanical, light, sound, chemical, temperature, perceived by the receptor, is transformed (converted) or, as they say now, encoded, by the receptor into a nerve impulse and in this form is sent to the central nervous system through sensory fibers. Here this information is processed, selected and transmitted to the motor nerve cells, which send nerve impulses to the working organs - muscles, glands and cause one or another adaptive act - movement or secretion.
During the response, the receptors of the working organ are excited and impulses are sent from them to the central nervous system - information about the result achieved. A living organism, like any self-regulating system, works on the principle of feedback. Afferent impulses that carry out feedback either strengthen and refine the reaction if it has not reached the goal, or stop it. Thus, the reflex is carried out not by a reflex arc, but by a reflex ring (P.K. Anokhin); the reflex ends when the result is reached.
The reflex provides a subtle, precise and perfect balancing of the body with environment, as well as the control and regulation of functions within the body. This is its biological significance. The reflex is a functional unit of nervous activity.
All nervous activity is made up of reflexes of varying degrees of complexity, that is, it is reflected, caused by an external cause, an external push. The reflex principle of nervous activity was discovered by the great French philosopher, physicist and mathematician Rene Descartes in the 17th century.
The reflex theory was developed in the fundamental works of the Russian scientists I. M. Sechenov and I. P. Pavlov. In 1863, in the book "Reflexes of the Brain", I.M. Sechenov suggested that not only the spinal cord, as Descartes believed, but also the brain works on the principle of a reflex: "... without external sensory stimulation, it is impossible even for a moment mental activity and its expression is muscular movement.
IM Sechenov wrote: "... if all receptors are turned off, then a person should fall into a dead sleep and never wake up." This theoretical position has found its substantiation in clinical practice. S. P. Botkin observed a patient in whom one eye and one ear functioned out of all the receptors of the body. As soon as the patient's eyes were closed and his ears plugged, he fell asleep.
In the experiments of V. S. Galkin, dogs in which visual, auditory and olfactory receptors were simultaneously turned off by surgery slept 20–23 hours a day. They awakened only under the influence of internal needs or energetic effects on skin receptors. Consequently, the central nervous system works on the principle of a reflection reflex, on the principle of a stimulus-response.
IP Pavlov discovered conditioned reflexes - a qualitatively new, higher form of nervous activity, characteristic of the brain. He created the reflex theory in its modern form.
For the implementation of any reflex, the integrity of all links of the reflex arc is necessary. Violation of at least one of them leads to the disappearance of the reflex. If the frog's foot is lowered into a weak solution of sulfuric acid, a defensive reflex will occur - the foot will pull back. However, if you remove the skin and thereby remove the skin receptors, then sulfuric acid will not have an effect.
The same can be observed with the destruction of any other link: the central nervous system, sensory or motor nerve fibers. The strongest irritation will not cause a response, there will be no nervous activity.
This is widely used by surgeons, using during the operation novocaine for anesthesia of peripheral nerves or a ganglionic blocker that interrupts the conduction of excitation in synapses. Narcotic substances of central action turn off the function of CNS neurons.
Reflex time. The time elapsed from the moment the stimulus was applied to the response to it is called the reflex time (latent period). It consists of the time required for the excitation of receptors, the conduction of excitation through sensory fibers, the central nervous system, motor fibers, and, finally, the latent (latent) period of excitation of the working organ. Most of the time is spent on conducting excitation through the nerve centers - the central time of the reflex. This is due to the fact that in the synapses of the central nervous system there is a slowdown in the conduction of excitation, the so-called synaptic delay. The fewer neurons included in the reflex arc, the shorter the reflex time. Therefore, the tendon reflexes that occur when the tendon is stretched, having a two-neuron arc, are the fastest. Their time is only 19 - 23 ms, while the time of the blink reflex that occurs when the eye is irritated is 50 - 200 ms. The greatest is the time of vegetative reflexes.
The time of the reflex depends on the strength of the stimulation and the excitability of the central nervous system. With strong irritation, it is shorter; with a decrease in excitability caused, for example, by fatigue, the time of the reflex increases; with an increase in excitability, it decreases significantly.
The receptive field of the reflex. Each reflex can only be called from a certain receptive field. The anatomical region, upon stimulation of which this reflex is evoked, is called the receptive field of the reflex. For example, the sucking reflex occurs when the child's lips are irritated, the pupil constriction reflex - when the retina is illuminated, the knee reflex (leg extension) - with a light blow to the tendon below the patella (Fig. 105).
Rice. 105. The technique of reproduction of proprioceptive reflexes and the scheme of the reflex arc of the knee jerk
Nerve center. Each reflex has its own localization in the central nervous system, that is, that part of it that is necessary for its implementation. For example, the center of urination is located in the sacral spinal cord, the center of the knee-jerk reflex is in the lumbar, the center of pupil dilation is in the upper thoracic segment of the spinal cord. When the corresponding area is destroyed, the reflex is absent. However, it turned out that for the regulation of the reflex, its accuracy, the primary, or main, center is not enough, but the participation of the higher parts of the central nervous system, including the cerebral cortex, is also necessary.
Only with the integrity of the central nervous system is the perfection of nervous activity preserved. The nerve center is a collection of nerve cells located in various parts of the central nervous system, necessary for the implementation of the reflex and sufficient for its regulation. So, if the cerebral cortex is removed from an animal, then breathing is preserved, since the primary respiratory center is located in the medulla oblongata. However, during work, there will not be an exact correspondence between the ventilation of the lungs and the body's need for oxygen, since for the fine regulation of the activity of the respiratory center, not only the brain stem, but also the cerebral cortex is needed.
