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1. Political fragmentation of Russia in the XII-XIII centuries. (causes and consequences of fragmentation, the largest principalities and lands). In 1097, princes from different lands gathered in the city of Lyubech Kievan Rus and proclaimed a new principle of relations among themselves: "Let everyone keep his fatherland." Its adoption meant that the princes abandoned the ladder system of succession to princely thrones (it went to the eldest in the entire grand ducal family) and switched to inheriting the throne from father to eldest son within individual lands. By the middle of the XII century. the political fragmentation of the Old Russian state with its center in Kyiv was already a fait accompli. It is believed that the introduction of the principle adopted in Lyubech was a factor in the collapse of Kievan Rus. However, not the only and not the most important. Political fragmentation was inevitable.

What were her reasons? During the 11th century Russian lands developed in an ascending line: the population grew, the economy grew stronger, large princely and boyar land ownership increased, cities grew rich. They were less and less dependent on Kyiv and were burdened by his guardianship. To maintain order within his "fatherland", the prince had enough strength and power. Local boyars and cities supported their princes in their quest for independence: they were closer, more closely connected with them, better able to protect their interests. External reasons were added to the internal ones. The Polovtsy raids weakened the southern Russian lands, the population left the restless lands for the northeastern (Vladimir, Suzdal) and southwestern (Galic, Volyn) outskirts. The princes of Kyiv were weakening in the military and economic sense, their authority and influence in solving all-Russian affairs were falling.

The negative consequences of the political fragmentation of Russia are concentrated in the military-strategic area: the defense capability has weakened in the face of external threats, inter-princely feuds have intensified. But fragmentation also had positive aspects. The isolation of the lands contributed to their economic and cultural development. The collapse of a single state did not mean a complete loss of principles that united the Russian lands.

2. In the middle of the XII century. Kievan Rus is an amorphous formation without a single, clearly fixed center of gravity. Political polycentrism dictates new rules of the game. Three centers stand out: North-Eastern Russia (Vladimir-Suzdal land), South-Western Russia (Galicia-Volyn principality) and North-Western Russia (Novgorod Republic). Relations between these centers during this period resemble interstate rather than intrastate. Military clashes were also frequent with the participation of a nomadic tribe - the Polovtsy. The formation of the Russian state continued to a greater extent on the territory of the Vladimir-Suzdal principality than all the others. During the early feudal monarchy, people fled to these places in order to ensure their safety. Dense forests reliably sheltered the fugitives. Plowing was possible only in certain areas, but gardening, hunting, and beekeeping developed. The principality was ruled by the descendants of Yuri Dolgoruky, the youngest son of Vladimir Monomakh. In their submission were the old Russian cities: Rostov, Suzdal, Murom. The descendants of Yuri Dolgoruky faced the problem of the boyar freemen, his son Andrei Bogolyubsky fell victim to a conspiracy of a rebellious environment. However, the brother of Prince Andrei, Vsevolod the Big Nest, thanks to diplomacy, corrected the situation in his favor. The territory of the Galicia-Volyn principality bordered on Poland and the Czech Republic. It was a fertile agricultural land, more than once becoming a bone of contention. The region reached its apogee of political influence under Prince Daniel Romanovich (1221–1264). The prince used all sorts of diplomatic tricks to maintain the independence of his fiefdom from the Mongolotatars, resorting to the help of the Polish king. But he still had to recognize vassal dependence on them. Northwestern Russia could not boast of a warm climate. On the contrary, harsh climatic conditions made arable farming impossible. But crafts and trade in furs, honey, and wax flourished. Novgorodians planted vegetables and fished. In the markets of Novgorod one could hear different speeches and see representatives of all religions. This rich land was also distinguished by a special political structure: it was a feudal republic. The city was ruled by a posadnik, he was assisted by a military leader, nicknamed the thousandth. The archbishop was in charge of religious affairs. The prince, if there was a need for military force, was invited from among the most powerful secular rulers. As a rule, this was a prince from the Vladimir land, which received the label of a grand principality under the Mongol Tatar conquerors.

