There are many words with a zero ending; they have a zero ending in the nominative case, but change when declined.
Eg:
fear (zero ending) - fear (ending -a-), wolf - wolf, steppe - steppe,
pain-pain
brother - brother, in order to understand that there is a zero ending, it is enough to change the word by number or cases.
Examples of null endings:
Examples of words with a zero ending can be the following: move, union, watermelon, year, city, fruit, bridge, mouse, wounded, order, husband, table, matchmaker, brother, nose, meadow, leaf, toddler, sock, slipper, elk , elephant, hero, night, handsome and so on.
Examples of nouns with a zero ending, usually these are words of the 2nd or 3rd declension, for example:
lilac, execution, compote, chair, telephone, engine, backpack, stove.
It is worth noting that the zero ending in other case forms becomes materially expressed. Compare:
lilac - zero ending,
lilac - ending I;
compote - zero ending,
compote - ending OM.
Examples of verbs with zero endings, a large layer of such words are words of the masculine past tense of the indicative mood, for example:
came in, finished, ran across, poured out, ran, looked in, jumped over, drank, finished, etc.
Examples - fox, tasks, walked, oven.
There are certain rules that govern the definition of a null ending. This rule is taught already in the third grade and it sounds like this
We remember the declension gender, number, case, what influence they have on the formation of the ending.
Examples of words with a zero ending: table, cat, fur, sin, axe, pie, forest, demon, light, answer, husband, throne, magician, world, shutter, sunset, answer, haystack, stable, Cossack, warrior, blacksmith, armor, ocean, dinosaur, space. In other forms, all these words have endings. For example: blacksmith-a, blacksmith-om, blacksmith-y. Therefore, all the words given as an example also have an ending that is considered zero.
Null-ending words should not be confused with immutable words, since they do not have endings in any form.
Inflections are called zero(endings in the school curriculum) that we do not pronounce or hear sounds They not expressed, and also we don’t write and don’t see letters They not marked. Such inflections occur only in significant inflected words declined or conjugated.
Zero inflection is revealed by simply comparing the form given to us with other word forms of the same lexeme, where inflections are expressed.
Let's take a small sentence as an example: Brother did his homework. There are two lexemes with zero inflections in nm: BROTIK, PERFORMED. The lexeme BRATIK is in the initial form, there is no EXPRESS inflection behind the stem, but any word forms from the paradigm of its inflection help to understand that it exists: BRATIKA, BRATIKOM (inflections -A, -OM). The same is true in the verb PERFORMED: as soon as we put it in a different gender or another number (PERFORMED, PERFORMED, PERFORMED) it will become clear: in the word form given as an example sentence, the inflection is zero.
There are zero inflections:
FOR IMN OF NOUNS
singular number:
plural:
FOR IMN ADJECTIVES:
AT PRONOUNS
FOR IMN NUMERALS:
IN VERBS:
AT PARTICIPLES passive short units masculine gender: carrying (from carried), deciding (from being solved), completed, built.
Besides, one should distinguish between words with zero inflections and words with no inflections.
Zero ending This is a fairly common case in the Russian language and there are quite a lot of words that have such an ending that is not expressed by sounds or letters. For example, many nouns have zero endings in the nominative case: Wolf, Hare, Elephant, Thrush, Mouse, Rabbit. When the form of the word changes, the ending in these words appears - Wolf-Wolf-Wolf-Wolf-Wolf.
Another case of the presence of a zero ending may be the disappearance of the ending expressed by a sound during declination, for example in the plural. So in the word Owl the ending is A, but in the plural and genitive case we get the word (no one?) OWL, also with a zero ending.
Zero ending not expressed materially. That is, it is there, but we don’t see it. There is no sound after the root, which expresses the grammatical meaning. For example, the word house. When changing, the ending appears - home, home, home, etc.
Son, Georgian, soldier, pomegranate, move, year, city, fruit, bridge, order, matchmaker, brother, husband, table, nose, meadow, leaf, union, watermelon, toddler, sock, slipper, elk, elephant, hero, night, mouse, wounded, handsome, etc.
1) The grammatical method is the material expression of grammatical meanings (both relational and derivational).
Grammatical meanings are expressed not directly by phonemes (or even more so by speech sounds), but by well-known technical combinations of phonetic material, which are grammatical methods.
Ways of expressing grammatical meanings - ways of forming word forms. There are a limited number of grammatical methods used in a language.
SYNTHETIC METHOD– expression of meanings in the word itself:
Affixation(from Latin affixus - attached) - the formation of word forms using endings, prefixes, formative suffixes, infixes, postfixes (table, table, table, etc.; do - do, write - write, etc.; justify – justify, exchange – exchange, etc. Flexion(Latin flexio - bending, transition) - the same as ending; an inflectional morpheme that expresses the meaning of gender, number, case and person in word forms of the Russian language, and also serves to express morpho-syntactic relations.
For example, inflection -a in the word form water expresses the meanings of the feminine, singular, nominative case, inflection -i in the word form green expresses plural meanings. numbers and creativity case.
Internal inflection (inflection of the base)- a change in the sound composition of the root, expressing the difference in grammatical meanings (alternation of sounds): remove - remove, send - send (alternation of the root vowel with a zero sound serves to distinguish between imperfect and perfect forms), vez - voz (alternation of the root vowel serves to distinguish different lexicons -grammatical classes: verb and noun); lock - lock, die - die, dial - dial, etc.
Zero flexion- an ending that is not materially expressed and is distinguished in a word by composition with the correlative forms in which it is materially represented.
For example, in the combination pair of boots, the second word, in relation to other forms of its paradigm (boot, boot, etc., boots, boots, etc.) distinguishes in its composition the zero ending of the genitive plural.
Agglutination and fusion.
Agglutination (Latin agglūtinātio – gluing; the term was introduced by Fr. Bopp)- a method of forming word forms and derivative words by mechanically attaching standard affixes to unchangeable, devoid of internal inflection, stems or roots (note that each affix has only one grammatical meaning, just as each meaning is always expressed by the same affix): in Turkish ode means “room”, lar is a plural suffix, yes is a locative suffix (for the question where?); when these elements are combined, the result is odalarda with the meaning “in the rooms”; ara (Kazakh “saw”) + ha (D.p. 71 units) + lar (I.p. plural) = ara-lar-ga (D.p. plural); bala (Tat. “child”) + ha (D.p. singular) + lar (I.p. plural) = bala-lar-ga (D.p. plural).
Fusion (Latin fūsio – alloy; the term was introduced by E. Sapir)– fusion of morphemes, accompanied by a change in their phonemic composition. Most often, a close morphological connection of the modified root with polysemantic non-standard affixes occurs, leading to the blurring of boundaries between morphemes.
These include:
1) interweaving of a prefix and a root, as a result of which the same sound belongs to both morphemes: I will come (at + I go), to open (time + yawn), etc.;
2) merging the final sound of the root with the initial sound of the suffix: grow (rast + ti);
3) the dual role of the suffix: Sverdlovsk region (Sverdlov + -sk + -sk + -aya, where the first -sk is included in the basis of the noun, the second -sk was supposed to serve as a suffix of the relative adjective);
4) interweaving of parts in a complex word as a result of the loss of one of two identical syllables immediately following each other (haplology): porcupine (dick + o + image), mineralogy (mineral + o + logy), morphonology (mor + pho + phonology).
Agglutination is characteristic of most languages of Asia, Africa and Oceania (which have affixes), fusion is mainly a property of Indo-European languages, although they also have elements of agglutination.
For example, in Russian language cases of agglutination appear in prefixation, because prefixes in Russian language are unambiguous, standard for different parts of speech, and their connection to the roots does not have the character of close fusion: run, run across, run out, run out, run out, run out.
Prefixation – ("pre" comes from the Latin prae, meaning "before", "ahead") a way of forming word forms and derived words by adding prefixes to the roots/stems of words.
For example: go And over-to-go – you-to-go – to-go – to move as a way of expressing NSV and SV verb
Suffixation - (from lat.suffixus"attached") a way of forming word forms and derived words by adding suffixes to the roots/stems of words.
For example: teacher - teacher prostrate a (male and female), fly – years chick(verb and noun), German Arbeiter "worker" – Arbeiter in“worker” (male and female), Feier “holiday” – feier lich“festive, solemn” (noun and adjective).
Stress - reversal of stress (accentuation (from Latin accentus - emphasis))
For example: pour - pour, cut - cut, lock - lock, etc.
Suppletivism (from Late Latin suppletivus - complementary)– formation of forms of the same word from different roots. The root morphs of such word forms lack formal (phonemic) proximity and therefore cannot be combined into one morpheme.
In the Russian language there are S. forms of singular and plural nouns (man - people, child - children), case forms of personal pronouns - forms of the nominative case, on the one hand, and indirect cases - on the other (I - me, me; we - us, us; he, she, it - his, him, her, hers, etc.), comparative degree of adjectives and adverbs (good - better, bad - worse, much - more, little - less), short form of the adjective (big - great), past tense forms of the verb (go, go, going - walked, walked, walked), aspectual pairs of the verb (take - take, put - put, talk - say, catch - catch). Reduplication (lat. reduplicatio – doubling)- a way of expressing grammatical meaning, consisting in complete or partial doubling (repetition) of the stem: barely, honor with honor, glad-glad, hand in hand, white-white, a little, blue-blue, once upon a time, long- long, etc.
II. ANALYTICAL METHOD– expression of meanings outside the word: I am writing – I will write, beautiful – more beautiful, etc.
Function words(prepositions, conjunctions, particles, connectives, articles, auxiliary verbs) - a combination of a significant word with an auxiliary word.
For example: writing - will write – wrote would(expression of the category of everyday tense, subjunctive of the verb),
Beautiful - more Beautiful(expression of comparative degree adj.), etc.
Order of words in a sentence - the location of words to express the relationships between them in a speech chain.
Whale. Wo kan ni (I'm looking at you) and
Ni kan wo (you are looking at me);
Rus. The outbuilding blocks the house and
The house is blocked by an outbuilding
(expression of syntactic functions)
III. MIXED METHOD– a combination of elements of synthetic and analytical methods in the formation of word forms: in the book (preposition and case ending); I read (personal pronoun and verb ending to express 1st person meaning). Depending on the GC and the method of its expression, the structure of the language itself differs: analytical and synthetic languages.
V books e (preposition and case ending to express prepositional case noun);
I chita Yu (personal pronoun and verb ending to express the meaning of the 1st person, singular verb).
2) ANALYTICAL AND SYNTHETIC LANGUAGES.
Analytical languages– languages in which grammatical meanings (relationships between words in a sentence) are expressed not by the forms of the words themselves, but by function words for significant words, the order of significant words, and the intonation of the sentence.
Analytical languages include, for example, the languages of most modern Europe. languages English, Romance (French, Spanish, Italian), Bulgarian, Modern Greek, Modern Indian. (Pali, Pehveli), Afghan., New Persian. and New Armenians. dialects, Danish, Vietnamese, Sino-Tibetan. family.
Synthetic languages– languages in which grammatical meanings are expressed within the word itself (affixation, internal inflection, stress, suppletivism, etc., i.e. 72 forms of the words themselves). To express the relationships between words in a sentence, elements of the analytical structure (function words, order of significant words, intonation) can also be used.
Synthetic languages include, for example, ancient I.-E. languages (Ancient Greek, Latin, Scythian, Old Slavic, Sanskrit), Russian, German, Lithuanian, Latvian, Turkic, Mongolian, Finno-Ugric, Tungusic-Manchu, Semitic-Hamitic ( most), Caucasian, Paleo-Asian, Bantu, languages. America Indians
The basis is unism. The number of words, the cat, digs out its lexical meaning. In words, the basis is defined as a number of words without an ending and a formative affix: sosn-a, desert-ya, eight -oh, ours, entertaining, read.
In unchangeable words, the stem is equal to the word: high, dreaming. In some cases, the stem may be intermittent: - verb forms containing the postfix -sya/ -sya learning-sya; - basics indefinite pronouns, containing postfixes -that/ -or/ -somehow; - the basics of some complex nouns wardrobe-a-compartment; - the basics of complex numerals seven-and-ten-i. Depending on the structure, the basics are derivative and non-derivative. Non-derivative stems are those that consist of one morpheme - the root: city, table, yellow. Derivatives are stems that contain two or more word-forming affixes. This is usually a root combined with one or more suffixes: bread-n-y; with one or more prefixes: pere-let; with a suffix and prefix at the same time: without-house-n-y). New words can be formed both from a non-derivative and from a derived stem. Generative stems - stems from which new words are formed - should be distinguished from derived and non-derivative stems. For example, the non-derivative stem of the word sil-a is the generative stem for the word strong. ending is a morpheme that usually appears at the end of a word and which indicates the connection of the word with other words. The ending expresses the meaning of gender, number, case, person. The ending is often called the variable part of the word. (book - books - book) changing the ending does not lead to a change in the lexical meaning of the word. Endings do not participate in word formation. These are always formative morphemes. They are used in the formation of forms of the same word. Selected meaning: case - for some pronouns (there is no one - the ending -о indicates the genitive case) and numerals (there are no five - the ending -and indicates the genitive case); persons and numbers - for verbs in the present and future tense (I think - the ending -yu indicates the 1st person, singular); gender and number - for verbs in the past tense (I read - the ending -a indicates the feminine gender, singular). Zero inflection is an ending that is not materially expressed and is highlighted in a word in comparison with the correlative forms in which it is materially represented. In the noun student in relation to the forms of the oblique cases of student, student, etc., students, students, etc. the zero ending is highlighted, indicating the nominative singular form. Materially expressed inflections exist in the form of a phoneme or phoneme combinations: stola, frosty, write. The words day, tetrad, nes have zero inflection, which can be identified by comparison with other forms of the same word (cf. dn'a, tetrad'i, nes).