Classification of reflexes. Distinguish the following types reflexes.
1. By biological significance, reflexes are divided into food, defensive, indicative (acquaintance with changing environmental conditions), sexual (reproduction).
2. According to the type of receptors from which they arise, reflexes are divided into exteroceptive, arising from receptors that perceive irritation from the external environment: light, sound, taste, tactile, etc .; interoceptive, arising from receptors of internal organs: mechano-, thermo-, osmo- and chemoreceptors of vessels and internal organs, and proprioceptive - from receptors located in muscles, tendons, ligaments.
3. Depending on the working organ involved in the response, reflexes are divided into motor, secretory, vascular.
4. According to the location of the main nerve center necessary for the implementation of the reflex, they are divided into spinal, for example, urination, defecation; bulbar (medulla oblongata): coughing, sneezing, vomiting; mesencephalic (midbrain): straightening the body, walking; diencephalic (midbrain) - thermoregulatory; cortical - conditioned reflexes.
5. Depending on the duration, phase and tonic reflexes are distinguished. Tonic reflexes are long, lasting for hours, such as the standing reflex. Any animal can stand for hours due to prolonged muscle contraction. All postural reflexes are tonic. They fix a certain position of the body, and against their background other, short, phasic reflexes are played out, providing all types of working, sports and other movements.
6. By complexity, reflexes can be divided into simple and complex. Pupil dilation in response to darkening of the eye, extension of the leg in response to a light blow to the tendon - these are simple reflexes. Examples of complex reflexes are the regulation of the cardiovascular system, the process of digestion. In these cases, the end of one reflex serves as an irritant for the emergence of another. There are so-called chain reflexes, the course of which can be very demonstratively traced on the example of the process of digestion. Arbitrary pushing of a lump of food to the back of the pharynx causes irritation of its receptors - a swallowing reflex occurs. Food enters the esophagus and causes it to contract, pushing the food bolus to the entrance to the stomach. Irritation of the lower part of the esophagus leads to the opening of the cardinal sphincter of the stomach and the entry of food into the stomach, and the latter causes the separation of gastric juice, etc. The entire process of digestion is a complex chain of reflexes.
7. According to the principle of effector innervation, reflexes can be divided into skeletal-motor, or somatic (providing motor acts of skeletal muscles), and vegetative (functions of internal organs).
8. Depending on whether reflexes are innate or acquired in the process of individual life, IP Pavlov divided them into unconditioned (innate) and conditional (acquired).
The mechanism of transmission of excitation in synapses. Nerve cells that form reflex arcs are interconnected through contacts - synapses, in which excitation is transferred from one neuron to another. Synapses are located on the body of the nerve cell, on the dendrites, at the peripheral endings of the axon. There are thousands of synapses on each neuron, most of them on dendrites (Fig. 106).
Rice. 106. Synaptic plaques (1) of the endings of presynaptic axons form connections on the dendrites (2) and the body (3) of the neuron [Sterki P., 1984]
Synapses are divided into chemical and electrical synapses according to the mechanism of transmission of excitation. The latter are found in the heart muscle, smooth muscles and glandular tissue; in the CNS, their presence is only assumed.
The synapse, with chemical transmission, consists of a synaptic plaque, a presynaptic membrane, a synaptic cleft 30 nm wide, and a postsynaptic membrane (Fig. 107).
Rice. 107. Interneuronal synapse [Sterki P., 1984]. 1 - synaptic vesicles; 2 - synaptic target; 3 - postsynaptic receptors; 4 - postsynaptic membrane; 5 - synaptic plaque; 6 - mitochondrion
In the synaptic plaque, the neurotransmitter is stored in small vesicles, of which there are about 3 million. Under the action of a nerve impulse, depolarization of the axon endings occurs, which causes an increase in the Ca 2+ concentration in it, and the contents of the synaptic vesicles are ejected into the synaptic cleft. The role of the trigger mechanism in the release of the mediator is played by an increase in the concentration of Ca 2+ . The mediator diffuses through the synaptic cleft and binds to the receptor proteins of the postsynaptic membrane, causing either an excitatory postsynaptic potential (EPSP) or an inhibitory postsynaptic potential (IPSP) in it.
The mediators that cause excitation in neurons are acetylcholine, norepinephrine, serotonin, dopamine. Inhibition in a neuron is caused by an inhibitory mediator - gamma-aminobutyric acid.
In electrical synapses, the synaptic cleft is very narrow (1 - 2 nm), it is crossed by channels through which ions are easily transmitted to the postsynaptic membrane. The action potential is freely, without delay, carried from one cell to another. There is no chemical mediator here; conduction of excitation according to the mechanism is similar to conduction along a nerve fiber.
Features of the nerve centers. Characteristic features nerve centers that distinguish them from nerve fibers are fatigue, a very high metabolism, that is, a high need for oxygen and nutrients, and selective sensitivity to certain poisons. Due to these features, circulatory disorders and changes in body temperature primarily affect the function of the central nervous system: stopping the blood supply to the brain for 20 seconds causes fainting - loss of consciousness; an increase in body temperature to 40 - 42 ° C - delirium, impaired consciousness. Resuscitation is possible if clinical death (cardiac and respiratory arrest) lasted no more than 5-6 minutes. After a longer period, it is possible to restore the activity of the heart and even breathing, but the organ of consciousness - the cerebral cortex, which is most sensitive to changes in the internal environment of the body, will not function.