6. The conquest of Russia by the Mongol-Tatars. Mongol-Tatar yoke and its consequences.

AT early XIII in. the Mongols develop a strong state, which is headed by Genghis Khan, on May 31, 1223, the first clash of the Mongols with the Russians took place on the Kalka River. Due to inconsistency in the actions of the princes, the Russian squads were defeated. Russia was going through a period of political fragmentation, and the chance to join forces in the face of the impending danger was missed. In 1235, at the congress of the Golden Horde nobility, it was decided to march on Russia, which was led by Genghis Khan's grandson Batu. The best commanders were given to him as assistants - Subedei, Jebe. The Ryazan principality was the first to be attacked. This happened in 1237. Vladimir Prince Yuri Vsevolodovich did not provide assistance to the people of Ryazan. Despite heroic resistance, the Ryazan land was completely devastated. Then Batu moved to Vladimir, ruined Kolomna and Moscow, took Vladimir. The main battle took place on the City River on March 4, 1238. In this battle, the Russian army was destroyed, Prince Yuri of Vladimir was killed, and Batu moved to Novgorod. Before reaching 100 versts to it, in the area of ​​Torzhok, the Mongols turned south, fearing a spring thaw. On the way back, they had to overcome the stubborn resistance of the "evil city" of Kozelsk. In 1239, Batu undertook a new campaign, this time to the south. In the autumn of 1240, after stubborn resistance, Kyiv fell, the defense of which was led by the governor Dmitry. Bearing the brunt and heroically resisting, Russia saved Western Europe from a dangerous aggressor. Since 1240, a yoke was established in Russia for 240 years - a system of political and economic domination. The population was heavily taxed, the Tatars brutally suppressed the uprisings, and made sure that the Russians did not arm themselves. Russian princes were obliged to travel to the Horde to receive a label for the right to reign. Simultaneously with the Golden Horde invasion of the Russian people in the XIII century. had to fight against the German and Swedish invaders. Novgorod was famous for its wealth and attracted aggressors. The Swedes were the first to unleash it in the summer of 1240. They approached the river Neva on ships. Izhora and landed on the shore. The 18-year-old Novgorod prince Alexander Yaroslavovich with his retinue made a lightning-fast transition from Novgorod and suddenly attacked the camp of the Swedes (the leader of the Swedes was Birger). The success was complete, Alexander became known as Nevsky. In the same 1240, the German knights also undertook a campaign against Russia. First, they captured the Pskov fortress of Izborsk, and then captured Pskov itself. The threat hung over Novgorod. The rebuff to the enemy was led by Alexander Nevsky. He carefully prepares, collects the Novgorod militia, waits for reinforcements from other Russian lands. Using the method of small but victorious battles, he achieves the transfer of the strategic initiative into his own hands and in the spring of 1242 liberates Pskov from the Germans. On April 5, 1242, a great battle took place on the ice of Lake Peipsi, where the main forces of the German order were defeated. The German army was built in the form of a wedge (the Russians called it "pig"), the tip of which was turned towards the enemy. The enemy's tactic was to dismember the Russian army and then destroy it piece by piece. Anticipating this, Alexander built his army in such a way that the most powerful forces were on the flanks, and not in the center. The knight's wedge broke through the center of the Russians, but was seized, like pincers, by the Russian flanks. A fierce hand-to-hand fight began. Ice cracked under the weight of knightly armor, the Germans began to sink. The remnants of the Germans fled, the Russians pursued them for seven miles. German losses amounted to 500 people. This battle stopped the German aggressive advance to the east, Northern Russia retained its independence.

7. The struggle of North-Western Russia against the aggression of German and Swedish feudal lords in the 13th century. Alexander Nevskiy.

