The point of commercial advertising is to attract as many more consumers of a product in order to increase the company’s sales of its goods or services. At the same time, it is important to compare advertising costs and the results obtained from this to determine the effectiveness of advertising. Practice shows that it is not possible to accurately determine economic efficiency.
Research by various authors shows that at least 30% of campaigns conducted in the United States had a negative effect, 20% had at least no harm, 20% had a slight benefit, and 30% had a pronounced benefit. positive effect. Data for European countries look more modest: only 20% of campaigns had a pronounced positive effect. In principle, you should not expect 100% advertising effectiveness at all. However, it is certainly necessary to predict or estimate advertising costs and at least an approximate result obtained. Spending on advertising in developed civilized countries has long been a kind of tribute to the market, so as not to get lost among competitors.
Below are the basic concepts associated with advertising effectiveness, as well as methods for calculating effectiveness based on specific goals in specific situations.
The concept of advertising effectiveness has two meanings: economic efficiency and the psychological impact of advertising on the buyer (psychological effectiveness). The economic efficiency of advertising is the economic result obtained from the use of an advertising medium or the organization of an advertising campaign. It is usually determined by the ratio between the gross profit from additional turnover as a result of advertising and advertising costs. General condition The economic result is that the gross profit should be equal to or exceed the amount of advertising expenses.
Psychological effectiveness - the degree of influence of advertising on a person (attracting the attention of buyers, memorability, impact on the purchase motive, etc.).
Both of these concepts are closely interrelated. But the criteria for these two types of efficiency are naturally different - in the first case it is sales volume, in the second - psychological characteristics perception of advertising by its addressee.
Let's first consider the economic efficiency of advertising. The main material for analyzing the economic efficiency of the results of a company’s advertising activities is statistical and accounting data on the growth of trade turnover. Based on these data, it is possible to study the economic efficiency of one advertising medium, an advertising campaign and all advertising activities of the company as a whole.
Measuring the economic effectiveness of advertising is very difficult, since advertising, as a rule, does not give its full effect immediately. In addition, an increase in trade turnover is often caused by other (non-advertising) factors - for example, changes in the purchasing power of the population, rising prices, improving the quality of goods, etc. Therefore, it is almost impossible to obtain absolutely accurate data on the economic effectiveness of advertising, as mentioned earlier.
There are several methods for determining the economic effectiveness of advertising. The simplest method for determining the economic effectiveness of advertising is the method of comparing turnover before and after a specific advertising event. According to this method, the economic effectiveness of advertising is determined either by comparing turnover for a certain period of the current year, when the product was exposed to advertising, with data for the same period last year, when the product was not advertised, or by comparing daily turnover before and after the advertising event in the current period time. The final conclusions about the economic effectiveness of advertising are obtained by comparing the additional profit received as a result of advertising with the costs associated with its implementation.
Let's look at this specific example. Company L held a presentation of its products ( detergents) in the Super Market store. Additional turnover after the presentation amounted to 738,900 rubles. The trade margin for this group of goods was 32%, therefore, the additional profit received as a result of advertising amounted to
RUB 738,900 x 0.32 = 236,448 rub.
The costs of the presentation (making and posting advertisements, installing a billboard near the supermarket, etc.) amounted to 83,000 rubles. Thus, the economic effect of advertising was
RUB 236,448 - 83,000 rub. = 153,448 rub.
The economic efficiency of the measures in this case is as follows:
RUB 153,448 / 83,000 rub. = 1.85.
This means that for 1 ruble spent on advertising, the company received an additional profit of 1.85 rubles, i.e. This promotional event was effective.
The study of the economic effectiveness of advertising can also be carried out by comparing the turnover for the same period of time of two similar trading enterprises, one of which carried out an advertising event, and the other did not. The growth of turnover in a store where there is no advertising event occurs due to the influence of those factors that operate independently of advertising. The same factors affect turnover in the store where the promotional event is held. The economic efficiency of advertising in this case is calculated by determining the ratio of the turnover growth index of the store where the advertising event was held to the turnover growth index where the advertising event was not held. The final conclusion about the effectiveness of advertising is made as a result of an analysis of the costs of advertising and the additional profit received as a result of its implementation. The positive thing about this method is that only that part of the turnover that is directly the result of the advertising event is taken into account.
We will calculate the economic efficiency using this method by comparing data on the turnover of the “Market” supermarket in the city of N-sk, where an advertising campaign and a lottery were carried out for a period of one month, with data on the turnover of the “Supermarket” store, where such an advertising campaign was not carried out . Data on the comparative turnover of these two supermarkets are presented in table. 17.
Table 17
Comparative turnover of two supermarkets during the month
From the table Figure 17 shows that turnover in these two stores has increased, so you can calculate the growth index for each store
The turnover growth index in the “Super-Market” was:
J 1 = 25,033,570 py6 / 22,790,830 py6. = 1.12(12%)-
The growth index of Market turnover in the city of N-sk was:
J 2 = 17,347,390 rub. / 10,088,270 rub. = 1.325(32.5%)
Thus, it can be seen that the increase in turnover due to advertising in the N-ska supermarket was 20.5%. Additional turnover due to advertising in this case will be:
ΔT = 13,088,270 rub. x 20.5% / 100% = RUB 2,683,095.3
The store's profit for this period of time amounted to 18.4% of total turnover. Consequently, the profit from the additional turnover obtained through the advertising campaign will be:
Profit = 2,683,095.3 rubles x 18.4% / 100% = 493,690 rubles.
To now find out the economic effect of an advertising campaign, we need to analyze the costs associated with its implementation. Data on the costs of advertising events in the city of N-sk are presented in table. 18.
RUB 493,690 - 316,880 rub. = 176,810 rub.