1. The meaning of the term “word formation”. Word formation as a section
linguistics. Object of study in word formation.
A. Word formation: 1) this is a branch of linguistics that studies the methods and rules of word formation and 2) the formation of new words on the basis of existing cognates with the help of service morphemes, by moving from one part of speech to another, etc. To denote this discipline and the process of word formation, another term is often used - derivation(lat. derivatio- education).
Word formation as a special branch of linguistics began to take shape in the 40-50s (V.V. Vinogradov, G.O. Vinokur, A.I. Smirnitsky).
Traditionally, word formation was studied as part of morphology. V.A. Bogoroditsky defined morphology as the study of parts of speech in relation to word formation and inflection.
Morphology and word formation are united by the fact that the means of expression in them are morphemes. + by morpheme you can find out which part of speech the word belongs to. The derivational and grammatical meanings of a word are essentially similar: it belongs not to one unit, but to many. For example, in words reader, driver, writer etc. suffix -tel has the meaning of "a person who performs an action named by a motivating verb."
V.V. Vinogradov defined the boundary between M and S as follows: the difference between the sections is that in M the formation of words is studied, and in S the formation of words is studied.
As a result of research in the field of word formation at the beginning of the 20th century. A.M. Shakhmatov considered it possible to separate word formation into a separate section of linguistics. This entailed the need to answer the question of where word formation should be attributed: to grammar or to lexicology. Shakhmatov did not dare to remove word formation from the grammar. The boundaries of word formation as a separate section have not been determined.
B. As an independent section that studies the word-formation structure of a language, word formation in linguistics developed relatively recently (in the 60-80s). The term “s-e” is sometimes used to designate the word-formation system peculiar to a given language.
The research of F.F. played an important role in the formation of the school. Fortunatov, who distinguished between the forms of inflection and word formation. The works of V.A. were of great importance for the development of the theory and practice of word-formation analysis. Bogoroditsky, G.O. Vinokura, V.V. Vinogradova. Analysis of word-formation relations between words only in the 50s of the 20th century. (see the works of N.M. Shansky) was clearly distinguished from both the etymological and morphemic analysis of the word.
S-e is studied by means of s-th analysis and s-th synthesis.
Derivational analysis– the most actively developed direction in the study of the structure of the Russian word. During synchronous word-formation analysis, the structure of derived words is described, the method of their formation is determined, and their formal semantic connections with related words are established.
Regarding word formation synthesis, then this is relatively new, emerging in the 70s of the 20th century. (research by I.G. Miloslavsky) direction in the study of word-formation relations. Word-formation synthesis is based on the conclusions and provisions of word-formation analysis: concepts developed within the analytical direction are used, such as “morpheme”, “derivativeness”, “derived word”, etc. In terms of its goals, word-formation synthesis is opposed to analysis. Main goals scientific research from the standpoint of word-formation synthesis they are:
1) determining the rules for interpreting the meanings of dichotomous words based on ideas about the semantics of the morphemes that make up a particular word; for example, verb come running"to reach some place by running" = root beige-(characterizing words such as run, run, runner, run, and meaning “to move quickly, sharply pushing off the ground with your feet”) + prefix at-(approximation to any spatial landmark: bring, sail);
2) establishing patterns in the choice of a specific word-formation device used in the formation of one or another derivative word with a certain (given) word-formation meaning (for example, verbs that convey the meaning of the beginning of an action: sing, run, hate, burst into tears and etc.).
In educational literature, the system of Russian word formation is traditionally considered in more detail from the point of view of analysis rather than synthesis.
2. Synchronic and diachronic
Diachronic S.(it is also called historical) examines the process of word formation from the perspective of its historical development/changes. A synchrony- This is an aspect of study when the system and the units of the system are considered as existing at the same time.
Some concepts called in sync. and diachron. S-ii. the same term. receive different contents, for example, the concept of “derivative” + “derived basis”, “n-th basis”. With D - finding out which word is historically formed from another, with C - we determine the base of the word, which is simpler in form =) a derivative word....
The distinction between the S-th and D approaches is of great importance when studying s-i, because in this section of linguistics, the confusion of diachrony and synchrony occurs especially often. This is explained by the fact that a word is a unit of language that can change its meaning without changing its form. Thanks to this, connections between words that were once (in past eras!) related are broken, but the preserved formal proximity often prevents us from seeing this gap and pushes us to unite words that have diverged and become alien.
When studying word formation, pairs of words like tree And village because there are no living semantic connections between these words. After all, it is obvious that a village is not “a populated area in which many trees grow.”
Fortunatov believed that a word is in a system and is divided only in relation to other words. Word red, for example, is divided into morphemes, has a suffix - yenk, added to the stem of a word red, and in the word offspring, pleasure there is no suffix. Thus, the concept of word articulation is the concept of synchrony. When determining whether a word is divisible or not, two types of living relations must be taken into account:
1.Motivation Relationships Add historically comes from the word add. However, now this word has fallen out of use, but the root is bav- distinguished according to kinship relationships: add, subtract, add
2.Kinship relationships .
the opportunity to reveal the content of a word through a related word): she-wolf - “female wolf.”
It is also necessary to draw a line between synchronous and diachronic methods of word formation.
Diachronic methods of word formation- these are methods in which the whole word, rather than individual morphemes, acts as a means of expressing word-formation meaning, and in which there are no motivational relations between the generating and derived words.
Synchronous methods of word formation– these are methods in which the means of expressing word-formation meaning are morphemes, affixes and stems; between the producer and the derivative there are relations of motivation, i.e. the relationship of two cognate words, one of which, as a rule, is more complex than the other by one unit of meaning and by no more than one derivational formant. For example: surprise - surprised" - eni j -e, book - book- n th .
3. The question of the status of word formation in linguistics
S-e as a special branch of linguistics took shape in the 40-50s, thanks to the works of V.V. Vinogradova, G.O. Vinokura, A.I. Smirnitsky. Already in those years, some important problems of the general theory of synchronous word formation began to be developed: the place of word formation in a number of linguistic disciplines, problems of word divisibility, principles for establishing relations of synchronic derivation, the originality of semantics and the structure of derived words different parts speech.
there is no generally accepted solution to the question of the place of word formation among other sciences→ 3 points of view:
1. many scientists, starting with Lomonosov, believe that word formation relates to grammar, but they include it there in different ways.
A) there is a living tradition of including word formation in morphology (works of Lomonosov, Vostokov, Buslaev).
B) there is a tradition of considering word formation as a special section of grammar, along with morphology and syntax (Shcherba, Vinokur, Lopatin)
2. Some scientists believe that word formation is a branch of lexicology (Smirnitsky, Shmelev).
3. 50s 20th century. Word formation is not included in either grammar or lexicology; it is a special branch of linguistics (Golovin, Kupryakova, Zemskaya, Sakharny).
The reasons for the disagreement between scientists are due to the structure of the Russian language. word formation is closely related to lexicology and morphology. The relationships between these levels of language are complex.
Word formation and morphology:
The tasks of word formation and morphology intersect. In word formation, the word-forming structure is studied, which in morphology is formative.
* He whitewashes the ceiling
Belit – the base is bel, the ending is: from the point of view of morphology, it indicates a verb of the present tense, singular, 1 conjugation; from the point of view of word formation, “belit” has the undefined form “whiten.”
White←white
Each part of speech has its own word-formation subsystem and its own resources, characteristic only for this part of speech.
* tel, nick, ok (suffixes for nouns of the husband gender).
Thus, word-forming devices - morphemes, are associated with certain parts of speech and have a certain grammatical load.
Word formation and lexicology:
In lexicology, a word is studied from the point of view of its meaning, stylistic coloring, and from the point of view of the origin of words.
Without word formation, it is impossible to study the emergence of new words. To parse a word and determine the motivating word-formation base, you need to pay attention to the meaning.
Word formation and syntax:
Scientists have recently drawn attention to this connection: Sobolev, Ginzburg.
The syntactic relations characteristic of a given word are reflected in its word-formation capabilities and the semantics of words derived from it.
* teach – is a predicate in a sentence
Accordingly, from this verb it is formed:
Action name
Acting name (teacher)
Name of direct adverbial action (student)
Name of the indirect circumstance of the action (textbook)
Name of the scene (school).
The connection between syntax and word formation is manifested in coherent text. Cognate words are used in the text as a means of communication between individual syntactic units.
* He sat and was silent. The silence lasted for more than an hour.
Word formation and phonetics:
In the process of word formation and morphogenesis, the same morpheme can change in its sound composition and differ in morphs.
A morph is a specific representative of one morpheme in a word.
* cold, cooling, cool (roots “cold”, “cold”, “cold”) → 1 morpheme, 3 morphs.
This is studied in a special section of morphonology..
Word formation and derivation:
For the last 20 years, instead of “word formation,” the synonym “derivation” has been used. The science of word formation is called derivatology.
Derivation is the very process of formation of linguistic units of any level (morphemes, syllables, words, etc.).
Derivatology is the science of the processes of formation of language units as a whole (words, phrases, sentences). In this case, word formation is a section of derivation.
Word formation sections:
1.morphemics – studies morphemes and their meaning
2. section of the structure of the Russian word (about the basics)
3.morphonology (considers morphs of various types)
4.etymology
Actually word formation:
Methods with\o
C\o proper names
C\o lexicography
Types of analysis: morphemic (analysis by composition); derivational.
7. Question about uniradixoids in Russian
Uniradixoid
8. Question about uniradixoids in Russian morphemics.
Radixoid - unique Uniradixoid– a unique connected root (boiled pork, stroganina, corned beef).
9. Affixoids, their varieties.
An affixoid is a component of a complex word, repeated with the same meaning in a number of words and approaching in its word-formation function to an affix, suffix or prefix
Affixoids: 1. Preffixoids (false-, air-, video-, self-); 2. Suffixoids (-prominent, -prominent).
But in contrast to the difference from prefixes and suffixes, which carry only auxiliary meaning (word-formative (grammatical), prefixoids and suffixoids. Like roots, significant morphemes).
10. Classification of affixes by position in the word .
Affix – (lat. afficsus – attached) a generalized name for all service morphemes. The minimum building element of the language, attached to derivations and serving for grammatical/word-formation purposes. An important tool in expressing grammatical and word-formation meanings. Among affixal morphemes, according to their function in language and the nature of their meaning, two large classes are distinguished: word-forming (derivational) morphemes and inflectional ones. From T.Z. morphemes in the composition of a word in relation to the root, all affixes are divided into prefixes (spec. Before the root) and postfixes sp. After the root). (A: prefixes, inflections, suffixes, postfixes).
Prefixes- borrowed, Russian. P.: 1.P. takes preposition in a derived word. 2. P. is most characteristic of the verb system. 3. The derived word belongs to the same part of speech as the producing one.
Suffix.
Flexion– internal, external. Int.F. Ext.F.
Postfix
Interfix- located between the roots or between simple bases; this affix is involved in the formation of complex words, for example: par-o-voz, pole-and-storey. The interfix has a special meaning - connecting.
4. Morphemics. Relationship between morphemics and word formation.
Morphemics is a branch of linguistics that studies morphemes that have specific formal and semantic properties.
Morphemics considers:
Morphemic phenomena:
B. Overlay
B. Interfixation Yalta-Yalt(in)skiy; Volgograd - Volgogradsky
D. Alternation
2.Functions of morphemes
A. Word-formers
B. Formative/Inflectional
B. Possibilities and conditions for varying morphemes
D. Synonymous connections of morphemes _ antonymic relationships between morphemes (open - close);
D. Rules for combining morphemes. IN: con-in-a, pig-in-a; IN with main. inanimate subject
E. Regularity/irregularity; Productivity/unproductivity.
Morpheme – min. significant unit of language and part of a word.
One of the main achievements of linguistic science is the adoption of the concept of morph as a manifester of morphemes, enshrined in its rights, which led to the development big block questions. Among them: 1) the problem of variant/invariant of the morphemic and word-formation levels of the language; 2) introduction of the concept of postfix; 3) substantiation of the question of the advisability of dividing certain categories of suffixal morphs into materially expressed and zero; 4) narrowing the scope of non-syntactic form formation in favor of derivatology; 5) justification for the need to create a special discipline that studies the problem of the morphemic structure of language. This discipline was created and designated by the term “morphemics”.
Most linguists to this day have not released not only morphemic, but also word-formation problems from the “iron embrace” of grammar. Both morphemics and derivatology, even if their specificity is recognized in contrast to the grammatical doctrine of the word, are still considered as independent parts grammar (morphology). The main argument in favor of this point of view: both morphs of words (both syntactic and non-syntactic) and derived words (the area of word formation) are formed with the help of morphemes (endings, suffixes, prefixes, etc.), and morphemes are the object of the study of morphology .
It is difficult to agree with this approach to the issue, since languages are represented by different types of morphemes. They are united only by the fact that all their varieties (inflections, suffixes, prefixes, etc.) correspond to the status of morphemes as minimal symbolic (bilateral) units of language. But in terms of their purpose, role in language, their functions, they are different: with the help of morphemes alone, word forms are formed in the strict sense of the word (syntactic forms of words, the area of inflection, i.e., what morphology should directly deal with). With the help of another type of morphemes, new words (not word forms!) are formed. This derivational morphs. They should not be the subject of morphology. Their place is in derivatology – the study of word formation.
Finally, the third group of morphemes are non-inflectional form-building ones (non-syntactic: these are suffixes of participles, participial forms, etc.). Due to the uncertainty of their status, they are considered according to tradition in grammar, forming in it a kind of transition zone from word formation to inflection.