1. The tornado of the Batu invasion threw Russia far back in its development, economic and cultural. Grads and villages lay in ruins, tens of thousands of inhabitants fell under the Horde sabers; others were taken captive on the lasso, and they ended up in slave markets, in the service of new masters, in craft workshops or in the Horde tumens to enrich the khans, murzas and ordinary Horde residents, serve their ambitious goals, decorate their homes and cities. Russia, by its tragic struggle and feat, saved Western Europe from a pogrom similar to what it itself suffered. When the Russian lands lay in ruins, far away, they continued to accumulate wealth and create masterpieces. When, for example, the Church of the Tithes collapsed in Kyiv, the construction of the amazing, airy Saint Chapel on the Ile de la Cité was being completed in Paris, which still amazes with its beauty everyone who sees it in the courtyard of the Palace of Justice. The tragic grandeur of the feat accomplished by Russia is undoubtedly for the civilization of Europe. She repaid her by sending her conquerors to her borders. The appearance of the Germans in the eastern part of the Baltic states dates back to the second half of the 12th century. At first they were merchants and Christian missionaries. Following them, the crusader knights appeared, striving no longer with a cross, but with a sword to conquer new lands. The beginning of active German expansion in the Eastern Baltic is associated with the name of Bishop Albert. He founded the city of Riga at the mouth of the Dvina and brought many German colonists there. In 1202 Albert founded a military-religious organization in the Baltic States - the Order of the Knights of the Sword (Sword-bearers), modeled on the military orders created by the crusaders in Palestine. The Russian princes of the Principality of Polotsk, whose sphere of influence included the Eastern Baltic, did not pay serious attention to the first stage of German colonization. They became concerned only when the aliens set up stone castles and fortresses there. In 1203-1206. Prince Vladimir of Polotsk tried to drive the Germans out of their fortresses, but to no avail. The culmination of this confrontation was the unsuccessful siege by the Russians of the fortresses of Golm and Riga. The defeat of Vladimir allowed the German knights to stand firm in the Baltics. Thanks to weapons and military tactics, relatively small detachments of German knights were able to achieve significant success in battles with the Baltic tribes. In the same period, the Swedes established themselves in Finland. Now the aggressors sought to cut off the Slavs from the sea and achieve complete control over the trade routes through the Baltic. Here it is appropriate to add that the defeat of Constantinople by the crusaders in 1204. sharply aggravated the conflict between Catholicism and Orthodoxy. Thus, the materially constrained Western chivalry received a new justification for its seizures in the east of Europe, which were seen as a struggle for the conversion of pagans to Christianity. Now heretics, i.e. Orthodox, could also act as "converts". Ancient Russia becomes an object of military-spiritual expansion, coordinated from the center of the then Western world - Catholic Rome. For the Roman Church, the expanses of the Russian Plain represented not only a desirable field for missionary activity, but also a huge potential source of financial income (in the form of church fees, donations, indulgences, etc.). The main object of the western onslaught was the northwestern lands of Russia, where the possessions of the Novgorod Republic were located. Russian-Swedish-German wars of the XIII century. on the northwestern borders of Russia can be divided into three stages. The first stage is connected with the German onslaught on the Slavic city of Yuryev in 1224. The second was marked by a bilateral Swedish-German onslaught in 1240-1242. The third stage took the second half of the 13th century. The first object of German expansion into the East Slavic lands was the city of Yuryev (now Tartu), founded by Yaroslav the Wise. Yuryev with its surroundings remained the last region of the Peipus Land not conquered by the Germans. All the Baltic inhabitants who did not want to submit to the power of the crusaders found protection here. In August 1224 Yuriev was besieged by an army of German knights. The city was defended by 200 Russian soldiers led by Prince Vyachko, as well as local residents. It should be noted that the time for the attack was chosen well, since just a year before that, the armed forces of the ancient Russian principalities were defeated by the Mongols on the Kalka River in 1223. and even if they wanted to, they would not be able to organize a strong rebuff to the new aggressor. Having laid siege to Yuriev, the crusaders built a wooden tower nearby, from which they fired at the fortress with stones, arrows and red-hot iron, trying to set fire to the fortress walls. But the defenders of the city did not give up and steadfastly repulsed the onslaught. Yuryev Vyachko, who was waiting for help from the Novgorodians, refused the offer to leave freely. Then the Germans went on the attack, but were repulsed. Encouraged by the success, the defenders of Yuryev made a sortie, trying to destroy the wooden tower that brought them so much trouble. They rolled red-hot wheels out of the fortress and tried to set fire to the tower. A fierce battle flared up around her. Meanwhile, taking advantage of the distraction of the besieged forces, some of the knights again rushed to attack the fortress. Having overcome the shaft, they climbed the walls and burst inside. The rest of the army followed them. In the ensuing massacre, the defenders of Yuriev (including Vyachko) were destroyed. Of all the men who were in the city, the Germans saved the life of only one, gave him a horse and sent him to Novgorod to announce their victory. Thus fell the last stronghold of the Russians in the Baltics, which has since received a new name - Derpt. The further history of repulsing the onslaught of the knights on the northwestern borders is connected with the significant assistance provided to the Novgorodians by Vladimir-Suzdal Rus. Its princes took an active part in the defense of their northern neighbors. In the winter of 1234 Prince Yaroslav Vsevolodovich came to the aid of Novgorod with his son Alexander. The united Russian squads attacked the crusaders near the Emajõge River (in the vicinity of Yuryev). Many knights who tried to cross the river fell through the ice and drowned. After that, the crusaders were forced to make peace with Novgorod. After 2years, the Germanknights were defeated by the Lithuanians in the battle of Siauliai. It seemed that the right time was coming to deliver another blow to the crusaders and put an end to their dominance in the Baltics forever. However, the Russians did not take advantage of the given chance and did not join forces with the Lithuanians, with whom they were then at enmity. Soon the invasion of Batu began, which for a long time deprived the Russians of the opportunity to deal with the formidable and dangerous western enemy.