Currently, both in domestic and foreign practice, a method for determining the economic efficiency of advertising has become widespread, based on a comparison of the additional gross income received as a result of advertising and the costs associated with its implementation. Using this method, the additional turnover obtained as a result of promotional activities is first determined, then the additional realized overlay is calculated from the amount of the calculated additional turnover. The economic efficiency of advertising is expressed by the difference from the amount of additional realized overlay and advertising costs. The calculation is made using the following formula:
(13.2)
P - increase in average daily turnover during the advertising and post-advertising periods, %;
N - trade margin on goods, %;
This technique is usually used to determine the economic efficiency of individual advertising media or a short-term promotional event. If the result obtained is greater than zero, it means that the advertising was cost-effective.
Let us calculate the economic efficiency of an advertisement by the Market-Holding company, which includes JSC Market, in two newspapers. The Market-Holding company, in addition to a network of retail stores, also has a system of wholesale warehouses from which it trades food products from Finland, Germany, Belgium, Holland and other countries.
An advertisement was published in the newspapers “Reklama” and “Delovoy N-sk” for several days, in which it was reported that you can purchase products from one of the warehouses of the Market-Holding company of such and such an assortment and at such and such prices. Advertising expenses amounted to 12,400 rubles. Data on warehouse turnover before the advertising event and after the advertising are presented in table. 19.
Table 19
Trade turnover wholesale warehouse"Market-Holding" in different periods
It is known that the warehouse margin is 15%. Thus, substituting the obtained data into formula (13.2), we calculate the economic effect of advertising in newspapers:
We see that advertising has proven to be cost-effective and has brought significant economic benefits. Using the same formula, we will calculate the economic efficiency of an advertising presentation and tasting of Marabou chocolate held at the Super Market. Data on turnover in the pre-advertising and post-advertising periods are presented in table. 20.
Table 20
Data on turnover in the pre-advertising and post-advertising periods when promoting Marabou chocolate
Trade margin on this product- 28%, advertising costs (ads on local cable television, advertising in a local magazine, billboard near a supermarket, etc.) amounted to 62,000 rubles. According to formula (13.2), the economic effect was:
There is a simplified version of the formula when the number of days in the pre-advertising period is equal to the number of days in the advertising and post-advertising periods. This simplified formula does not require calculation of average daily turnover. This formula is:
(13.3)
N - trade margin, %;
We will make a practical calculation using formula (13.3) based on the same data for the presentation of Marabou chocolate. Let us take it as a condition that the number of days in the pre-advertising period is equal to 10, as well as the number of days in the advertising and post-advertising periods. Trade turnover for 10 days of the pre-advertising period amounted to 261,080 rubles. Then according to formula (13.3):
As we see in this case, the value of the resulting economic effect is almost no different from the economic effect calculated using formula (13.2).
The method of determining economic efficiency while simultaneously advertising goods with different trade margins is somewhat more complicated. In this case, the first part of the calculation made according to formula (13.2) determines the additional turnover for each product. Therefore, accounting for the sale of each advertised product must be kept separately. From the amount of additional turnover for each product, the amount of realized overlay is calculated, the resulting data is added up, thus obtaining the total amount of gross income.
Gross income can be calculated by determining the average percentage of trade margins for advertised goods, but in this case the result will be less accurate. When determining economic efficiency, it is necessary to correctly select periods for accounting for turnover before and after advertising. It is impossible to allow holidays or any events that affect the growth of trade turnover during one of the periods. It is important to determine the duration of the pre-advertising and post-advertising periods. It has been established that for most advertising media, the advertising and post-advertising period for recording turnover should be approximately twice as long as the pre-advertising period. An advertising presentation and tasting of four groups of products with different trade markups was held at the Market supermarket in N-sk. Let's calculate the economic effect of the given event. We know that the amount of advertising expenses amounted to 370 thousand rubles. Trade margins for these products are as follows:
Data on trade turnover for these four product items are presented in table. 21.
Table 21
Data on the turnover of goods with various markups
Substituting these data into formula (13.2), we obtain the amount of realized overlay for each product.
It can be seen that the advertising event brought an economic effect, but the calculation method is quite labor-intensive. Let's try to calculate the economic effect of this advertising event by determining the average percentage of trade margins for the four advertised products. Data for this calculation method are presented in table. 22
Table 22
Trade turnover data for four advertised products
The average trade margin was:
(25% + 32% + 22% + 27%) / 4 = 26,5%
Using formula (13.2), we calculate the economic effect:
As we can see, the result obtained by this method almost coincides with the result of the first method, which, however, is more accurate, especially if the group of advertised products has many items.
It must be said that the results of the economic efficiency of advertising calculated using formulas (13.2) and (13.3) will not be entirely accurate, because the calculation does not take into account the costs of other items of distribution costs associated with the growth of trade turnover. Therefore, to determine the economic efficiency of long-term advertising events, there is its own calculation method. In cases where the advertising period lasts several months or more, the sale of goods, in addition to advertising, may be influenced by such factors as the price level, quality and range of goods, forms and methods of their sale, etc.
To determine the economic efficiency of advertising in this case, it seems correct to determine the index dependence of the dynamics of trade turnover on the advertising factor and other factors acting in addition to advertising.
The advertising index can be defined as the ratio of the turnover index of the advertised product or company to the turnover index of the comparable object that is not exposed to advertising. The growth of this indicator (advertising index) is defined as the difference between the turnover index due to advertising and one (Jp - 1). Then, using the data about average daily turnover pre-advertising period, the additional turnover and the additional realized overlay resulting from the impact of advertising are calculated. The difference between the amount of additional realized overlay and the costs associated with the implementation of advertising is an indicator of its economic efficiency.
When determining the economic efficiency of long-term advertising activities, in particular advertising campaigns, it is necessary to take into account not only advertising costs, but also costs for other items of distribution costs associated with the growth of trade turnover.