With the consolidation of the status of the morph in relation to the morpheme, the academic grammar of 1970 simultaneously strengthened the rights morphemics– “the study of significant parts of words (word forms): morphs and morphemes.” The search began for the place of morphemics among linguistic disciplines, to clarify the points of contact and demarcation with derivatology.
Morphemics is most often considered as a part of morphology, which is not entirely correct, since morphemics also deals with the derivational aspect of morphemes. The following point of view has also been expressed: morphemics is part of grammar, derivatology is part of morphemics.
5. Morpheme in comparison with other units of language (phoneme and word). Morpheme and morph.
Morpheme – minimal significant unit of language and minimum significant part of a word. Word forms consist of morphs, i.e. every word consists of at least one morph (yesterday, where). For the Russian language, 2-3-morphic words are typical (rek-a, sten-k-a).
When analyzing a word, we divide it into morphs. 1.Leningrad-ets and Leningrad-ts-a 2.cottage cheese and cottage cheese-nik. In the first pair of words, different morphs represent the same suffixal morpheme, and in the second pair, different morphs (cottage cheese- and cottage cheese-) represent the same root morpheme. Thus, a morpheme is a generalized unit, and a morph is a specific representative of a morpheme, found when dividing a word.
Morpheme is an abstract unit. It has both a plane of expression and a plane of content. In words, a morpheme is expressed through a morph (a specific representative of a morpheme in a word).
Friends z'
Be friends
Morphoneme is a set of different phonemes of one morpheme.
Most morphemes are represented by several morphs, but sometimes by just one.
1.root 2.affix
The root is the structural-semantic core of the word, which contains the main lexical meaning (take out). Among the roots there are free and connected. Available rooms Radixoid - connected root. S.K. - root, cat. cannot be used without word-forming affixes (humanism, dictate, dictating, dictation...). There are roots unique(blinds, no, cockatoo, jury). Uniradixoid– a unique connected root (boiled pork, stroganina, corned beef).
6. Classifying morphemes by role and meaning. Root morpheme. Freer and more connected roots. Unique free roots.
Classifying morphemes by role and meaning:
1.root
2.affixal
The root is the structural-semantic core of the word, which contains the main lexical meaning (take out). Among the roots there are free and connected. Available rooms– roots that can be used without connection with word-forming affixes (youth, young, young - free). Radixoid - connected root. S.K. - root, cat. cannot be used without word-forming affixes (humanism, dictate, dictating, dictation...). There are roots unique(blinds, no, cockatoo, jury). Uniradixoid– a unique connected root (boiled pork, stroganina, corned beef).
Inflections are such morphs, when replaced, a change in gender, number, case, person occurs: sten-a - sten-e, red-y - red-aya.
Inflectional morphs take place at the end of the word form; after them only the morphs –sya, -s, -to, -or, etc. can appear.
The stem is part of a word form without an inflectional and post-inflectional morph (play, stem - gamej).
Affixal morphs are morphs that are not present in every word form; they contain additional meaning. They are prefixal and affixal.
Affixal morphs that appear only between two simple stems within one complex stem are called interfixal (sea-food).
11. Materially expressed and zero affixes. Unifixes.
Affix – (lat. afficsus – attached) a generalized name for all service morphemes. The minimum building element of the language, attached to derivations and serving for grammatical/word-formation purposes. An important tool in expressing grammatical and word-formation meanings.
1.materially expressed; 2.zero, only affixes
Materially expressed morphemes sound – white
Zero is a materially unexpressed morpheme, which stands out when comparing the forms of the word: forest - forest-forest.
N.M. - significant absence. The meaning is there, but the form is missing. Adjectives in the short form of the nominative case have a singular number - quiet, past tense verbs have singular husband gender – sang and other parts of speech. Recently, zero suffixes have begun to be distinguished: shadowǾ□←dark. It is noted that words like shadow are formed in a suffixless way, but when a word is changed or words of the same root with the same semantics are selected, suffixes are observed, for example: shadow j at(TV case): stem shadowj, ending y, intangibly expressed suffix j.
in complex words formed without a connecting vowel, such as Tula-ugol, sofa-bed, or adjuncts such as forward-looking, we can talk about a zero morpheme (zero interfix), expressing the connecting meaning.
Among S. there are unixes (popadya (ad - unique), groom, glass beads, applause). Irregular affixes are often classified as unixes.
12.Asemantic segments in a word .
A.O includes submorphs and interfixes. I. – connecting element. (o\e in compound words – oil pipeline). V word formation :
1) connecting elements used in the formation of compound words: - O- (airplane), -e- (half-e-water), -uh- (double decker),-yoh- (three-story),-And- (five-and-story) and others,
2) consonants inserted between a root and a suffix or between two suffixes; - l- (resident),-V- (singer), -j- (coffee),-T- (argo-t-icesy),-sh- (cine);
V shaping :
-j- (leaf-j-i),-ov- (son-ov-ya),-er- (mat-er-i),-en- (plem-en-a). The function of insignificant elements in inflection is also performed by vowels at the end of the verb stem, which have no meaning and close the verb stem: -A- (write),-e- (mountains),-O- (half), -And- (be in love).
13. Classification of affixes according to their function
Affix – (lat. afficsus – attached) a generalized name for all service morphemes. The minimum building element of the language, attached to derivations and serving for grammatical/word-formation purposes. An important tool in expressing grammatical and word-formation meanings. (A: prefixes, inflections, suffixes, postfixes).
Affixal morphs are morphs that are not present in every word form; they contain additional meaning. They are prefixal and affixal.
Affixal morphemes are involved in two linguistic processes: form formation and word formation.
Formative morphemes serve to form word forms and are therefore distinguishers of word forms and grammatical meanings. Thus, inflections of nouns (dream-a, dream-e, dreams-y), adjectives (airy, airy, airy) are expressive of the grammatical meanings of gender, case and number; inflections of verbs (met-0, met-a, met-and; I go, Id-esh, Id-ut) express the grammatical meanings of gender or person and number; the suffix -j- forms word forms of nouns with a plural meaning (druz "j-a along with inflection), verbal suffixes of participles (sp"-ash-i, recogni-vsh-i, made-nn-i) express the meaning of time and voice, and the gerundial suffixes (arise-in, smile-louse-s, chumaj-a) - the meaning of the aspect. Derivational morphemes serve to form words. Based on their place in a word, they are divided into prefixes, suffixes, postfixes, and interfixes.
14.classification of affixes by productivity and regularity .
By nature of reproducibility affixes can be regular and irregular. Regular affixes are reproduced constantly and form a stable and easily recognizable model by native speakers, following which a series of new words can be created. This is the suffix -tel ( teacher, lecturer, dreamer, listener, giver), prefix c- ( do cut down, move out, give up). The regularity can be small, in this case we are talking about those affixes that occur in a very small number of words. For example: live know, more know, fight knowledge; love ow, father-in-law ov; Yes m, e m, creating m . Irregularity glass tier, mail amt, cartridge tash . Irregular affixes are often called unifixes.
By nature of performance productive and non-productive affixes are distinguished. We can talk about the productivity or unproductivity of a particular morpheme by comparing the number and composition of words that contain it, in modern language and in previous linguistic eras. Productive These are the affixes with the help of which new words and neologisms are formed, for example: suffix - To- (for the formation of names of female persons from words corresponding in meaning, denoting male persons). For example: w akhter - miner, orderly - nurse. Suffix - yva- (-iva-) to form verbs imperfect form: exhaust willow yeah, list yva t. Absolutely unproductive affixes that are not involved in the formation of new words and create a reproducible and recognizable word-formation model are currently prefixes su- And bottom - (dusk, loam, bring down, fall); ending nouns in the instrumental plural - I'm (bones, Wed modern ironic formations poetry, tears); ending - wow in the numeral two. There are certain relationships between the concepts of regularity-irregularity and productivity-unproductivity: irregular affixes are always at the same time unproductive. However, among the regular service morphemes there are many that are no longer productive. For example, the suffix - am"face" in words address at, confederate at, azi at, scholarships at or -ush-, -ush- in verbal adjectives like envy ushch yay, zagreb ushch oh, blockage box yay, works box y).
15.Synonymy of morphemes .
Word-forming synonyms– words with the same root, but with different word formants. For example: You take - from take (consoles),proud awn- proud yn I, ice-# – ice ic a – ice-#, house in a – house looking for e, lemon n y – lemon ov th(suffixes). Synonymous roots - roots that are found in synonymous words. For example: brave ec – dare Chuck, brave y – brave oh, brave awn – brave awn; red y – al th etc. Synonymy of affixes is found, as a rule, with homonymy.
16. Antonymy of morphemes .
Antonym affixes reveal themselves in word-formation antonymy, i.e. in words formed from the same stem. For example: before military - after military, With to knit - once to knit, behind climb – With climb, at swim - at swim(prefixes), house IR- house looking for e(suffixes). Affixal antonyms express opposite but correlative meaning. Roots-antonyms- these are root morphemes that occur in antonym words. For example: brave - coward, brave - cowardly, brave - coward and etc.
17. Homonymy of morphemes .
Homonymy– identity of form, i.e. plan of expression and inconsistency of the plan of content. For example: roots ( caress A, bulk A), suffixes ( straw in ah, brick in A– singular meaning; pig in ah, beef in A- meat; deep in ah, hush in A– abstract meaning; voice in ah, house in A– auglentative meaning), inflection ( Ozer A– lakes A , plural and R.p.; spring at, Brother at – V.p. and etc.) . Derivative homonyms– words that differ in word-formation structure, but are formally similar. For example: milkman as a "seller" and as a "vessel"; teacher(from teacher) – teaching(from teach), writer-st-o(from the writer) – writing-about(from write); wallet– a person who works in the paper industry (- IR) and paper container (- Nick); athlete- one who does physical exercise (- Nick) and a student at the Physics Institute (- IR).
19. Derivative basis. Non-derivative word.
Derivative base – basic. Educated from producing. A derivative basis, as a motivated one, always contains a motivating basis. The motivating and motivated stems (words) make up a word-forming pair of stems (words). Thus, the words bread and bread-n-y, mountain and pri-gor-ok form word-forming pairs, because 1e are the structural basis for 2x, 1e are motivating words for the second (bread-n-y - - relating to bread, associated with bread, pri-gor-ok - a small mountain). =) the words bread, hillock in form and meaning correlate with the words bread, mountain and form word-forming pairs with them. The words “bread” and “breadbox”, “hillock” and “miner” do not form word-forming pairs, despite the fact that they are related words and are included in one word-formative nest. It follows that related words in the nest are not arranged chaotically, but are arranged in certain pairs of words connected by formal semantic relations.
18. Derived word. The most important features of derivative words .
The formation of a new word on the basis of one already existing in the language is possible only if there is between them motivational relationships, i.e. relationships in which one thing is motivating for the other - motivated. For example, the adjective lighting is formed from the verb illuminate, because. its meaning is motivated by this verb: illuminating “able to illuminate.”
Hence the 1st law of word formation: words are formed on the basis of semantic inference. The internal manifestation of this law is observed, for example, in the formation of various derivatives from one but polysemantic word. Thus, a large group of suffix derivatives: old age, old man, old man, grow old, grow old - is associated with the first meaning of the original word old - “not young”, which is the semantic derivative for these words. For a group of formations, the method of addition: ancient, old-fashioned, - the semantic producer was another meaning of the word old - “outdated, outdated.”
The word-formation structure of a derived word CONSISTS of 2 blocks: 1 block - the foundation of the word - , 2nd - building material - in the form of word-formation affixes. To designate the 1st block use. term - productive basis- the basis of the word from which the derivative is formed. For example, in the word apprenticeship-o “staying in the position of a student”, the productive stem apprenticeship- is from the word student (with the alternation k/h). In this case, the N.F. base does not necessarily act as the producing basis. motivating word. Thus, the role of a generating stem can be, for example, the stem of the genitive plural form. numbers of a noun in some types of formations: a) in evaluative nouns of the type vetka, vetok - vetoch-k-a; b) in adjectives from abstract nouns such as training, training - training.
With prefix, postfix, prefix-postfix methods of word formation, the first block is the whole motivating word. For example: read - reread. Hence the 2nd law of word formation: words are formed from generating (motivating) words or their stems. The productive base can be either non-derivative - teacher, or derivative - teacher-sk-y. In the latter case, it contains an affix that does not play a word-forming role for a given derived word. For example, the generating stem teacher-, from which the adjective teacher-sk-iy is derived, is itself derivative, since it is formed from the verb to teach. Thus, in the morphemic composition of the adjective teacher there are two suffixes: -tel- and -sk-, but only one -sk- is word-forming for it, the suffix -tel- fulfilled its word-formation function in the noun teacher.
20.G.O.Vinokur’s derivative criterion.
A characteristic feature of derived words is semantic motivation, i.e. the meaning of derived words is motivated by production. Vinokur noticed the peculiarity of this motivation. V.: “non-derivative words are symbols of reality, and the meaning of a derivative word can always be determined through reference to the meaning of the derivatives. P.S., as a rule, are structurally complicated, i.e. they contain at least one word-forming affix “swim-) swim.
21. Generating word. Producing basis. Manufacturing base.
twig- And twig- brushwood-(non-derivative) and twig-(derivative).
Manufacturing base.
22. Complex units of the word formation system. Word pair.
The complex units of the word-formation system are: word-formation pair, word-formation type, word-formation category, word-formation chain, word-formation paradigm and word-formation nest.