8 Reasons for the rise of Moscow. The beginning of the unification of Russian lands around the Moscow principality in the 14th century.

1. Reasons for the rise of Moscow: 1. Some advantages were in the geographical position: important trade routes passed through Moscow, it had relatively fertile lands that attracted the working population and boyars, and was protected from the raids of individual Mongolian detachments by forests. (V.O. Klyuchevsky) (See the article in the reader Klyuchevsky V.O. about the reasons for the rise of Moscow) But similar conditions existed in Tver, which stood on the Volga and was even further from the Golden Horde. 2. Moscow was the spiritual center of the Russian lands, but it became so after the first victories in the struggle for the right to lead the unification process. 3. The main role was played by the policy of the Moscow princes and their personal qualities. Having staked on an alliance with the Horde and continuing in this respect the line of Alexander Nevsky, realizing the role of the church in the conditions of the Horde's departure from the policy of religious tolerance, the Moscow princes of the first half of the 14th century. used all means to achieve their goals. As a result, humiliating themselves before the Khan and brutally suppressing the anti-Horde uprisings, enriching themselves and collecting Russian land bit by bit, they managed to elevate their principality and create conditions both for uniting the lands and for entering into an open struggle with the Horde. There are other theories as well. For example, the famous scientist A.A. Zimin believed that the reasons for Moscow's victory in the struggle for leadership were the creation of a strong service army and the features of the colonization process, which favorably influenced the development of new areas.

9. Ivan III. Formation of the Russian state.

1. Domestic policy: The cherished goal of Ivan III was to collect lands around Moscow, to put an end to the remnants of specific disunity for the sake of creating a single state. The wife of Ivan III, Sophia Paleolog, in every possible way supported her husband's desire to expand the Muscovite state and strengthen autocratic power. For a century and a half, Moscow extorted tribute from Novgorod, took away land and almost brought the Novgorodians to their knees, for which they hated Moscow. Realizing that Ivan III Vasilyevich finally wants to subjugate the Novgorodians, they freed themselves from the oath to the Grand Duke and formed a society for the salvation of Novgorod, headed by Martha Boretskaya, the widow of the mayor. Novgorod concluded an agreement with Casimir, the King of Poland and the Grand Duke of Lithuania, according to which Novgorod passes under his supreme power, but at the same time, he retains some independence and the right to the Orthodox faith, and Casimir undertakes to protect Novgorod from the encroachments of the Moscow prince. Twice Ivan III Vasilyevich sent ambassadors to Novgorod with good wishes to come to their senses and enter the Moscow lands, the Metropolitan of Moscow tried to convince the Novgorodians to “correct”, but everything is futile. Ivan III had to make a campaign against Novgorod (1471), as a result of which the Novgorodians were defeated first on the Ilmen River, and then Shelon, but Casimir did not come to the rescue. In 1477, Ivan III Vasilievich demanded that Novgorod fully recognize him as his master , which caused a new rebellion, which was crushed. On January 13, 1478, Veliky Novgorod completely submitted to the authority of the Moscow sovereign. In order to finally pacify Novgorod, Ivan III replaced the Novgorod archbishop Theophilus in 1479, moved unreliable Novgorodians to Moscow lands, and settled Muscovites and other residents on their lands. With the help of diplomacy and force, Ivan III Vasilyevich subjugated other specific principalities: Yaroslavl ( 1463), Rostov (1474), Tver (1485), Vyatka lands(1489). Ivan married his sister Anna to the prince of Ryazan, thereby securing the right to interfere in the affairs of Ryazan, and later inherited the city from his nephews. Ivan acted inhumanly with his brothers, taking away their inheritances and depriving them of the right to any participation in affairs. So, Andrei Bolshoy and his sons were arrested and imprisoned. Reforms of Ivan III: Under Ivan III, the design of the title of "Grand Duke of All Russia" began, and in some documents he calls himself the king. For the internal order in the country, Ivan III in 1497 developed a Code of Civil Laws (Sudebnik). The chief judge was the Grand Duke, the highest institution was the Boyar Duma. Mandatory and local government systems appeared. The adoption of the Code of Laws by Ivan III became a prerequisite for the establishment of serfdom in Russia. The law limited the exit of peasants and gave them the right to transfer from one owner to another once a year (St. George's Day). The results of the reign of Ivan III: Under Ivan III, the territory of Russia expanded significantly, Moscow became the center of the Russian centralized state. The era of Ivan III was marked by the final liberation of Russia from the Tatar-Mongol yoke. .