As trade turnover grows, distribution costs that depend on trade turnover increase (wages, transportation costs, loss of goods within the limits of natural loss, etc.). Expenses for maintaining premises, Maintenance, retail inventory and other costs account for approximately 50% of all costs and remain virtually unchanged. Since the accounting of distribution costs for each product separately in retail trade is not carried out, to determine the costs attributable to the turnover obtained as a result of advertising events, an indicator of the average level of costs for the product enterprise for the time corresponding to the advertising and post-advertising period should be used. Distribution costs dependent on turnover will amount to 50% of the amount obtained by applying the average level of costs for a trading enterprise to additional turnover.
E = T x (Jp - 1) x V x N/100 - 3, (13.5)
where E is the economic effect;
Jp - 1 - increase in the average daily turnover index due to advertising;
Using formula (13.5), we will calculate the economic efficiency of the advertising campaign conducted by the Market company. The effectiveness of this advertising campaign has already been calculated above using a method in which the advertising and pre-advertising periods were equal in time and the increase in distribution costs was not taken into account. To do this, we will take as a condition that the pre-advertising period for the Super-Market and Market stores in the city of N-Ske was 30 days, and the advertising and post-advertising period was 45 days. Distribution costs for the Market store during this period amounted to 4.62% of the store’s total turnover, and profit amounted to 18.5%. Data on the average daily turnover of two stores are presented in table. 23.
Table 23
Average daily turnover of two stores
RUB 436,276 x (1.175 - 1) x 45 days = RUB 3,435,673.5
Now let’s find the distribution costs attributable to this additional turnover:
RUB 3,435,673.5 x 0.0462 = = 158,728 rub.
Distribution costs, depending on trade turnover, will amount to 50% of this value - 79,364 rubles. Costs for an advertising campaign in accordance with the table. 18 were 316,880 rubles.
Using formula (13.5), we calculate the economic effect of the advertising campaign:
E = 436,276 rub. x (1,175 - 1) x 45 days x 18.5% / 100% - RUB 316,880 - 79,364 rub. = 239355.6 rub.
As can be seen from the previous calculations, the main indicator of the economic efficiency of advertising is turnover. This does not exclude the possibility of using other indicators, in particular profit. It is advisable to use this indicator when predicting the effectiveness of advertising events, when choosing optimal option estimated advertising costs.
The economic efficiency of advertising can also be determined on the basis of such private economic indicators as the ratio of the amount of turnover to advertising costs, the cost of certain types of advertising to the amount of turnover or to the number of purchases stimulated by these types of advertising.
So, for example, in March the turnover of the Market company amounted to 5,989,175 rubles. 112,567 rubles were spent on advertising for the company. Consequently, the percentage of advertising costs to turnover amounted to 1.88%. In the previous month, advertising costs were 98,640 rubles, and the company’s turnover was 5,486,365 rubles. Accordingly, the advertising cost rate was 1.80%, while the turnover rate was 9.16%.
It is clear that an increase in advertising costs by only 0.08% could not lead to such an increase in turnover, which means that this increase was associated with other factors.
Trade turnover is the most important indicator for an enterprise selling anything. First of all, it is expressed in monetary terms and characterizes the amount of products sold over a certain period. Trade turnover does not show profit; profitability cannot be judged from it; it is simply a quantitative number expressed in commodity form. But analysis of turnover is extremely important for choosing the company’s future strategy.
All types of trade turnover are divided into three large groups: wholesale, retail and trade intermediary. Each of these segments is divided into other subtypes, which is why the classification has a rather branched form.
Wholesale turnover is the sale of goods from the manufacturer to intermediaries engaged in the subsequent resale of individual batches. Wholesale firms play a key role in the market. They make it possible to overcome obstacles that arise during the transportation and storage of goods as they move from the manufacturer to the end user.
The main task of a wholesale enterprise is the uniform distribution of necessary items across all retail outlets, even the most remote geographically. In this regard, the following subtypes of wholesale trade turnover are distinguished: by region, by other regions and international. A more detailed classification can be seen in the figure. 
It combines all operations related to the delivery of goods to the final consumer. Retail sales complete the process of circulation of consumer goods and food products in the consumer market. Since this type of trade turnover occupies the largest share in general classification, several types of delivery of items to the end user can be distinguished. A more detailed gradation can be found in the following figure.
The organizational form can be completely different. In addition to the usual trade in stores and supermarkets, catalogs and booklets are gaining great popularity. New forms are constantly emerging, such as selling through social networks and group purchasing.
Payment methods also differ. Long gone are the days when it was difficult to pay with a card in a store. Now even small market stalls are often equipped with portable handheld terminals. You can also pay checks or take out expensive goods on credit.
Trade turnover analysis is performed to determine the following number of tasks:
The general scheme by which the analysis is carried out is shown in the figure. 
Trade turnover indicators serve to establish the basic quality and quantitative characteristics work of the company for a certain period. The further calculation of other economic indicators depends on the correctness and completeness of the analysis performed. Today, all these tasks are performed very simply with the help of automated programs that help to fully monitor any changes in turnover and quickly make prompt decisions to eliminate problems if they arise.
The main indicators of trade turnover include:
Since trade turnover is the monetary equivalent of all goods sold at one enterprise for a specific period, the first indicator that needs to be calculated is its dynamics at current prices. Abbreviated as DTO. You can compare any period of time using the formula:
ATO = Actual turnover for the period in current prices * 100 / Actual TO of the period that is being compared.
This formula is applicable for periods in which prices did not change. For example, over a short period of time - one or two months. If a quarter or a year is being considered, prices have most likely changed and therefore the calculation must be adjusted using a price index, which is calculated as follows:
I price = price of the reporting period / price of the base period (taken as 100%).