The simplest of complex units is a word-forming pair: the relationship between the derivative and the generating stems: white - whiten, regulate - traffic controller, pioneer - pioneer, ink - inkwell, write - rewrite, beauty - beautiful. Word-formation pairs, between which there are identical formal and semantic relationships, are included in one word-formation type: sugar - sugar-nitsa, herring - herring-nitsa, cracker-sugar-nitsa.
The term word-formation type refers not to a set of word-formation pairs, but to a scheme (formula) for constructing derived words. For example: teach(t) - teacher-teacher-teacher-nits(a); white(th) - white(t) - white(t) - whitewashed(a) - whitewashed(th). These series of derivatives are arranged in such a way that each previous unit is directly productive for the next one.
23. Word-formation chain
A set of derivatives ordered so that each previous unit is directly productive for the next one is called word-formation chain. This complex unit reveals the stepwise nature of Russian word formation. It demonstrates syntagmatic relationships between cognate words. Words in a chain are connected by relations of sequential production. The principle of hierarchy operates in circuits, i.e. consistent submission one to the other.
The minimum number of links in the chain is 1. The maximum (for r/ya) is 6.7. More often (r/i) – 3.4.
24. Word formation paradigm.
A set of derivatives that have the same generating basis and are at the same level of word production - S.P.
In Russian, joint ventures are branched and can have more than 10 members. SPs fall into blocks that include derivatives of one part of speech: substantive, verbal, adjective, adverbial. In the paradigm of words of different parts of speech there are similarities and differences. The greatest similarity is observed in the paradigm of words belonging to the same part of speech and to the same lexical-semantic group.
Verbs have more diverse word-formation paradigms than other verbs.
25. The difference between syntagmatic units in the word-formation nest and paradigmatic ones.
The components of the word-formation paradigm are independent of each other. In meaning, they are related to each other indirectly, i.e. through semantics to the producer.
Words belonging to the same type have the same paradigms.
26. Word-formation nest .
27. Root nest. The concept of a typical nest .
The root nest heads the word-forming nests.
Put on shoes-------take off shoes
Shoeless
Take off your shoes
The root nest includes word-formation nests, the apex of which are the words..., but these words are not connected by relations of word-formation derivation.
A typical nest is a nest with a cat on top. are antonym words. In p/ya, many words are polysemantic =) word-formation nests of these words can include sub-nests in accordance with different meanings, for example red (color, social affiliation, beauty).
28. Word-formation meaning. The difference between SZ and lexical and grammatical .
SZ is a generalized meaning for derivatives of this type and is established on the basis of the semantic correlation of generators and derivatives. When identifying the SZ type, one should abstract from the specific lexical meaning of a certain word and strive to establish what is common to a number of words and what is reflected in their structure, i.e. associated with the semantics of the generating base and formant. SZ is expressed with pom. s/formant (the smallest in formal and semantic terms the word/affix with the help of a cat. the given word is formed and its meaning is considered. SZ (general, particular)
SV is more abstract and is noted in a number of words (cf. little bear, little camel, little hare...), while the lexical meaning is intended to differentiate words, highlight the word among other words, and reveal its “individuality”.
Gram value expresses gender, number, case...
31. Word formant. Derivative structure of the word.
SF - the smallest in formal and semantic terms sr-vo/affix, with pom.kot. image. given word and consider. S/value
Word-forming Morphemes are divided into prefixes and suffixes. They differ in their place in relation to the root and to other morphemes.
P- a derivational morpheme placed before a root or other prefix ( re-do, pre-pretty , at-sea, some-Where, re -O-children).
Derivational suffix- a derivational morpheme that comes after the root ( table- IR, red- e-th).
along with the suffix, they also distinguish postfix- a derivational morpheme that comes after an ending or a formative suffix ( wash- Xia, whom- or ).
Inflections - internal, external. Int.F. a method of inflection in which word forms are formed by changing sounds within the stem. Ext.F.– inflection using synthetic affixes (for example, pol-e, pol-ya, pol-ey).
32. Word formation type. Correlation between the concepts ST and S/model.
ST- structural-semantic scheme for the construction of derivative words, characterized by the commonality of the following features: 1. part-speech affiliation; 2. Word formant; 3. word-formative meaning.
Volgograd resident-Volgograd - Saratov resident-Saratov. BUT, NOT driver-drive - switch-off.
2. with and without interfix (Volgograd-Volgogradskiy; Yalta-yalt(in)skiy); 3. With truncation of the base and b/n (sambo-sambo wrestler; bicycle-cyclist); 4.with the overlay of morphs and b\n (red-reddish (b/n); pink-pinkish)
Model-morph. variety within word forms. type
33. Word formation model. The relationship between the concepts of SM and ST.
switch-off.
Model-morph. variety within word forms. Type (ST - structural-semantic scheme for constructing derivative words)
The concept of ST correlates with the concept of SM. Words of the same type are produced according to different morphological models: 1. with and without alternating boundaries of morphs (Riga-Rizhsky, Leytsipsk-Leytsipsky);
2. with and without interfix (Volgograd-Volgogradskiy; Yalta-yalt(in)skiy); 3. With truncation of the base and b/n (sambo-sambo wrestler; bicycle-cyclist); 4.with overlay of morphs and b\n (red-reddish; pink-pinkish)
34. The concept of “way of word formation” in synchrony and diachrony.
This is a concept in synch. And diachronic word formation has different content. In diachronic word formation, this concept serves to answer the question. With the help of what medium (or what medium), in what way is the derivative word formed; in synchronous word formation it is used to answer the question with the help of which medium(s) the word formation meaning of the derived word is expressed.
35.Methods of synchronic word formation of simple derivative words.
There are simple and mixed methods. In mixed methods, the formant includes several word-forming devices (for example, a suffix and a prefix). Accordingly, the first three are unmixed.1. Suffixation – adding a suffix to the generating stem. Teacher(suffix tel+ system of inflections of adjective declension) Three times(suffix wait)With zero suffixation ( way out, badass) the formant includes a zero derivational suffix.2. Prefixation. The formant is the prefix. Great-grandfather, re-write .3. Postfixation. The formant is postfix:1) wash, butt(postfix Xia) 2) some kind. Pronominal prefix and postfix, unlike suffix, are attached to the whole word, not to the stem.4. (prefixation in combination with suffixation, materially expressed or zero): Primorye, table, in a new way . 5.Prefix-postfix method(prefix combined with postfix): run around, take a walk. 6.Suffix-postfix method(suffixation combined with postfixation): be proud, need . 36. Methods of synchronic word formation of complex derivative words. 1.Addition(or pure addition) a derivative word is formed by combining one or more stems of any part of speech with an independent word. The last component is the main one in the addition, since it is it that bears morphological indicators. The composition of the word-formation format in pure addition includes: a) an interfix, indicating the connection between the components of a complex word; b) a single main stress, mainly on the supporting component. Interfix can be null: Tsar Cannon .2. Mixed the method of word formation is suffixally complex, or addition in combination with suffixation (materially expressed or zero): explorer, multilingual, bread-cutter. 3. Fusion a method of word formation that differs from addition in that the words formed by this method, in all their forms, are completely identical in morphemic composition to the synonymous phrase and, thus, the syntactic connection of this phrase (the connection of control or adjacency) is preserved as live connection in the structure of the word he motivated: crazy, evergreen. The formant includes: a) a fixed order of components, preposition of a subordinate component; b) a single main stress on the supporting component.4. Abbreviation a method of word formation that combines all types of compound and abbreviated formations. The formant includes: a) derivative (indifferent to morphemic division) truncation of the stems of the words included in the motivating phrase (the last of which may not be abbreviated). b) a system of inflections in accordance with the assignment of an abbreviation to one of the types of declension of nouns. For example: USSR, university, savings bank. With fusion and abbreviation, the word-formation meaning is connective, as with pure addition. There are also such mixed methods: prefix-suffix-postfix ( joke around); prefix-complex ( pacify) etc. There are also phenomena intermediate between abbreviation and addition ( pioneer camp).When a derivative word is formed, mutual adaptation of connecting morphs often occurs. According to the laws of the Russian language, at the border of morphemes, not all combinations of sounds are permissible. At the boundary of morphemes, four types of phenomena can occur: 1) alternation of phonemes (the end of one morph changes, adapting to the beginning of another). 2) interfination, an insignificant (asemantic) element interfix is inserted between two morphs. 3) overlap (or interference) of morphs: the end of one morph is combined with the beginning of another. 4) truncation of the generating stem - the end of the generating stem is cut off and is not included in the derived word.
38. Classification of words by parts of speech in modern speech
The identified parts of speech are the result of a series of compromises between syntactic, semantic and morphological principles of classification of word forms. Traditionally, in r/morphology the following independent phrases are distinguished: noun, adj., numeral, pronoun, verb, adverb. Sometimes the state category and modal words are also distinguished.
Typically, PD is subsumed under certain headings, rather than presented as a result of consistent logical classifications. It is as a result of this division that word forms that do not fall into one of the listed categories remain outside the classifications. Therefore, for example, all scientists classify interjections into a special group - word forms that, being grammatically uncharacterized, do not have specific semantics or specific syntactic properties. How words outside parts of speech were characterized by V.N. Sidorov, for example, yes, no, please and some other owl. L.V. Shcherba wrote that it is important not to classify words according to any principles, but to find a classification that is especially persistently imposed by the language system.
The problem of parts of speech is one of the “eternal” problems.
39. Noun: definition, lexical and grammatical categories.
IP– CR, combining words with the meaning of objectivity. 40% r/words. IPs can be
names not only of specific objects, things, substances, living beings and
organisms, phenomena of objective reality, but can also designate a wide variety of abstract properties and qualities ( courage, horror, performance, blue), actions and states ( drinking, jumping, cleaning, resting).
IS are divided into two groups: proper and common + personal. Proper names are
names of individual items ( Pushkin, Moscow, Mars, newspaper “Izvestia”).
Common nouns are generalized names of homogeneous objects,
phenomena, actions, states ( pine, thunderstorm, walking, fatigue).
Popular names are divided into specific and non-specific (collective (youth,
foliage), material (sour cream, silver), abstract/struggle (struggle, whiteness)).
Difference of own. and vernacular: 1.naric. vary in numbers, and proper ones have
form or only units. or only M.h.; 2.various combining abilities.
In a sentence, nouns act mainly as subjects and
It is expressed not so much in meaning as in clear grammatical forms.
Air: V.p.m.h.=R.p.m.h.; Inanimate: V.p.m.ch=I.p.m.ch.
To the shower include all names of living beings, incl. face and essence. In addition to collective names and names of microorganisms. Eskova L.A. I took into account fluctuations in the rates of bacillus and shrimp.
Animation: 1.Names of deceased entities (except corpse); 2. name Mythical creatures;
3. name Dolls; 4.gaming terms (knight, jack).
When determining animate/inanimate. It is necessary to take into account the polysemy of words and homonymy, for example. Wipers.
Almost every noun has its own gender:
General ( touchy, quiet); - pair (scissors); - medium; - male; - female.
interesting story, I liked the story.
For plural nouns. including no genus, including plurale atantum
(finance, trousers).
Some nouns denoting animals or the name of a person
has no difference of gender. They are not related to gender.
Gender-gender relationship for personal nouns.
Almost always if the person is female, then the noun is feminine ( milkmaid).
Mediocrity - always feminine, just like bastard. There are not many cases
when a masculine noun can also be feminine,
For example: barbel, some kinship terms - Grandchildren - both women and men.
It can also depend on number, context and meaning.
General words.
The overwhelming majority are spoken words or emotionally
painted ( slob, glutton, crybaby, dirty). This also includes
orphan, not emotionally charged. Morphologically similar to
feminine nouns. Despite the fact that they can also denote the feminine gender, with
they agree differently on defining words ( This dirty girl again
stained my shirt). Petya is a terrible dirty fellow. In the predicate position it can
agree on the feminine gender. In proverbs and trends. to general words
begin to classify words previously used only in the masculine gender: elder, head, judge, colleague.
About type approvals: the doctor has come, our doctor.
In the 19th century there were no such agreements. They appeared in the 20th century, in the 20s.
After another ten years they began to say “ young composer" A little earlier -
« Our friend received a letter" There may also be mixed agreements. IN
In the 20th century, women became more active and this led to the appearance of many feminine words. Indication of gender - syntactic, or female doctor.
Determination of gender. Grandfather grandmother– same declination,
but the gender differs. Words with a soft consonant can be feminine or masculine. Declension depends on gender, and not vice versa. Tulle, roofing felt - both are masculine.
Special rules apply to indeclinable nouns:
Names of persons ( curé) – depends on the situation, meaning
If it is a common noun, inanimate, mostly neuter ( stew, cinema, sconce).
There are exceptions: coffee - masculine (in the 19th century used. coffee),
Animal names ( chimpanzee, kangaroo, pony) - they must be masculine
gender, but depending on the context can be used in the feminine gender.
Names of cities, rivers ( Po, Juan Ho, Oslo), city is masculine, and river is feminine.
Abbreviations. In most cases it depends on the gender of the stem noun ( UN - feminine gender, MSU – masculine).
Dual gender affiliation - stack - stack, periphrase - periphrase,
shutter - shutter.
Most nouns denote countable objects
and can be combined with quantitative nouns, that is, it indicates
number of items. Plurale attantum - named after. p.m. Ch.; Singulare attantum - named after. p.un. Ch.;
Some lexical-semantic categories of nouns are associated with these
When " snow, ice"in the plural it does not mean
substance, but the space covered by this substance. This is also typical
some abstract nouns (“ beauty" - Beautiful places).
The plural (Plurale attantum) is very heterogeneous: debate,
finance, petroleum products- nouns that cannot be counted, but trousers,
items that can be in quantity of more than one and are used in
units and m.h., but they have the same shape. Noun coat does not apply here
since it has compatible words ( my/my coats).