2. A centralized state arises under Ivan III (1462-1505). Under him, Yaroslavl, Rostov, Novgorod, Tver, Vyatka were annexed to Moscow. Ivan III stopped paying tribute to the Great Horde (the largest part of the disintegrated Golden Horde). Khan Akhmat tried to weaken the power of Moscow and moved against her campaign. But after "standing on the Ugra" in 1480, when the Tatars did not dare to attack the Russian regiments, Akhmat retreated to the steppe and died. The Horde yoke has fallen. In 1472, Ivan III married the niece of the emperor of Byzantium, Sophia (Zoya) Palaiologos, and made the Byzantine double-headed eagle the coat of arms of Russia, thus acting as the successor of Byzantium. The foundations of a centralized state apparatus are being formed. Its central bodies were the Boyar Duma and the treasury (office). On the ground - in counties and volosts - governors and volosts ruled. Under Ivan III, there is a mass distribution of land to service people (nobles, boyar children) - the backbone of the army. Ivan III thought about confiscation of church lands for these purposes (secularization), but he did not dare to do this because of the pressure of the clergy. In 1497, the Code of Laws was published - the first all-Russian code of laws. For the first time, he introduced a single period for the whole country for the transition of peasants from masters on St. George's autumn day (a week before and after), subject to the payment of debts and the corresponding duties ("elderly"). Under Vasily III (1505-1533), Moscow captured the last independent centers in Russia - Pskov and Ryazan, which completed the unification of the country. The economic recovery that began under Ivan III continued. The unification of Russia proceeded largely by forceful methods, because the economic prerequisites for it were not fully ripe. Both the nobility and the common people had practically no rights in relation to the Grand Duke (they called themselves his serfs), whose power was limited only by age-old customs.

10. Ivan's reforms 4.

Popular performances in 1547 showed that the country needed reforms to strengthen statehood and centralize power. The nobility expressed particular interest in carrying out reforms. A talented publicist of that time, nobleman Peresvetov, was his peculiar ideologist. Peresvetov's proposals largely anticipated the actions of Ivan 4. Around 1549, around the young Ivan 4, a council of people close to him was formed, called the Chosen Rada. It lasted until 1560 and carried out a series of transformations called the reforms of the mid-16th century.

In January 1547, Ivan 4 came of age. Officially married to the kingdom.

A new organ appeared - the Zemsky Sobor. He met irregularly and dealt with the decision of the most important state. affairs. During the period of interregnums, new tsars were elected at Zemsky Sobors. The first Zemsky Sobor was convened in 1549. He decided to draw up a new code of laws and outlined a program of reforms.

Even before the reforms, certain branches of the state. management, as well as the management of individual territories, began to be entrusted to the boyars. So the first orders appeared - institutions in charge of the branches of the state. management or individual regions of the country. The design of the order system made it possible to centralize the administration of the country.

A unified local management system began to take shape. On the ground, management was transferred into the hands of the labial elders, who were elected from local nobles, zemstvo elders, and city clerks. Thus, in the middle of the 16th century, the apparatus of state power took shape in the form of a class-representative monarchy. The general tendency of the country's centralization necessitated the publication of a new set of laws - Sudebnik (1550). The compilers made changes related to the strengthening of the central government.

Even under Elena Glinskaya, a monetary reform was launched, according to which the Moscow ruble became the main monetary unit of the country. In the middle of the 16th century a single unit of taxation was established for the entire state - a large plow.

The core of the army was the noble militia. For the first time, the "Code of Service" was drawn up. In 1550, a streltsy army was created. Foreigners began to be recruited into the army, the number of which was insignificant. Artillery was reinforced. The Cossacks were involved in carrying out the border service. The rear work was carried out by the "staff" - a militia from among the black-haired, monastic peasants and townspeople.