In this way, you can adjust the actual turnover (the formula is presented below) at current prices:
F then in comparable prices = (Actual trade turnover in current prices / I prices) * 100%.
An indicator such as trade turnover has its own speed. In fact, it characterizes how long it will take for all warehouse stocks to go into circulation. Velocity analysis is extremely important for food retail businesses. Thanks to it, shelf life, delivery time and final sales dates are calculated. After all, you need to order the goods on time so that they can arrive before customers buy up the last remnants, and at the same time not violate the expiration dates. Trade turnover (speed formula) is characterized by the following indicators:
Inventory turnover number:
where T is the monetary expression of trade turnover for a certain period, and Z is the amount of inventory.
The circulation time is calculated in days:
where D is the number of calendar days, and n is the turnover ratio (calculated above).
When engaged in trade, it is impossible not to analyze the assortment. Whatever the trading enterprise, small or large, the owner still looks at which goods are bought more, which ones less, which ones to order for future use, and which ones will be in demand by the end of the season. Assortment policy is a whole branch of science, the study of which can significantly increase the profitability of an enterprise.
In small trade organizations, assortment analysis is carried out on an intuitive level. By simple comparison and study of trade turnover, items with the greatest and least demand are recognized. But for large hypermarkets and wholesale companies, assortment analysis plays a key role. And it’s quite difficult to deal with this manually.
A thriving enterprise has everything under strict control. Each unit of goods has its place in the structure of trade turnover. At such enterprises, it is advisable to analyze the assortment using ABC XYZ analysis. The first half of ABC means studying product groups for profitability, group A includes those who bring the greatest income, C - the least. XYZ is responsible for demand. Thus, the AX group will include goods that are purchased most often and bring the greatest profit. If there are items included in the last category of CZ, then it is better to get rid of them altogether, since they are ballast.
ABC XYZ analysis is a complex and simple method at the same time. The easiest way to do this is with automated programs. He gives excellent results, which perfectly characterize retail trade turnover.
Trade turnover is the only and most important indicator performance of a trading enterprise, regardless of its size and form of organization. Its analysis allows one to judge the results of activities and choose the company’s future strategy.
IN modern conditions Entrepreneurs create technical specifications using their own funds, so they must regularly monitor the status of their product inventories.
A shortage or excess of inventory leads to negative consequences:
There are difficulties with commodity supply turnover of the enterprise;
Excess inventories cause additional losses, an increase in the need for loans and an increase in the cost of paying interest on them, an increase in the cost of storing inventories, which together worsens the overall financial condition trading enterprises.
The state of inventories largely depends on their correct analysis and planning. For this purpose, an economic analysis is carried out.
During the analysis it is necessary to establish:
Reasons for deviations of actual inventory indicators from planned ones (in amount and in days of turnover);
Assess these deviations;
Determine the factors that influenced their deviation from the plan.
Based on the data obtained during the analysis, measures are taken to normalize inventory.
Analysis of inventory and turnover is carried out by comparing actual indicators for the analyzed period with planned and indicators for the previous period.
Inventories are analyzed, planned and accounted for in absolute and relative terms.
Absolute indicators are expressed in cost (monetary) and natural units.
The first relative indicator used in the analysis is the indicator of the amount of inventory in days of turnover (sometimes this indicator is called the level of inventory), which characterizes the availability of inventory on a certain date and shows how many days of trading the available inventory will last.
1. Commodity inventories in days of turnover are defined as the ratio of the absolute value of inventories on a certain date (January 1, February 1, March 1, etc.) to the average daily turnover.
Inventories in days of turnover are calculated using the formula:
One-day turnover is determined by dividing the total turnover by the number of days in the period (per month - 30 days, per quarter - 90 days, per year - 360 days).
– one-day turnover volume (rub.)
Where, T one – . one-day turnover volume;
T f.– actual volume of trade turnover;
D– number of days in the period.
For each product group, inventory standards in days are calculated. Comparison of actual inventories with the standard allows us to identify deviations in the size of inventory in one direction or another from the standard.
When analyzing TZfact. compared with the norm N T 3 (days):
a) If TK DN > N T 3 (days) - there is a threat of overstocking,
12 days – 10 days = 2 days – excess stock
b) if TZdn< N T 3 (дн) - возможны перерывы в продаже товаров.
8 days – 10 days = - 2 days – lack of goods
Amount of excess (shortage) funds = One-day turnover x deviation (TZfact. – N) days:
1200 thousand rubles. X 2 days = 2400 thousand rubles.
1200 thousand rubles. X -2 days = -2400 thousand rubles.
Such a deviation with a “-” sign indicates that inventory needs to be replenished, otherwise the volume of turnover in the next period may be reduced.
And, on the contrary, a deviation with a “+” sign indicates that there are excess inventories. In this case, it is necessary to find out why they arose. If these goods are not sold for a long time, they take up retail space and increase distribution costs. Then it is necessary to take measures to implement them (for example, by setting discounts).
For example, the implementation plan for the year is set at 2 billion rubles. At the same time, markups account for 100 million rubles, and transportation costs – 50 million rubles. When calculating the standard for inventory, turnover at cost in the amount of 1.850 billion rubles is taken into account. (2000–100–50). At the same time, the average daily turnover will be 5.139 million rubles. (1850:360)1.
Another indicator used in calculating the inventory standard is the inventory rate (in days).
The current part of the total inventory norm depends on the frequency or interval of deliveries of the corresponding type of materials. Since for different types of materials the intervals between adjacent deliveries are not the same, inventory standards are established differentially - for each type (group) of material resources. Considering the continuous rotation of supplies various materials, half of the average duration of the period between deliveries is taken as the current stock norm.