Unit h. – when we are talking about one subject. The usual meaning of the singular form
numbers – the value of unity. In some contexts - a generalized collective meaning (when talking about a whole class, for example: Dolphins live in one
area with tuna). A book is the best gift(typical of proverbs);
The participle is used...(scientific definition). Very often, for example,
similar usage: The audience liked the performance.
Distributive meaning – These umbrellas have a broken handle.
For m.ch. designation of dismemberment ( I was surrounded by cats). M.ch.may
denote the class of one noun ( Cats are good animals).
Can denote a collection ( For our second course today we have mushrooms). Name
nationalities ( Georgians live in the Caucasus). Denote paired objects ( boots).
There are 6 cases in r/ya. All cases, except the nominative, are used with prepositions - this is an integral unit of meaning ( harmful to the patient).
Case forms can have different meanings. There are no fixed values.
Subject value ( the forest is noisy, unhappiness, mom can’t sleep, we’ve been invited by the dean).
Basic meanings of cases:
I.p – the original form of the word. In this form the noun
used to name a person, object, phenomenon. In this case
always worth it subject. The nominal part may appear in the same case
predicate. In the nominative case there is also the main member
one-part sentence.
R.p – used both after verbs and after names. The verb p.p indicates
object, if the transitive verb has a negation, if the action
passes not to the entire object, but to part of it; this case also has the meaning
absence, deprivation. R.p also indicates a number of attributive
relationships: belonging, the relationship of the whole to the part, qualitative assessment, etc.
Nouns in gender case, used in comparative form
adjectives denote the object being compared.
D.p – often after verbs, sometimes after a noun. Used
mainly to designate the person or thing to which it is directed
action. In impersonal sentences, the dative case can name a person or
an object that experiences the state expressed by the predicate.
V.p – mainly used with verbs. Main meaning –
express with transitive verbs the object to which the action passes
fully ( catch perch). Can be used to express quantity,
space, distance, time ( the whole summer, every day).
Tp – used with both verbs and nouns. etc. has
the main meaning of an instrument or means of action ( drive with a twig). Maybe
have the meaning of place, time, space, image and method of action, can
portray the producer of the action ( written by me). Creative predictive
case is used to express the nominal part of a compound predicate ( was
doctor The noun instrumental case is used for nouns with the meaning of an instrument of action, rarely a manner of action ( sing tenor); at
adjectives to indicate the area of manifestation of a characteristic with
constraint value ( famous for discoveries).
Sentence p – is used with both verbs and nouns, but
only with excuses about, about, about - the subject of thought, speech; in, in – an indication of the place, space, object within or within which the action is performed;
on – surface, limit of propagation of action, state;
when – being close, in the presence of someone.
Prepositional adjective: o – thought, speech, report;
at – place; in – place, space, object.
44. Types Declension of nouns Indeclinable nouns.
Paradigms of different nouns are distinguished on several grounds:
1.by sets of endings; 2.by changes in the basis; 3. by the number of members in the paradigm.
Classification of declinations.
Substantive declension is typical for singular nouns. number of TV
single phoneme cases graduated (teapot, month, script)
Adjective declension is typical for adjectives, but there are also
substantivates ( pie shop, counselor).
The mixed declension is similar to both the substantive and the adjective. IN
There are no single-phoneme endings in the adjective. Mixed declension includes
typical Russian surnames. Them. case - Pushkin, in indirect cases -
Pushkina. In the masculine gender there is also a mixture. The words "draw" ( draw), "maiden" ( girlish).
In scientific grammar, the 2nd declension is -a-, and the 1st is “field, table”.
Inflected – “path” and on -mya-.
There are options: changes in the stem, changes in stress when forming cases
1st declension -y- in the masculine gender: piece of cheese - piece of cheese. Semantic factor
: -у-characteristic of real nouns. This does not happen at any time
case meaning, but only 1) with a partitive meaning; 2) in combination with some prepositions; 3) in cases such as people, rabble; 4) concrete nouns: forest, house, floor, hour, nose; 5) in certain combinations with prepositions + adverbials
meanings. Here the ending -y- is almost always optional. In the 20th century this phenomenon
is on the decline.
The ending -у- is obligatory in cases of diminutive use ( cognac –
cognac), as well as in specific nouns, if the stress falls on the preposition
– in other cases -y- optional.
The ending -у- can be used in phraseological combinations: in his lifetime.
Maybe also in examples like: on oak - on oak. Necessarily - on the forehead, at the post. Some cases have options: on the bridge - on the bridge .
Our sweaters are our sweaters .
Sometimes the ending shows the difference in meaning of a word : in a circle / in a circle,
images/images, flowers/colors.
Genitive plural : five kilograms/five kilograms;
Names of persons by nationality ( many Buryats - many Buryats);
Names of persons by affiliation with military units ( hussarov – hussar);
Names of some items ( without stockings - without stockings);
Some vegetables: tomatoes, oranges, tangerines...
(kilogram of tomato/tomatoes).
Eat indeclinable nouns (sconce, kangaroo, attache, taxi, blinds …).
Cases of lost declension ( Shevchenko, Monyushko).
Some geographical names: Borodino, Pargolovo, Levashevo, Ogarevo …
45.Adjective: definition, question of boundaries
Name adj. –
and answer questions
The weather was beautiful. The weather is beautiful.
Adjectives differ quality(indicating sign
subject directly: ), relative
gas stove, brick house), And possessive
forms: full ( beautiful view) and short ( the view is beautiful).
glad,
46. Lexico-grammatical categories of adjectives.
Name adj. – part of speech that combines words that have meaning. characteristics
and answer questions Which? whose? =) adj. Able to identify nouns, but not verbs.
Morphological features of adjectives are their variability
by gender, number and case. Unlike nouns, in adjectives the forms of gender, number and case are not independent, since they depend on the gender,
number and case of those nouns with which these adjectives agree.
In a sentence, adjectives are either attributive or nominal
part of a compound predicate, for example: The weather was beautiful.
The weather is beautiful.
Adjectives differ quality(indicating sign
subject directly: big, high quality, light), relative
(indicating a sign through the relationship of an object to other objects:
gas stove, brick house), And possessive(indicating affiliation: mom's sister, bear's den). qualitative adjectives have two
forms: full ( beautiful view) and short ( the view is beautiful).
Short adjectives sometimes acquire a new lexical meaning,
different from the meanings of full adjectives. Adjectives like glad,
Singular.
Solid variety.
M. r. Wed. R. J. b.
AND. new new new
R. new new new
D. new new new
V. new new new
or new new
T. new new new (oh)
P. about new about new about new
with which it agrees: see beautiful girl/ ..beautiful landscape.
Plural.
AND . new gold blue
R. new gold blue
D. new gold blue
V. new gold blue
new gold blue
T. new gold blue
P. about the new gold blues
see beautiful children
– see beautiful landscapes.
Adjectives on g, k, x
soft base: elastic and elastic .
y, a, and and are not written yu, i s)
Adj. with stem on -y ( fox, bear, wolf
fox, fox, fox .
father's word
father's word, father's word
-th, -th
-A Ouch). IN
-s), V
-s, -s, -s, -s). Adjectives
with suffix -in
(-a, -y (wow, wow): sister
(cf. large table big table) - to my sister.
Male Russian surnames -ov (ev), -in (yn -ym, -
them
48.Types of declension of adjectives.
Full adjectives in units. hours change by gender, number and case, i.e. bow down. In terms of gender, they do not change, and case endings all three genera are the same: gold rings, bracelets, earrings.
There are three types of adjective declension:
1) declination of qualitative and relative adjectives;
2) declension of possessive adjectives with a stem in -y: fox, bear ;
3) declension of possessive adjectives with suffixes -in (-yn), -ov, (ev): mamin,
lisitsin, fathers, bakers.
Adjectives of the first type of declension according to the nature of the last consonant of the stem
are divided into groups: adj., having a hard consonant before the ending (hard
a type of declension), adjectives that have a soft consonant before the ending
(soft declension), adjectives whose stem ends
on g, k, x, or sibilant (mixed type of declension): alive, new; winter;
elastic; small, dry, hot, big.
Singular.
Solid variety.
M. r. Wed. R. J. b.
AND. new new new
R. new new new
D. new new new
V. new new new
or new new
T. new new new (oh)
P. about new about new about new
Soft variety.
M. r. Wed. R. J. b.
AND. blue blue blue
R. blue blue blue
D. blue blue blue
V. blue blue blue
T. blue blue blue (her)
P. about blue about blue about blue
Adjectives m.r. and Wed R. all cases have the same endings, except
i.p. and v.p. Form v.p. coincides with r.p. or i.p. depending on animate/inanimate. noun,
with which it agrees: see beautiful girl/ ..beautiful landscape.
Plural.
AND . new gold blue
R. new gold blue
D. new gold blue
V. new gold blue
new gold blue
T. new gold blue
P. about the new gold blues
V.p. forms in m.p., as in units, depends on animate/inanimate: see beautiful children
– see beautiful landscapes.
Adjectives on g, k, x mixed varieties of declination have a hard and
soft base: elastic and elastic .
Features of the declension of adjectives with a sibilant stem are determined by
modern spelling (after hissing words only y, a, and and are not written yu, i s)
and appear only in writing.
Adj. with stem on -y ( fox, bear, wolf) vary by gender, number and
P-am. In i.p. m.r. they have zero ok, on Wed. R. -e, in w. R. -i, in m.h. -i: fox, fox, fox .
In other cases, the endings of such adjectives coincide with the endings
soft type of declension of qualitative and relative adjectives.
Possessive adjectives with the suffixes -in (yn), -ov (ev) have endings characteristic of nouns and adjectives. Adjectives of masculine
and neuter singular in all cases except instrumental and
prepositional, have endings characteristic of nouns ( father's word
father's word, father's word). In the instrumental and prepositional cases their endings are
similar to the endings of adjectives ( -th, -th). Feminine adjectives in
nominative and accusative cases have endings similar to the endings of nouns ( -A), in other cases - with adjectives (- Ouch). IN
nominative and accusative cases of possessive adjectives
plural endings are the same as those of nouns ( -s), V
other cases - like adjectives ( -s, -s, -s, -s). Adjectives
with suffix -in forms of the genitive and dative cases of the masculine and neuter gender
(-a, -y) are replaced by forms with adjective endings (wow, wow): sister
(cf. large table) – sister; sister (cf. big table) - to my sister.
Male Russian surnames -ov (ev), -in (yn) in the instrumental case singular and plural have the endings respectively -ym, -
them, i.e. inflections of adjectives: Nekrasov - Nekrasov, Pushkin - Pushkin. This does not apply to titles settlements, formed from proper names.
49. Degrees of comparison of adjectives: analytical and synthetic forms
In p/ya there are two degrees of comparison of adjectives: comparative and
excellent. Positive degree is the initial form for the formation of basic
degrees of comparison. Name adj. comparatively the quality characteristic of
of a given item to a greater or lesser extent compared to the same qualities
in other subjects, as well as in comparison with the qualities that a given subject
possessed or will possess in the future. Adjective in superlative
degree indicates the highest degree of quality in a subject compared to
the same qualities in other similar objects. Superlative form
can be used as a means of comparing some quality only in
homogeneous objects similar to one another, while the comparative form
degree is a means of comparing some quality or the same
an object at different times of its existence.
Formation of superlatives .
Superlative forms of qualitative adjectives also come in syntactic And analytical . Syntactic The superlative form is formed using the suffixes -eysh, -aysh. The forms for these suffixes are
3 meanings: 1) limiting, absolute degree of quality, attribute. This is the meaning
called elative. (kindest soul, greatest artist); 2) the highest value
degree of quality compared to others. This meaning is similar to the meaning
descriptive form superlative ( most). Otherwise this value is called superlative; 3) the meaning of the comparative degree. This is the meaning for modern times. r/i not
characteristic, preserved in revolutions like upon closer inspection.
Compound superlative forms are formed in two ways: firstly, by
the help of additional words most, greatest, smallest, added to
the original form of adjectives; secondly, by adding words everyone, everything To
comparative degree form.
Complex shapes with words most, least are used predominantly
in official business, journalistic styles of speech; shapes with the word most– neutral, used in different styles of speech.
Compound superlative forms can be formed from all qualitative adjectives; Not all adjectives have simple forms. Dont Have
simple forms, many adjectives with the suffix -ast, -ist ( big-headed,
fibrous),-To ( brittle), -esk ( friendly),-l ( skillful), -ov, -ev ( honey, combat).
Ways to form comparative degrees.
There are two main ways to form the comparative degree: 1) suffixes
Her (her) and -e ( friendlier, more expensive) – syntactic, or simple method.
2) Words more , less– analytical method, or complex (descriptive).
Synthetic forms are used equally in all styles of speech, while analytical forms are used most often in official, business, and scientific styles.
Comparative forms are sometimes complicated by the prefix po- to soften
the degree of predominance of quality over the comparative degree in the usual way (great expression - colloquial speech).
Adjectives used in the synthetic form of comparison do not change according to
genders, numbers and cases, they do not agree, they do not agree with the names of nouns.
In a sentence, the synthetic form of the comparative degree most often serves
predicate and less often definition. An analytical form that includes
compound full adjective, in a sentence usually acts as a definition,
although it can also be predicated.
If the complex form of comparison includes a short adjective,
then it is a predicate and with not, as a rule, the conjunction “than” is used.
Individual adjectives ( bulky, businesslike, prickly etc.) do not have
synthetic form of degree of comparison. From them the form can be formed
the degree of comparison is only analytical.
Individual adjectives form forms suppletive, that is, from other roots: good is better, bad is worse and so on.
50. Short and full forms of adjectives.
Short forms can only be formed from adjectives with qualitative
meaning, however, there are exceptions: adjectives ending in - skiy (friendly,
comradely etc.), as well as adjectives like retarded, seasoned, tired.
IN singular generic ending for m.r. there will be a zero ending,
For example: strong - strong, affectionate - affectionate, for the feminine gender – ending
A- ( strong, affectionate), for the neuter gender – the ending -o- ( tightly)
In m.ch. there are no gender differences, the endings will be -ы-, -и- ( beautiful,
close). If the basis of the full adj. has 2 consonants at the end, then when formed
short adj. m.r. between them sometimes there appears a fluent o/e sound ( rare, eternal).
There is a group of adjectives in which, when forming the form m.r. observed
variation. These are adjectives in -state ( natural, characteristic);
they may end in -en or -enen: characteristic - characteristic ,
natural – natural. However, variation does not always appear:
countless - countless, meaningless - meaningless.
Short forms have controls: they are rich in vitamins(but not rich)
he is deaf to requests(but not deaf). This river is shallow/shallow for shipping.
Short forms indicate the attribute of an object (in the defined tense): it is healthy -
he is healthy. But this does not always happen: Vasya is polite - Vasya is polite .
Short adjectives also indicate the excessiveness of the attribute
(wide trousers – wide trousers). May have stylistic differences: short forms are more typical for book speech. Short forms are more categorical and cutting.
51. Numeral: definition, semantic categories.
Word class, cat. are the name of the quantity of objects expressed in numbers,
as well as their order according to the account. These include only words in which
quantitative concepts are expressed using numbers, i.e. generally accepted units
only after adding subject words to them ( eight books , fifteen days and so on.).
Such words, for example, as hundred, ten, dozen, thousand, million, although they mean
quantity, yavl. Noun. They are able to connect with consistent
word forms: devil's dozen, fighting hundred; and it can be argued that these words
are ordinary nouns, because have a genus category. And the numerals -
such lexemes with a quantitative meaning that are devoid of gender as a classifying grammatical category (excl.: two, both, one and a half (both boys - both girls).
The lexeme “one” does not belong to either a noun or a number, because has an inflectional category of gender. One refers to adj. Moreover, this lexeme is adj.,
used both in quantitative and restrictive meaning (HE stayed at the dacha for the entire
one day; There are only mice in his barn)
six pencils), or
six is more than five)*
one, eight, ten);
twelve, twenty, two hundred);
twenty-one, one hundred forty-five).
52. Features of declension of numerals .
Definitely – quantitative – denote the quantity represented
as a certain number items ( six pencils), or
a counting concept abstracted from specific objects ( six is more than five)*
Examples (collaboration + combinations with noun);
Numeral one changes according to gender, number and cases and is consistent
with noun like an adjective.
Numbers two three four(and compound numbers having at the end two three four)
: in them. the case is controlled by R. p. units. h. nouns ( two tables, three pens), and in
in other cases there is agreement with the noun, which is always used in the m.p. form.
(two tables, two tables);
But: in wine. case inanimate = I. p. animate = R. p ( I photographed two houses
photographed two athletes) – this rule is not applicable. on comp. numbers that
have at the end two three four .
Numerals from five before twenty And thirty have noun endings
3 cl. In complex numerals from fifty before eighty and from two hundred before
nine hundred both parts are inclined ( fifty)
* By structure: 1) simple - words with the same root ( one, eight, ten);
2) complex - adding two or three words ( twelve, twenty, two hundred);
3) compound, formed by a combination of several individual words ( twenty one, one hundred
forty five).
53. pronoun: definition, morphological categories .
(he, someone
(such, that, my, so much
point to them ( he, that, so much
I, you
grammatical structure, pronouns are correlative with nouns, adj. and number Acting as their morphological synonyms, places. are divided into traces. groups:
1) in general – subject pronouns – in their meaning they correspond
names of nouns, but do not name objects, but only point to them ( me, you we, you, they,
yourself, who, what, no one, nothing, no one, something, who – that something).
2) Generalized – qualitative pronouns – according to morphological structure
identical with adj. + correspond to them in meaning. These places indicate
qualities and properties of objects ( mine, yours, yours, this, which, which, some, etc.).
3) In general – quantitative pronouns – correspond in meaning and functions to cardinal numerals ( how many, as many, several). Example:
I bought five books, he bought the same number.
Personal places: I, you, we, you, he, she, it;
Reflexive: self; Interrogatives: who, what;
Indefinite: anyone, anything, someone, something, anyone, anything...
Negative: no one, nothing, no one, nothing.
We pronounce everything. They have the category soul/non-soul (I, you, you, we/what). Inanimate/inanimate
Depends on animate/inanimate. replaceable places. noun (I see them - people/cars)
54. Question about the boundaries of the pronoun as a part of speech .
A class of demonstrative words characterized by subject meaning
(he, someone), generalized – qualitative and generalized – quantitative value
(such, that, my, so much). Denoting objects and signs, pronouns only
point to them ( he, that, so much). Syntactic function of pronouns
depends on their meaning. Pronouns (except
I, you) are used in speech as substitutes for words - names (the term itself
indicates this: “instead of a name”). According to its lexical meaning and
grammatical structure, pronouns are correlative with nouns, adj. and number
Pronominal nouns are just like ordinary nouns. Can be characterized through agreement classes.
55. Verb as part of speech. Conjugated and inconjugated forms. Infinitive .
A part of speech denoting a procedural feature that expresses this meaning in the grammatical categories of aspect, person, number, gender. The verb is opposed to names as a class of words, because possession conjugation. The issue of the boundaries of the verbal paradigm has not been finally resolved, because There are different terms of reference. about participles and gerunds.
Verb forms: 1.conjugated; 2 Unconjugated (infinitive, participle, gerund).
An infinitive is a form that does not have a mood, tense, number, gender, but is characterized only by the categories of aspect and voice. Etymologically it is a form of dates. Local case, which became a separate verb form (speech (verb and noun). Indicators And: -t, -ch (to take care (to take care of + t), to guard). I. can perform the function of subject, predicate, and complement.
Type is a morphological category that serves to express differences in the nature of the action + is expressed in the nature of the meanings of owls. and Nesov. kind. Verb. nesov. action is designated as a process, an action not completed. Verb. owls kind designation An action that has reached its limit as a whole, indivisible into phases.
Verb. with t.z. type: 1.correlative(cats have contrasting forms of owl and non-cow types + (verb, which can be members of the same species pair (opposite 2 verb forms characterizing the same process, different grammatical meanings of the type (build- build, read-read) - the ability to enter into a species pair)) 2. non-correlative(single-species (protruding only in the forms of the owl-species + protruding only in the forms of the non-sov.species) + bi-species).
Species differences can be expressed using diff. Wed: 1. suffixes(receive – receive); 2. prefixes(cook – cook); 3. suppletive forms((words with different roots) speak, say).
Alternations in the basis may be observed (beg - beg, read - reread) - example non-species pair, because they represent different processes.
Species pair prefix-suffix type (swallow - swallow).
Specific verbs. owls kind denote actions that are not aimed at achieving a result, the process is important (adore, hate). One-specific verbs. owl species are not thought in the gravity of time. (burst, gush).
Bispecific verbs.designation value sometimes sov., sometimes not sov.vida, in such verbs. Without indicating the time of the action, it is impossible to determine its specific meaning (marry, explore).
Speciation– formation of verb forms of one type from verb forms of another type. Varieties.: 1. prefectivation (formation of forms of nes species from verb forms of owl species (do-with-do)); 2. Imprefection (nes. from owl. (only -yva, -iva, -va - solder - soldered)).
In the verb. 2 formative bases: 1.infinitive (we drop –th) =) read-read-read-would-read; 2. present tense (we discard from the 3rd l.m.h.present or future simple tense, rejecting inflections –ut, -at, -yat)
In the morphological structure of p/ya, temporal relations are expressed in the tense forms of the verb. There are 3 tenses represented in p/ya – present, past and future. Imperfective verbs have all three tenses, while perfective verbs have only the future and past tenses.
Present tense:
1) expresses an action coinciding with the moment of speech
2) an action that is constantly performed at any time (coinciding with the moment
speech) ( Does anyone ever visit you?)
3) d/expressions of (states) that took place in the past ( I remember when my mother was
still healthy, she works on the tower, and I... lie on my back and look high...)
4) d/expressions of upcoming, expected actions (i.e. related to the future)
(We're going to sea tomorrow)
The present tense is expressed by personal forms of the verb: doing, doing, doing.
Future expressed in the simple form of perfective verbs ( I'll read it
I'll write) and a complex (analytical) form, which is a combination of changing
according to the persons of the auxiliary verb will and infinitive d/verbs
auxiliary, combined with information. Nes species ( I'll start, I'll start), but the value is already
can be not only for expressing a beginning in the future, but also for expressing a beginning in the past
(started writing).
2) in segments where the narration is conducted in present tense, expressing the past, but
at the same time, it is specifically intended to convey an action that is repeated, but each time instantly completed by it.
3) in the form of 2 persons unit. numbers, used in a generalized sense (in the sense of an action that is constantly taking place, attributed to any actor in known conditions or to
any actor belonging to a known category
(On a hike, for example, you come to a place: what do you tell me to do?... Involuntarily, you go to a tavern and start playing billiards)
Past tense:
Formed from the stem of the infinitive by adding the suffix -l to the last
and endings of gender and number ( write – wrote – wrote – wrote).
past forms time from verb. with the basis of the present tense in acc. and is formed with the help
suf. -l, which is added to the root vowel ( lead - lead - led - led - led - led)
Forms m.r. past time from verbs ending in the infinitive with -sti (-zti), or -ch,
having any consonants at the end of the present tense stem (except t, d), Dont Have
suffix -l- ( carry – carry – carried – carried; take care - take care - take care - take care of).
from verbs ending in -nut:
a) in the meaning of instantaneousness, one-act characterization, according to the general rule, from the stem of the infinitive
using the suffix -l- ( shout - shouted)
b) meaning “gradually acquire a characteristic” or do not have the meaning of instantaneity, arr.
without -well-, and the masculine singular form. numbers - without -l- after the consonant at the root ( go out -
go out - went out - went out).
The past tense expresses an action in the past
parallel to the structures from now. tense the past tense owl can be used. V.; in the meaning of a state related to the present time, which is the result of an action completed in the past ( ... I'm alone, sitting by the window; gray clouds covered the sky)
The past tense of the perfect form is used in the meaning of the future tense when we are talking about a categorical statement of an action that must occur immediately after it is expressed verbally ( Well, I'm off = I'll go now).
The time related to the moment of speech is ABSOLUTE, the time related to the time of the occurrence of another action is RELATIVE.
actions to the subject and its object (taking into account the absence of the object).
Transitive verbs– d. that can have a direct object, expressed
V.p.( the pilot drives the car).
Intransitive-G. those who cannot carry with them a direct additional expression, expressed v.p ( the boy is sleeping).
Are allocated accordingly valid And passive pledge.
Constructions with active verbs are called active, and with
verbs passive voice – passive .
Passive forms are formed only from transitive verbs. Passive
forms are divided into simple and complex. Simple passive forms
are formed from transitive imperfective verbs by adding
postfix (reflexive particle) – xia:
a) to the infinitive ( build - be built);
b) to the basis of the present tense of the 3rd person, units. and many more numbers ( build - to be built;
are building - being built);
c) to all forms (generic and numerical) past. vr. ( built - built,
built - were built);
d) when forming a future complex tense - to the infinitive ( will build -
will be built).
Complex passive forms are formed from transitive verbs of the perfect
type and consist of an auxiliary verb be (was, will be, would be) And
short passive participle of the perfect form (with suf. - en, -n, -t),
which vary only by number and gender.
Particle -xia, joining the verb form, gives it an intransitive meaning.
But there are other meanings:
1) returnable; the action is directed towards the actor himself, who
is both subject and object ( wash, get dressed);
2) the action comes from the subject, but does not cover him (or only partially
touches it), and at the same time there is either no object at all, or it is only partially
covered by action ( look around, hold on);
3) the action (or state) is locked in the subject itself (we can also talk about
physical actions, and mental states) ( hurry up, rejoice,
be surprised).
4) an action characteristic of a given subject, presented as his constant
property ( the dog bites, the nettle stings).
state) to reality (or rather, not the action itself, but the connection
which is established in a sentence between the action and the subject,
producing this action, or between the state and the subject experiencing
these are states).
In modern Russian, three moods are morphologically distinguished:
Indicative(indirect), imperative And subjunctive .
Indicative the mood expresses what is really happening,
happened, or will happen (carry, bring).
Imperative the mood expresses an order or request. It is formed
from the basis of the present (or simple future) time and is characterized by a special
personal ending of the 2nd person unit. numbers or alternating in the base (go,
take it, disappear). Second person unit numbers are characterized by endings
And, adjacent directly to the base, or with a zero ending.
Zero ending of the 2nd person unit. numbers in the imperative mood in such
verbs like: I read - read, heat - heat, cut - cut.
Subjunctive the mood expresses primarily the action that
does not actually happen, but could happen given certain conditions
conditions. Particle used would(after a word ending in vowel,
it may appear in a reduced form b). If this particle comes after
verb form, it usually follows immediately after it, if before
verb form, it can be separated from it by other words.
The conditional mood can express possibility even in the absence
formally expressed condition under which this possibility is realized:
Shot who? - No, they would have been jailed for that.
The conditional mood can express a desired meaning, that is, a wish
(Would you come with us) + part. and inf. ( Make sure all people are happy).