Along with the current stock norm, the safety stock is calculated, which is necessary for uninterrupted supply to consumers in the event of possible delays in regular deliveries. If necessary, a preparatory stock norm is provided.
In cases where the stock norm for individual groups of materials is not calculated (due to the high labor intensity of such work with a wide range), its actual value for the previous year is taken as the stock norm. Based on inventory norms, for individual groups of materials the weighted average inventory norm is determined for the total material balances located in the warehouses of a commercial organization.
IN necessary cases To the calculated inventory norm, the norm (in days) for goods in transit and for unregistered shipments is added. Such standards are established as a whole for the total balance of inventory items, and not for individual groups.
Many trade organizations pay settlement documents for purchased goods before they arrive. At the same time, investments are made in the remaining goods in transit. For such investments, commercial organizations need working capital, which is provided as part of the stock norm of goods, which is determined in the amount of the average daily advance of payment deadlines for settlement documents - in comparison with the timing of receipt of goods at the warehouse of a commercial organization.
To establish the norm for investments in unregistered shipments, it is necessary to determine the weighted average duration between the release of inventory items and the provision of settlement documents to the bank. Deviations of actual balances from the established inventory standards are natural. This means that if for one particular date a deviation of the balance from the standard is detected, then one should not make hasty conclusions about the state of inventories. To justify the assessment of their condition in comparison with the standard, data on the actual average value of inventories as of several reporting dates should be used and their deviations from the standard should be identified.
The standard for low-value and high-wear items is intended to create the necessary reserves of equipment, tools, devices and workwear. When establishing a standard for these values, they usually proceed from their average actual balances in the past period, excluding excess and unnecessary ones. Considering that low-value and wearable items are in storage or in operation, the standard is determined in the amount of their total value. It is taken into account that when transferring low-value and wearable items from the warehouse into operation, part of their cost (in most cases - 50%) is considered costs. The standard for such items is established based on actual balances, minus wear and tear.
When determining the standard for this species Inventories can take into account the increase in the need for low-value and high-wear items due to increased sales. In this case, the norm is calculated working capital for low-value and wearable items in the past year in rubles per 1 thousand rubles. warehouse sales. This norm is multiplied by the planned volume for the coming year.
Standards for other regulated assets, including auxiliary materials, spare parts (for own needs), fuel, are established, as a rule, in the same manner as for low-value and wearable items.
The source of covering the organization’s needs for working capital can be not only its own, but also funds equivalent to them (the so-called “stable liabilities”). These funds do not belong to this organization, but are constantly in its circulation. This is mainly part of the arrears in wages and social insurance payments. If the issuance deadlines wages are set on the 5th and 20th of each month, then minimum amount the debt on the day of the next payment will be in this example a 5-day wage fund.
The source of formation of excess inventory is credit. The exception is cases when the formation of such reserves is caused by shortcomings in the activities of commercial organizations (for example, failure to fulfill the supply plan as a result of the production or import of goods that are not needed by consumers).
Standard reserves of other material assets (packaging, auxiliary, repair and technical and other materials) and deferred expenses are covered only by own working capital.
When increasing reserve standards, a commercial organization provides necessary funds to increase standards. Typically, such growth is provided from profits and by increasing the amounts of stable liabilities. Using profit as the main source of growth in standards increases the interest of commercial organizations in fulfilling the plan for this indicator.
Inventory management of material assets contributes to accelerating the turnover of working capital. Great importance for inventory management has an indicator of their planned value. If increased (compared to the plan) balances are formed, then measures are taken to reduce them to the level provided for by the plan. In this case, various measures may be taken, including limiting the purchase, production of relevant goods or materials accumulated in excess of the planned value.
2. Sources of formation of working capital of trading enterprises.
When deciding on the conditions for providing enterprises with the necessary working capital, the features of the production cycle and product sales are taken into account, which determine the nature of changes in the need for funds, as well as the satisfaction of this need from two sources: own working capital and borrowed funds provided in the form of short-term bank loans. The permanent, irreducible part of working capital consists of own funds, and temporarily increased needs for funds are covered by credit.
The consistency and depth of the analysis of retail trade turnover depend on the goals and objectives facing the analyst and the availability of the necessary information.
The retail turnover of a trading enterprise is integral part turnover of the city (district) and to a certain extent covers the purchasing funds of the population. Therefore, if the necessary data is available, the turnover of an enterprise is studied in conjunction with an analysis of the development of the city’s turnover and the purchasing power of the population. The share occupied by the analyzed enterprise in the total turnover of the city is determined in order to identify its importance in meeting the demand for goods of the city population.
If an enterprise sets for itself planned (forecast) indicators for the volume of sales of goods, then the percentage of their implementation, the absolute amount of overfulfillment or underfulfillment of planned values is determined as the difference between the actual and planned values. Let's show this with an example (Table 4.1).
According to the table. 4.1 the enterprise has successfully fulfilled the retail turnover plan. In excess of the plan, goods were sold for 2928 thousand rubles, or 7.9%. The plan was fulfilled in all periods of the year, including in the fourth quarter, where implementation was 100.0%, although there was an underfulfillment of 4 thousand rubles. Compared to last year, there is an increase in trade turnover everywhere, especially in the second quarter - the growth rate was
Table 4.1. Fulfillment of the retail turnover plan, thousand rubles.
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Periods of the year |
Reporting year |
Deviation |
Growth rate, % |
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% plan completion |
from last year |
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1st quarter |
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II quarter |
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Total for 1st half of the year |
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III quarter |
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Total for 9 months |
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IV quarter |
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Total for the second half of the year |
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In just a year |
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153.1%. In general, trade turnover increased by 11,759 thousand rubles, or 41.7%.
Analysis of retail turnover should be carried out not only in comparison with the plan and data of the previous year, but also over a number of years.