Used in additional subordinate clauses or adverbs. proposal,
expressing the goal ( I’m barefoot, so Semenych is watching to make sure he doesn’t hurt my leg.).
Forms of the subjunctive mood change only by gender (singular) and number.
60. Transitivity/intransitivity, reflexivity/non-reflexivity of verbs.
There are verbs transitional, when the action moves to the object (reading a newspaper, a boy reading a book), and intransitive when the action does not move to the object (the boy is reading (i.e. can read)). These verbs do not have a direct object.
With transitive verbs, verb. may be in the form of gen. Case in the next Cases: 1. in case of negation 2ne” (didn’t buy bread); 2. When denoting a part of a whole (drink milk).
Affixes (inflections, prefixes, suffixes) are involved in the expression of transitivity/intransitivity. Postfix -sya (verb indicator). Denominated transitive verbs, using the suffix –i – blue – blue. Walk (intransitive) - move (transitive)
Self-returnable- verb designation actions. cat. reproduced by the subject and directed at him (-sya = himself).
Reciprocal- verb designation actions of one/several persons, each of whom is the subject and object of the action.
Indirect-returnable– an action performed in one’s own interests (-sya – for oneself (stocking up, lying).
Active-objectless– action as a general characteristic (dogs bite, cows kick).
Passive-objective– d-e passive (the skirt wrinkles, the nail bends)
61.Types of verb conjugation .
Personal endings of verbs, starting from the 2nd person singular. numbers,
differ in two conjugations - 1 - mu and 2 - mu.
Personal verb endings
1 conjugation 2 conjugation
1 – e l. – u (yu) - eat (yom) - u (yu) - im
2 – e l. – eat (eat) - eat (yote) - eat - ite
3 – e l. – et (yot) - ut (yut) - it - at (yat)
Variable verbs: run And want (partially according to the first conjugation,
partly according to the second)
Unit plural number number of units plural number number
1 – e l. I'm running we run we want we want
2 – e l. you're running run if you want
3 – e l. runs run wants want
62. Bases of verbs, forms formed from them.
Verb forms are usually formed from two stems:
1) Basics of the infinitive: do, carry, meet.
2) Basics of the 3rd person: see, lie, do(base n.t). Infinitive stem like
As a rule, they end in a vowel, the stem n.t ends in a consonant.
An infinitive stem is a part of a word without an infinitive suffix. (- ty, - ty, - whose)
From the stem of the infinitive the following are formed:
Prosh. vr. ( draw - drew);
Subjunctive mood ( draw - would draw);
Past participle time ( draw - drawn);
The participle of owls. type ( draw – narisova-v).
Present tense basis or future simple tense - this is part of a word without
endings of the 3rd person plural. numbers. From the base now. time are formed:
All personal forms of the indicative mood (with and without alternation
consonants at the base);
All personal forms imperative mood (chita j – ut, read, read j - let them read);
Present participles ( read - reading) ;
Imperfect participle ( read - reading).
63. Verb classes (various approaches)
The classes differ in what indicators are both in the infinitive and in
Present t before these endings. It is necessary to distinguish between productive and
unproductive classes.
Productive:
1st grade: stem infinitive on -A, present tense stem on -аj ( read
- reading, reading);
2nd grade: stem infinitive in - e, present tense stem on -еj ( get sick -
I'm sick, you're sick);
3rd grade: stem infinitive in - ova(after soft consonants and sibilants -eva),
present tense stem in -уj ( draw - draw, draw);
4th grade: the infinitive stem contains a suffix -Well-, basis of present tense
N-( push - push, push);
5th grade: at the end of the infinitive stem the indicator -i- (before - t), based
present tense in 2nd and 3rd person singular. numbers, 1st and 2nd person plural. numbers are also -and-, and in3
face plural numbers -a- after soft consonants, in 1st person singular. numbers -u- after soft
consonants or sibilants ( cook - cook, cook, cook).
The first four classes belong to the first conjugation, the fifth to the second.
Unproductive:
1st: at the base of the infinitive the indicator -a- (does not belong to /\), which is absent
based on the present tense ( take - take, plow - plow, bark - bark, wait - wait);
2nd: combination -ere- (at the root) before suf. infinitive -т and hard -р- (in /\) at the end of the present tense stem ( rub - rub, die - die);
3rd: in the infinitive -olo-, -oro- (at the root) and soft -l- at the end of the present stem. t ( prick -
I stab, I fight – I fight);
4th: -a- belongs to /\, at the root of the infinitive stem, after a soft consonant or
hissing and TV. nasal consonant (belongs to the root) at the root of the present day stem.
time ( reap - I reap, reap - I reap, start - I will begin);
5th grade: vowel in the root before the end of the infinitive -т and indicator -n- (does not belong to the root) in the root of the present tense ( become - will become, child - den);
6th grade: -well- at the root of the infinitive, -n- at the root of the present tense.
But -well- is missing from the past tense ( freezing - freezing - freezing).
7th grade: -i- (after soft), -ы- (after hard), -e- (root) in the root of basic. inf. -th-
(adv. root) at the root of the present day. time ( drink - drink, beat - beat, wash - mine)
8th grade: -i- or -u- (adjective to root) before suf. infinitive and -th- (after vowel) and
Y- at the root of the present tense (after the same vowels of the root)
(rot - rot, blow - blow);
9th grade: suf. -va- after a vowel in the root of the infinitive and -th- (after a vowel
at the root) at the basis of the present. time ( give - I give, get up - I get up).
10th grade: u(s) (belongs to the root) in the root of the infinitive stem and V after the same vowel in the present tense ( live - live, swim - swim);
11th grade: suf. inf. -ti (rarely -t), which is preceded by acc. With , main/ infinitive ends in a hard consonant (belongs to the root) ( carry - carry, carry - carry);
12th grade: ending of the infinitive -ch, present basis. time, ending on
posterior palatal acc. (belongs to the root) ( oven - bake, take care - take care). All these non-productive classes are part of the 1st conjugation. And as part of the 2nd conjugation
includes 13th and 14th grades:
13th: the stem of the infinitive contains the indicator -e- (does not belong to the root)
(burn - burn - burn, creak - creak - creak);
14th: the stem of the infinitive contains the indicator -a- (does not belong to the root)
(be silent - silent - silent - silent, afraid - afraid - afraid).
64. Status of participles and gerunds in Russian morphology .
Participle
which .
participial phrases, which are on
letters are separated by commas.
Valid
forms of gender, number and case.
Passive
-xia-: swim - bathing.
future, upcoming
Formation of participles.
see - having seen ,
sit – sitting)
Present participle:
Verbs 1st conjugation:
And moving. + verb of the 2nd conjugation: torment – tormenting And tormenting .
Participle
actions. He spoke worriedly .
May have postfix –s: bathing
participial phrases
65. Morphological categories of participle
Participle– an unconjugated form of a verb expressing an action as a present attributive sign of an object, manifested in time: a student reading, a book read by a student.
The participle does not have forms of person and mood, but has forms of tense, only present and past aspect and voice, as well as forms of adjectives - number,
gender and case consistent with the nouns that denote speakers
actions or object of actions: departed plane - departed plane.
P is lexically and syntactically no different from a verb, from cat. it is formed:
Student-written report – a student wrote a report.
Participles are synonymous with personal forms of the verb in subordinate attributive clauses with a relative pronoun which .
P is not used in sentences without a predicate and refers to nouns.
in any of its syntactic functions. When used without noun, adverb. goes into noun:
The dancers crowded and pushed each other.
P with words depending on it is called participial phrases, which are on
letters are separated by commas.
Participles: - active; - passive
Participles: - present tense; - past tense
Valid participles only have full form, which varies according to
forms of gender, number and case.
Passive participles have full and short form. Short form changes
only by gender and number forms. Participles can have a postfix -xia-: swim - bathing.
Verbs do not form future participles (words future, upcoming
are adjectives in which the future tense is expressed lexically rather than grammatically)
Formation of participles.
1) Formation of active participles of the present and past tenses.
(formed from both transitive and intransitive verbs: see - having seen ,
sit – sitting)
Present participle:
A number of verbs form variant forms of participles depending on the class of the verb:
Verbs 1st conjugation: splash – splashing, splashing, move – moving
And moving. + verb of the 2nd conjugation: torment – tormenting And tormenting .
Verbs with an infinitive -sti-, based on the present tense -d-, -t-, form
participles Prosh.t using a suffix -sh- from base crust/t: lead-lead-led .
Verbs with an infinitive -is- have a participle with the suffix - wsh-: steal-stealing
2) Images/suffering. prib. present and Prosh. t (image/ from transitive verbs: demand - required)
Verbs do not form past participles : look at, fly around, run through,
wait, overshadow, finish off, catch, pass, lick.
Passive past participles have a full and short form:
written(full) - written(short) received(full) - received(short)
Short passive participles are not inflected.
66. Morphological categories of gerunds.
Participle is an inconjugated form of a verb that denotes an additional
action (state). The state of the subject, associated in time with the main one
action, either simultaneously with the main action (state), or
preceding it or following it.
Entering the room, he looked around.
He spoke slowly, afraid that he would not be understood.
The action (state) of a gerund always refers to the subject of the main
action (state) and can be complicated by the meanings of cause, condition, image
actions. He spoke worriedly .
Participles differ only in aspect forms and do not have tense, person, number, mood or voice forms.
May have postfix –s: bathing
Participles with words depending on them are called
participial phrases, which are separated in writing by commas.
A number of gerunds, having lost the meaning of the verb, moved to other parts of speech.
For example, the word form standing can be used as a gerund and as an adverb:
The artist painted while standing on the stage(adverbial participle).
The artist painted while standing(adverb).
67. Adverb as a part of speech. Semantic categories of adverbs .
(run fast, pretty monotonous landscape, running jogging)
course of action(slowly,
in a comradely way, instantly), time(in the morning, then, recently), places(far, left, behind),
causes(because in the heat of the moment) goals measures and degrees(Very).
Adverbs can form comparative and superlative degrees of comparison
Morphologically, an adverb is an indeclinable, unconjugated part of speech adjacent to
Adverbs are divided into two main groups:
1) Definitive (denote the quality of action, the image and method of action, or quantitative shades of action, state and quality. By meaning they are divided into
adverbs of quality, quantity and measure, image and manner of action, method and
compatibility of action).
2) Circumstantial (indicate temporal and spatial circumstances and
adverbs expressing the reason and purpose of an action. Divided into adverbs of time, place,
goals and reasons).
68. Degrees of comparison of adverbs.
An adverb expresses a sign of an action (expressed by a verb), a sign of a characteristic (expressed by an adjective). It determines the quality or degree of action.
(run fast, pretty monotonous landscape, running jogging)
According to their meaning, adverbs are divided into the following. Basic Discharges: course of action(slowly,
in a comradely way, instantly), time(in the morning, then, recently), places(far, left, behind),
causes(because in the heat of the moment) goals(on purpose, for no reason, not without reason), measures and degrees(Very).
Adverbs can form comparative and superlative degrees of comparison.
Degree of comparison of adverbs
Adverbs on -o/-e formed from qualitative adjectives have degrees
comparisons:
The superlative degree of adverbs consists of a comparative degree and a pronoun
everyone(r.p. pronouns All).
The comparative and superlative forms of adverbs are distinguished from the forms
comparing adjectives with something that always refers to a verb and answers a question How ?
1) This story is more interesting than that one(which one?) He talks more interestingly than me(How?)
2) this story is the most interesting of all(Which?) He talks more interestingly than all of us(How?)
69. Formation of adverbs.
Nare which expresses a sign of an action (expressed by a verb), a sign of a characteristic (expressed by an adjective). It determines the quality or degree of action.
(run fast, pretty monotonous landscape, running jogging)
Adverbs are divided into pronominal and nominative. Pronouns
are formed from pronominal roots, significant from significant parts of speech.
V.V. Vinogradov, A.M. Peshkovsky, L.V. Shcherba suggested considering words like
-necessary- as an independent group of words. However, Peshkovsky does not include these
words into parts of speech in general, and Shcherba and Vinogradov believed that these words
constitute a special part of speech category of state. V. Vinogradov highlighted
- He spoke in a boring way(adverb) - I'm bored(condition category)
Shcherba: glad, much, must, without feelings, must .
modifiable words - noun, adj., even used as a predicate, remain nouns and adjectives, respectively. (For example: glad, I must –
always adjectives).
There are arguments for highlighting such a part of speech: if cat. comp. do not highlight, then
words like you can, shame on you relate to adverbs, and they are strongly related to adverbs
differ and violate the part-speech affiliation of adverbs.
Arguments against: there are not enough features to highlight, these words do not have
time and voice, and we are talking about time and voice of the entire sentence, not the word.
the only syntactic function is the predicate function.
Meaning and use of the category of state.
1) the physical or mental state of the person (in combination and without combination
infinitive). I'm cold. It's hard for her to talk about it. He's too lazy to study .
2) state of possibility/impossibility, necessity (in combination with
infinitive). Can I come in? I need to send a letter. Time to go home.
3) assessment of the subject’s action (the action is expressed by an infinitive). Smoking is harmful.
It's still early to get up. It's too late to go out.
4) state of nature/environment: It was cold outside. The room is stuffy.
II Used with copulas -be- And -become- to denote forms of future and past tense.
III Not used with the nominative case as the subject of the sentence:
a) if the state of a person is expressed, then the person is indicated by the dative case.
He was ashamed. I need to tell you something.
b) if the state of nature, the environment is expressed, then it is not indicated
specially: It was light and quiet. Tomorrow it will be very hot .
Composition: 1) words starting with - o-: painful, fun, boring, close, perhaps, deep, low,
necessary, necessary + impossible, visible, audible.
2) some nouns in the former form of the nominative case: lazy, it's time
time, desire, reluctance, pity.
71. Preposition as a part of speech.
Prepositions are service h/p, expressing various relationships between words in a phrase/sentence: temporary(sit before morning), spatial(go behind city),
causal(to be wrong because of inattention). Prepositions are used with only one case:
with R.p. (without, for, to, from, from), with D.p.-k; with V.p.-pro, through.NO, “with” used. with V.p., R.p., T.p.;
"on" with V.p. prepositional..According to their origin, prepositions are divided into proto-forming(V,
without, before, to, on...) and derivatives(formed by moving into the category of prepositions of parts of speech:
noun (due to, as a result), adverbs (thanks to. Despite, after)).
The auxiliary nature of prepositions lies in the fact that they are not members of sentences, but serve to clarify the syntactic functions of other members of the sentence, as well as to
differentiation of the meanings of case forms, together with which they express
spatial, temporal, conditional, causal, restrictive and other relations: house on the mountain, snow fell at night, suffering from drought .
By degree of word-formation complexity:
1) Non-derivative (primary) prepositions: in, to, for, on, from, by, with, with .
2) Derivatives (secondary): around, thanks, during, towards, opposite, beside, behind, across...
Morphological composition of prepositions:
1) simple (+ fused) without, in, to, for, for, from, on, to, from, with, at, through...( 2 simple) from behind, from under.
2) adverbial: a) near, along, outside, inside, near, in front, around, past(used with the Genitive case of the name and clarify its syntactic functions).
b) following, towards, contrary, like, according to(adjacent to the dative case of the name and clarify its syntactic functions).
3) Denominates: in part, in the sense, during, to the extent, for purposes, in the name of, at the head, in the role, in order to avoid, on occasion, by way, as a result (adjacent to the genitive case of the controlled member of the sentence and serves to clarify it syntactic function).
4) Verbal: thanks to(with date case), including, after(with vin. case), not to mention(with gender case), cumming(with creative case), beginning(with the birth or creative case) (formed from gerunds).
5) complex compounds (combinations of nouns, adverbs and gerunds with subsequent prepositions): depending on, in response to, in contrast to, in relation to, in connection with, up to, along with, regardless of, looking at p. based on, not to mention, despite, judging by...
72. Union as part of speech
Conjunctions are service units that connect homogeneous members of a simple sentence
And simple sentences complex sentence, and also expressing relationships
between syntactic units.
Of Education
1) non-derivatives: a, and, but, yes, for, or, however, if, neither...nor.
2) simple derivatives: that, as if, also, so that, but .
3) compound derivatives (consist of simple derivatives in combination with
prepositions, adverbs, pronouns): because, since, thanks
because, despite the fact that, so.
4) pair derivatives (consist of components that are used
for each connected element): not only...,but; both.. and;
if.., then; insofar as...since; although.., but; than .., so; as for... then .
By syntactic function:
1) Coordinating words indicate relatively semantic independence
linked units (members of sentences and sentences included in complex sentences).
a) connecting: and, yes(meaning -and-), neither...nor, how...so, not only...but also, too ,
Also.
b) adversative: and, but, however, on the other hand(adverse-compensatory conjunction).
c) dividing: or; or or; not that.., not that; then... then .
d) explanatory: that is, namely, or .
2) Subordinates: indicate the subordinate semantic connection of subordinate clauses with the main clauses in complex sentences.
a) explanatory (explanatory), which answer the questions: what, to, how .
b) temporary: when, as soon as, while, since, after,
c) causal: because, because, since, since .
d) target: so that, in order to .
e) conditional: if, once(if), provided.. that .
e) concessional: although, despite the fact that, no matter how .
g) investigation unions: so before that .
h) comparative: as, as if, as if, as if, exactly, than .
73. Particle as part of speech
Particles are function words that serve in speech to express attitudes
all or part of what is expressed to reality, as well as the speaker to what is communicated
Semantic particles serve to express shades of meaning (exactly, exactly, here, over there, only, even, well...); modal– to express reality/unreality, reliability/unreliability (well, well, not at all, maybe); formative– for the formation of word forms (would, yes, let, let, -sya).
Particles not/nor are negative, so they serve to negate
object, sign, action, etc.
74. Unique morphemes in Russian words.
Suffix. 1. The part of speech of the derived word differs from the producing one; 2. If a word is formed from the same part of speech, then the grammatical characteristics of the original word change, for example, gender (applicant - applicant). Among S. there are unixes (popadya (ad - unique), groom, glass beads, applause).
Irregular affixes are often classified as unixes. Irregularity- the participation of one or another morpheme in the formation of one single word. For example: glass tier, mail amt, cartridge tash .
75. Characteristics of syntagmatic units in the composition of word-formation nests.
SG is a set of derived words ordered by relations of derivation. Top of the nest is an unmotivated word. Each word in the nest occupies a place fixed in the language system and norm. The relationships between words in a chain are ordered, i.e. the structure of the word-formation nest is determined by the relations of two plans (syntagmatic and paradigmatic).
The relationship between derived words of the same nest breaks down over time (black and ink). =) the boundaries of the nest are movable, i.e. the boundaries of the nest can shift + moving from the center of the nest to the periphery and vice versa. =) nests are heterogeneous in composition, because they may contain outdated, obsolete words, among the book ones there may be colloquial, + unifics.
76. Morphological phenomena at the morphemic seam: truncation of the end of the derived stem and interfixation .
Morphemics considers:
1. Features of the structure of morphemes, incl. their phonological structure, morphological phenomena occurring at the morphemic seam in the process of formation of derivative words.
Morphemic phenomena:
A. Truncating the end of a derived stem
B. Interfixation
Yalta-yalt(in)skiy;
Volgograd - Volgogradsky
In addition, phenomena such as overlapping (pink-pinkish) and alternation (friend-friend) are observed.
77. Alternation of phonemes, superposition of morphs.
Morphemics considers:
1. Features of the structure of morphemes, incl. their phonological structure, morphological phenomena occurring at the morphemic seam in the process of formation of derivative words.
Morphemic phenomena:
A. Truncating the end of a derived stem
B. Overlay
Pink - pinkish;
Red - reddish
Kursk-Kursk - complete overlap.
B. Interfixation
D. Alternation (friend-friend (Ms.)
78. The concept of postfix in the broad and narrow sense.
Postfix– a word-forming morpheme standing after the root (in the broad sense) + ending or formative suffix (um-t-sya, to-something). Endings take place at the end of the word form; after them, only parts of the word – sya, -sya, -those, -to, -ili, - (postfixal parts) can appear in word forms. The term “P” is sometimes used in a narrow sense - to name the affix –sya/sya , which is always located after the inflection (I wash my face, I’m angry).
79. Correlation of the concepts of a generating word and a generating base.
P.S. – s., from which another word is derived. In P.S. there is no indication that it is producing. This is a relative concept. The derivative is the basis on the basis of which, using one or another technique, a derivative word is formed. So, in related words brushwood, twig, twig the stems are morphologically transparent: in the first word the stem is non-derivative, in the second and third it is derivative. For derived bases twig- And twig- the producing bases are, respectively, brushwood-(non-derivative) and twig-(derivative).
Manufacturing base. T.Z. Nemchenko: P.B.=P.S. P.B. – a word/phrase from which a derivative word is formed. T.Z. Zemskoy: P.B.-P.S., because words can be formed on the basis of stems, on the basis of whole words (city - suburb), on the basis of phrases (grade book - record book), on the basis of word forms (groom - marriage (-t - formative, not word-).
80. Differential features of relative adjectives
Name adj. – part of speech that combines words that have meaning. characteristics
and answer questions Which? whose? =) adj. Able to identify nouns, but not verbs.
The morphological features of adj. names are their variability
by gender, number and case. Unlike nouns, in adjectives the forms of gender, number and case are not independent, since they depend on the gender,
number and case of those nouns with which these adjectives are
agreed upon.
Inside relative adjectives depending on the substances giving
basis for the trait, there are 3 groups:
1. Adj. can characterize an object through its relationship to the count: the first shot, on the 20th, on the hundredth house...
2. Adj. can characterize an object through its relationship to soul. subject:
Cat's house, father's jacket, cleft palate, grandfather's felt boots...
3. Adj. can characterize an object through its relationship to the inanimate
subject or action: cityscape, swimming pool.
MORPHEMIC ANALYSIS SCHEME
1. Part of speech (changeable/unchangeable). .
2. Inflection (materially expressed/zero: regular/irregular
what grammatical meaning does it express).
3. Base (divided/indivisible; simple/complex; discontinuous/continuous).
4 Root morpheme (free/bound; available options;
alternation). .
5. Prefix (productive/unproductive).
6. Suffix (materially expressed / zero; productive /
unproductive). .
7. Postfix (meaning: grammatical (plurality, .
passivity), word-formation (reflexivity,
uncertainty)). .
8. Indicate the presence of asemantic segments in the word, if any. .
9. Complete diagram.
.SAMPLE MORPHEMIC ANALYSIS
Crumbly
1. An adjective is a variable part of speech.
2. Inflection -y- materially expressed, regular, expresses gram.
meanings - male r.,.units h., im. (vin) p.
3. The base is divided - divisible, simple, continuous.
4. Root morpheme -syp- svobodnetsya (syplyu), variants: -sypl"-,syp"
alternation: p//p"//pl"
5. The prefix is productive. .
6. The suffix -cam- materially expressed, productive.
Scheme of word formation analysis:
1.Basic words:
A. by structure: simple/complex; articulated/indivisible; intermittent/continuous;
B. Derivative/non-derivative;
B. Generative in relation to other words/does not act as a generator in relation to other words.
2. Generating word(s) and generating stem(s). Changes in the productive stem in the composition of a derived word.
3. Word formant (productive/non-productive);
4. Word-formation meaning expressed by the next formant (optional)
5. Method of word formation;
6. Word-formation type (words formed according to the same type)
Pattern: Iridescent
1. Iridescent - simple, articulated, continuous; derivative; producing for iridescent…
2.P.S. – overflow, p/base – overflow...sya.. truncation of the productive base.
3. Suffix –chat- (productive)
4.Meaning: “being in a state resulting from an action called a motivating verb”
5. suffix method.
6. Explosive (from exploding) 1 crumbly (from crumbling), vague (from spreading).
As is known, a feature of the structure of the Russian inflected word as a unit of synthetic language is the presence of a stem and inflection.
Inflection is a variable part of a word that expresses grammatical meanings.
Inflection is highlighted in a word by changing it. The set of morphologically correlative inflections forms a morphological paradigm, for example, the case paradigm of wife nouns. gender 1st declension singular Numbers with a solid base look like this: water-a, water-s, water-e, eod"-u, water-oh, o water-e.
To correctly highlight inflections, two provisions must be taken into account. The first is the presence of two types of inflections: materially expressed and zero (materially not expressed). The presence of zero inflection is detected by comparing a given word form with others that have materially expressed inflections within the same paradigm. For example: nose, nose-a, nose-y, nose-0, nose-oh, about nose’-e; thus, zero inflection is an equal member of the paradigm. The second is the relationship between phonemics and graphics in the Russian language; for example, pol'-e and upbringing-e, where the inflection is the same; its correct selection reveals the different nature of the stems of these words and, in the second case, allows us to correctly highlight the suffix -nuj-. In the same way: sel-o and raven'-j-o, where the suffix -/- (crow) is revealed, cyd'-j-a (judge), bezdorozh-(-e (off-road), dungeon'-j-e (dungeon), Transcaucasus*-)-e (Transcaucasia), Priural'-)-e (Ural region) and so on.
The stem is the part of the word that expresses the lexical meaning. Each name (noun, adjective, numeral) has its own stem. For example, oak - base oak-, inflection - ѳ; blue-oh - base blue-, inflection oh; thirteen is the base
va thirteenth inflection - ѳ. A base can be the basis for the formation of several derivatives. So, oak - oak-ok and oak-ov; blue - blue-from-a and blue-ovate; cheerful - cheerful and cheerful *-i-t.
The situation is different with verb stems. The system of formation and word formation of a verbal word involves the identification of two bases in it: the base of the past tense (or infinitive) and the base of the present (or future simple) tense. The past tense stem is part of a verb word without the suffix -l-: work-l, spa-l, pe-l. The basis of the present (future simple) tense is part of a verb word without inflection of the 3rd person plural. numbers, for example: work]-ut, sp’-at, noj-ut.
The role of these fundamentals in the formation of ■ verb forms is known. Their role in verbal word formation is no less important. For some verbs, these stems are so different that without knowing and taking these differences into account, it can be difficult to determine from which verb a given word is formed or why it has this form. For example, without taking into account the suppletive forms of the present tense of the verb to be, it is impossible to determine from which verb the present participle existing is formed (A rumor about me will spread throughout Great Rus', And every language that exists in it will call me... (P.) This participle is naturally formed from the present tense stem of the verb to be. The past tense stem of the verb be-would- (would-l) forms the past participle
time. Or, it is easy to understand that the noun washing is formed from the verb to wash, but without remembering the two stems of this verb, it is impossible to explain why it does not sound [myka]. The past tense basis of this verb, participating in word formation, gives the following derivatives: we-l-o, we-r’j-o, and the present tense basis Moj-: Moj-k-a, Moj-ush-ie (means). In a similar way, the verb to reap gives from the past tense stem zha- the noun zha-tv-a, and from the present tense stem zh-: zh’-ets, zh’-eyk-a. This difference in the verbal stems of the past and present tenses should be taken into account even when it is not so great. Without this, it is difficult to understand the formation of one or another verbal derivative.