Analysis of the dynamics of retail trade turnover allows us to study the process of development of trade turnover over time. The indicators of the reporting period are compared with data for several previous years in current and comparable prices. The analysis is carried out by calculating such dynamics indicators as absolute growth, growth rates, growth, the absolute value of 1% growth (Table 4.2).
The average annual absolute increase in retail turnover based on the accumulated absolute increase amounted to 6309.2 thousand rubles. (25,237:4). It can also be determined based on annual absolute increases:
(3118 + 4868 + 5492 + 11,759): 4 = 6309.2 thousand rubles.
The absolute value of 1% growth is equal to the quotient of the chain absolute growth divided by the chain growth rate. For the second year it amounted to 147.1 thousand rubles. (3118:21.2); for the third year - 178.3 thousand rubles. (4868:27.3), etc. by year.
From the data in table. 4.2 shows that the development of the enterprise’s turnover is occurring at a high pace. Basic annual themes-
Table 4.2. Turnover of the enterprise for 5 years (in current prices)
|
Retail turnover, thousand rubles. |
Absolute increase, thousand rubles. |
Growth rate, % |
Growth rate, % |
Absolute value 1% increase, thousand rubles. |
||||
|
basic |
basic |
basic |
||||||
|
Fourth |
||||||||
The growth rates indicate a constant increase in sales volumes. The dynamics of the enterprise's turnover are clearly illustrated graphically (Fig. 4.1).
Rice. 4.1.
When analyzing the dynamics of trade turnover, it is necessary to determine and study the average annual rate of its growth. It can be calculated using the geometric mean formula:
Where T - average annual growth rate of the studied indicator; x, - the studied indicator in the reporting period; x () - the studied indicator in the base period;
P - number of periods;
(P- 1) - number of periods, excluding the base period. The average annual growth rate of turnover of the analyzed enterprise was:
/39928 = 4/2 718 = 1.284, or 128.4%.
The average annual growth rate of trade turnover can also be calculated using the geometric mean, multiplying the chain growth rates, and extracting the root from the product, the degree of which is equal to the number of rates.
The formula will look like this:
T =^T X xG, x... X T",
Where T- chain growth rates expressed in coefficients; P- number of tempos.
The average annual growth rate of trade turnover for the enterprise was:
T = VI.212 x 1.273 x 1.242 x 1.417 = 1.284, or 128.4%.
In conditions of inflation, the rate of change in the volume of trade turnover should also be calculated in comparable prices, that is, in prices of the base year (Table 4.3). Recalculation of trade turnover is carried out according to the formula
N=N /
1 T S.Ts 1 t f.ts * ?*Ts?
where SP SC is trade turnover in comparable prices;
Lf.ts - trade turnover in actual prices;
/ c - retail price index.
Table 4.3. Trade turnover of the enterprise in actual and comparable prices
Compared to last year, trade turnover in comparable prices increased by 9043 thousand rubles, or by 32.1%, for
due to sales growth. Due to an increase in retail prices in the reporting year by 7.3%, trade turnover increased by 2,716 thousand rubles. (39,928 - 37,212). The total increase in trade turnover amounted to 11,759 thousand rubles. (9043 + 2716).
Data on trade turnover over time are also used to analyze seasonal fluctuations aimed at identifying the seasonal wave.
Seasonality of trade turnover is a complex socio-economic phenomenon. It is constantly changing: periods of increase and decrease in sales volume shift, and the degree of fluctuation of the seasonal wave changes. Studying the conditions for the formation of seasonality in trade and the ability to predict it is necessary for a scientifically based calculation of trade turnover by quarter and month.
Exist various methods, with the help of which the seasonality of trade turnover is analyzed. The simplest and most reliable is relative average method. For calculations, it is necessary to use data on quarterly (monthly) turnover for at least 3 years. In this case, calculations can be carried out in current prices and in comparable ones. The influence of the price index at this method leveled out.
Let's consider the sequence of calculations using the relative average method based on trade turnover data by quarter for 3 years (Table 4.4).
Table 4.4. Enterprise turnover by quarter for the last 3 years
|
Trade turnover, thousand rubles |
Quarterly data as a percentage of the annual average |
|||||
|
First year |
second year |
third year |
in just 3 years |
on average for 3 years |
||
The first step in the calculation is the summation of quarterly data on trade turnover for 3 years, which is reflected in gr. 5 tables. On this basis, in gr. 6 calculates the average turnover volumes by quarter and for the year as a whole (90,774: 12 = 7564).
In gr. 7 gives the relative values (percentages) of quarterly data to the average annual turnover:
I sq.^-x 100 = 91,3 % 7564
etc. by quarter.
These are seasonality indices, or seasonal wave indicators. From the table 4.4 (column 7) shows that the increase occurs starting from the third quarter and especially in the fourth quarter.
With a significant increase in trade turnover from year to year, in order to more accurately identify seasonality, it is necessary to apply preliminary leveling of actual data and then calculate the seasonal wave, but not from a constant (annual average) average, but from the leveled data.
The results of the analysis of seasonality of trade turnover can be used in planning. The volume of trade turnover by quarter for the planned year is determined by multiplying the average quarterly trade turnover of the planned year by the seasonality index of the corresponding quarter and dividing by 100.
One of the tasks of retail trade turnover is to study its uniformity and rhythm.
When considering the data in Table. 4.1 it was noted that the implementation of the turnover plan by quarter was uneven. To assess the uniformity of the implementation of the turnover plan, it is necessary to calculate the standard deviation (5), the coefficient of variation (V) and uniformity coefficient (AG equal) according to the formulas:
where x is turnover by quarter (or growth rate):
x - average quarterly turnover (or annual growth rate);
P - number of quarters.
In table 4.5 shows the calculation of the uniformity of implementation of the turnover plan.
Table 4.5. Calculation of the degree of uniformity in the implementation of the turnover plan for the reporting year
We substitute the found amounts into the formula and find the standard deviation:
^ 153,78
The obtained result means: with an average implementation of the turnover plan for the year of 107.9%, the average deviation is 6.2%.
The coefficient of variation (unevenness) in the implementation of the retail trade turnover plan by quarter of the reporting year for the enterprise is equal to:
The uniformity coefficient was: 100- V- 100 -5,7 = = 94,3 %.
Thus, the implementation of the turnover plan was uniform - 94.3%.
The standard deviation, coefficient of variation and coefficient of uniformity also make it possible to study the uniformity of development of trade turnover by periods of the year (Table 4.6).
Turnover was unevenly distributed across quarters, especially last year. If the difference between the minimum and maximum share last year was 8.6%, then in the reporting year it was 4.8%. The coefficient of uniformity of distribution of trade turnover by quarter based on absolute values last year was 86.4%, in the reporting year - 91.2%.
Consequently, in the reporting year, the development of trade turnover by quarter was more uniform than last year.
Table 4.6. Uniformity of development of the enterprise's turnover
For clarity, according to the data in table. 4.6 you can build a graph (Fig. 4.2).
O Last year? Reporting year
Quarters
Rice. 4.2. Uniformity of trade turnover development
The rhythm of trade turnover refers to the correspondence of its actual volume to the planned volume for each period of time within the period provided for by the operational plan. In retail trade, especially food products, the amount of turnover for the corresponding days of the week is relatively constant, but there are fluctuations in sales volume by day (for example, on holidays). These fluctuations must be taken into account in operational planning.
Therefore, rhythmic work does not necessarily mean the same amount of sales during a certain calendar period. An equal volume of trade turnover in equal periods of time is characterized by an indicator of uniformity. The rhythmicity indicator indicates the degree to which the established plan is fulfilled within the scheduled time frame. If the operational plan provides for an unequal volume of trade turnover at equal intervals of time, then if the actual trade turnover corresponds to the established one or if it exceeds it, the implementation of the plan is considered rhythmic.
A general idea of the rhythm of trade turnover is given by the percentage of plan fulfillment for five days (decades) for each of them separately or cumulatively from the beginning of the month, and the plan for a five-day period is taken in the amount of */ 6 months. At the same time, it is quite possible that the turnover plan for a certain period was fulfilled, but was not fulfilled for certain days.
Sometimes the share of decades in the total sales volume for a month is determined. At the same time, it is believed that if the turnover in each decade is equal to "/ 3 monthly volumes, then the enterprise worked rhythmically, and if a significant part of the turnover falls on the last decade, then it is irregular. This method is simple, but not sufficient for a general assessment of the rhythm of turnover.
It does not take into account that there may be an unequal number of working days in decades; if the enterprise has weekends, holidays are not taken into account. It is more correct to compare the actual share of trade turnover over ten days with the planned one.
However, when calculating specific gravity turnover for each ten-day period, three indicators are obtained, which makes it difficult to compare the rhythm of the enterprise’s work based on monthly results, not to mention comparisons over a longer period. Therefore, when studying the rhythm of trade turnover, especially of several enterprises, it is necessary to calculate an indicator that allows such a comparison. You should also calculate and study the average rhythmicity indicators for a month, quarter and compare them over time.
When calculating indicators of the rhythm of retail trade turnover, various data are used (the number of days of plan implementation, the share of trade turnover for a five-day period, a decade in a monthly total, the volume of trade turnover in total terms, and either daily sales data is taken, or for a five-day period or a decade as a whole). The calculated indicators of the rhythm of trade turnover will have different meanings.
As a preliminary indication of the state of the rhythm of trade turnover, a coefficient is sometimes used, expressed as the ratio of the number of days on which the plan was fulfilled or exceeded, to the total number of working days in the period. This indicator establishes only the fact of rhythmicity or irregularity. According to it, one cannot strictly approach the assessment of rhythm, since there is no difference between fulfilling the turnover plan, for example, by 50% and by 99%.
Most other indicators of rhythm are calculated in the same way as in industry they determine the average percentage of plan fulfillment for an assortment (actual fulfillment is taken, but not higher than planned). These indicators cannot exceed 100% (or one), and the lower they are 100% (one), the more irregular the work. A rhythmicity indicator equal to 100% (one) indicates daily fulfillment and overfulfillment of the plan.
Let's consider the calculation of indicators of the rhythm of trade turnover for conditional example(Table 4.7).
Table 4. 7. Retail turnover by ten days of the month
|
Trade turnover, thousand rubles |
Share of decades, % |
Quantity |
Number of days of fulfillment and overfulfillment of the plan |
||||
|
actually |
% completed |
actually |
|||||
The rhythmicity coefficient of trade turnover for the month as a whole, based on the number of days of fulfillment and overfulfillment, will be as follows (according to columns 7 and 8):
K = - = 0.387. r 31
Another method can be used. If we accept conditionally, as is done in practice, the planned trade turnover in each ten-day period as 33.3% of the monthly total (without taking into account the number of working days in ten-day periods), then the rhythmicity coefficient according to the data in gr. 6 will be like this:
The calculation of the rhythmicity coefficient is more accurate, taking into account the number of working days in decades (groups 5 and 6):
The indicators 0.953 and 0.974 were determined based on the specific weights of the commodity turnover of decades in monthly volume. The rhythmicity coefficient calculated by the same method for the turnover of decades in absolute terms (columns 2 and 3) is:
The calculated indicators of rhythm have different meanings, so it is difficult to say which one more accurately characterizes it. In addition, they are calculated based on monthly reporting data, which is not enough for operational control. Operational analysis should characterize the implementation of the plan within shorter periods (for decades, five days, days).
To ensure rhythm, operational accounting and control are very important. Having daily data, you can determine the rhythmicity indicator for any period of time.
The most acceptable here is the rhythmicity coefficient recommended for trade enterprises.
It is determined by the formula
where K p is the coefficient of rhythm of trade turnover for a certain period (in fractions of a unit);
Ф - daily absolute or relative (expressed as a percentage) amount of plan implementation within the limits not exceeding the planned target;
P is the daily absolute or relative value of the implementation of the target plan (each relative value is taken as 100, the denominator is 100/7).
The calculation of the turnover rhythm coefficient using this method is given in Table. 4.8.
Table 4.8. Retail turnover for the first ten days of the month
|
Trade turnover by day, thousand rubles. |
% completed |
Counts into the indicator of the rhythm of trade turnover |
|||
|
actually |
by amount, thousand rubles. |
by % of plan completion |
|||
Note. The daily turnover plan was determined (as is often customary in practice) by dividing the monthly turnover plan by the number of working days in the month. In this case: 4100: 31 = 132.3.
Based on the daily sales amounts (groups 2 and 5), the rhythmicity coefficient is equal to:
1200.7 r_ 1323
This indicator can be calculated based on trade turnover in relative terms. To do this, sum up the percentage of plan fulfillment for all decades (if the plan is exceeded, 100% is taken into account for that day) and divide by the number of days of the period, multiplied by 100. The rhythmicity coefficient based on the percentage of plan fulfillment for each day (column 6) will be as follows :
K = 907 '6 = 0.908.
The rhythmicity indicator of 0.908 differs from those calculated earlier (0.387, 0.953, 0.974, 0.979) and is more accurate, since it was determined using daily sales data. At the same time, indicators of the rhythm of trade turnover for the first decade indicate the presence of reserves for its increase, since the level of plan implementation in this decade was relatively low.
Using the rhythm coefficient, you can determine the amount of underfulfilled turnover due to a violation of rhythm for any period of time (five days, ten days, month, etc.). It is defined as the difference between EP - EF 1. In our example, it amounted to 122.3 thousand rubles. (1323 - 1200.7), and in fractions of one - 0.092 (1 -0.908). The difference between the actual turnover within the plan (EF 1) is the amount of exceeding the plan for individual days, equal to 35.8 thousand rubles. (1236.5 - 1200.7). In fractions of one it was 0.026 (0.934 - 0.908), where 0.934 is the level of plan implementation in fractions of one.
Exceeding the turnover plan is not taken into account when calculating the rhythm coefficient in our example. In that distinctive feature this indicator from some others recommended in the economic literature, in particular “arrhythmia numbers”. Here, a violation of rhythm is considered to be deviations from the plan in one direction or another.
Exceeding the turnover plan, which is what every enterprise is interested in, means improving the supply of the population (subject to the established assortment) and contributes to the growth of gross income. This retail differs from industry, where production of products beyond the plan is not always justified, since it receives public recognition only after implementation.
At comparative analysis the rhythm of trade turnover over a number of periods (for individual enterprises), these indicators must be used together with data on the level of implementation of the trade turnover plan. With the same rhythm coefficients, it is considered preferable to work where the percentage of fulfillment of the turnover plan is higher.
When quickly analyzing the implementation of the turnover plan, it is advisable to calculate ten-day and monthly rhythm indicators for each division of the enterprise. This makes it possible to more accurately evaluate their work and identify innovate experience for the purpose of distributing it.
An important section of the analysis of retail trade turnover is its study by composition: forms of payment, organizational and legal forms, forms of service and assortment.
Retail turnover by sales form is analyzed with the division, as a rule, for the sale of goods for cash and non-cash payments, as well as on credit (in enterprises selling non-food products). Retail turnover is also detailed by organizational forms and forms of customer service. During the analysis process, it is important to establish the effectiveness of new forms and methods of trading. To do this, it is necessary to compare the indicators before transferring to new uniform trade and after transfer.
The analysis is carried out in absolute (cost) and relative terms. A relative indicator, in particular, is the share of individual types of sales in the total volume of retail turnover. The study of the sale of goods to the public on credit, in addition, is carried out using natural meters.
The study of retail turnover by product structure is directly related to the assessment of customer demand satisfaction. Analyzing the structure of trade turnover, it is necessary to calculate the share of sales of individual goods in the total volume of trade turnover for the year (quarter), to establish the dynamics of the sale of individual goods over a number of years.
The analysis of the structure of trade turnover is presented in a table indicating the product groups occupying largest share in implementation or the most important of them. The dynamics of sales for individual product groups are studied by compiling a table. 4.9.
Table 4.9. Analysis of the structure of the enterprise's turnover
|
Commodity |
Last year |
Reporting year |
Deviation |
Growth rate, % |
|||
|
amount, thousand rubles |
specific gravity, % |
amount, thousand rubles |
specific gravity, % |
amount, thousand rubles |
specific gravity, % |
||
Retail sales of all groups of goods (except for group B) are growing at a high rate, especially group B. The uneven development of retail trade turnover in terms of assortment dynamics has led to a change in its structure. Thus, compared to last year, the share of groups B and D in the turnover increased, while the share of other product groups decreased accordingly.
The study of the structure of retail turnover must be carried out not only for the year, but also by quarter. This will allow us to more deeply analyze the satisfaction of customer demand for individual goods at different periods of the year. For goods of a complex assortment, it is advisable to analyze the intragroup structure based on analytical accounting data and sample data on the movement of goods. Having analyzed the structure of sales of goods, it is necessary to determine the factors that influenced the sales structure and calculate their influence.
Analysis of retail turnover is also carried out by divisions of the enterprise - departments, sections, teams, branches. First of all, they study the work of departments with low rates of development of sales of goods and identify the reasons for this situation.