Localism was limited during military campaigns. In the middle of the 16th century an official reference book was compiled - “The Sovereign Genealogy”, which streamlined local disputes.

In 1551, on the initiative of the tsar and the metropolitan, a cathedral of the Russian church was created, which received the name Stoglavy. It was decided to leave in the hands of the church all the lands acquired by it before the Stoglavy Cathedral. In the future, the church could buy land and receive it as a gift only with royal permission.

The reforms of the 50s of the 16th century contributed to the strengthening of the Russian centralized multinational state. They strengthened the power of the king, led to the reorganization of local and central government, and strengthened the military power of the country.

11. Foreign policy of Ivan 4: tasks and main directions.

The foreign policy of Ivan IV was carried out in three directions: in the west - the struggle for access to the Baltic Sea; in the southeast and east - the struggle with the Kazan and Astrakhan khanates and the beginning of the development of Siberia; in the south - the protection of Russian lands from the raids of the Crimean Khanate. Tatar khans made predatory raids on Russian lands. On the territories of the Kazan and Astrakhan khanates, there were thousands of Russian people in captivity, captured during the raids. The local population was brutally exploited - the Chuvash, Mari, Udmurts, Mordovians, Tatars, Bashkirs. The Volga route ran through the territories of the khanates, but the Volga could not be used by the Russian people throughout its entire length. Russian landowners were also attracted by the fertile sparsely populated lands of these regions.

First, Ivan the Terrible took diplomatic steps aimed at subjugating the Kazan Khanate, but they did not bring good luck. In 1552, the 100,000th army of the Russian Tsar besieged Kazan. It was better armed than the Tatar. The artillery of Ivan IV had 150 large cannons. Using a tunnel and barrels of gunpowder, the Russians blew up the walls of Kazan. The Kazan Khanate recognized itself defeated. The peoples of the Middle Volga region became part of the Russian state. In 1556 Ivan the Terrible conquered the Astrakhan Khanate. From this period, the entire Volga region was the territory of Russia. The free Volga trade route significantly improved the terms of trade with the East.

In the middle of the XVI century. Russia included Bashkiria, Chuvashia, Kabarda. The accession of the Kazan and Astrakhan khanates opened up new prospects, access to the basins of the great Siberian rivers became possible. As early as 1556, the Siberian Khan Yediger recognized vassal dependence on Moscow, but Khan Kuchum, who replaced him (? - c. 1598), refused to recognize the authority of Moscow (he oppressed local residents, killed the Russian ambassador).

The merchants Stroganovs, who had a letter from the tsar granting lands to the east of the Urals, with the permission of Moscow, hired a large detachment of Cossacks to fight Khan Kuchum. The leader of the detachment was the Cossack chieftain Yermak (? -1585). In 1581, Yermak's detachment defeated Kuchum's troops, and a year later occupied the capital of the Siberian Khanate, Kashlyk.

Kuchum was finally defeated in 1598, and Western Siberia was annexed to the Russian state. All-Russian laws were approved in the annexed territories. The development of Siberia by Russian industrialists, peasants and artisans began.

Russia's foreign policy actions in the West are the struggle for access to the Baltic Sea, for the Baltic lands seized by the Livonian Order. Many Baltic lands have long belonged to Novgorod Rus. The banks of the Neva River and the Gulf of Finland used to be part of the lands of Veliky Novgorod. In 1558, Russian troops moved to the West, the Livonian War began, which lasted until 1583. The rulers of the Livonian Order hindered the relations of the Russian state with Western European countries.

The Livonian War is divided into three stages: until 1561, Russian troops completed the defeat of the Livonian Order, took Narva, Tartu (Derpt), approached Tallinn (Revel) and Riga; until 1578 - the war with Livonia turned for Russia into a war against Poland, Lithuania, Sweden, Denmark. The hostilities became protracted. Russian troops fought with varying success, occupying a number of Baltic fortresses in the summer of 1577.

The situation was complicated by the weakening of the country's economy as a result of the ruin of the guardsmen. The attitude towards the Russian troops of the local population has changed as a result of military extortions.

During this period, Prince Kurbsky, one of the most prominent Russian military leaders, who also knew the military plans of Ivan the Terrible, went over to the side of the enemy. The devastating raids on the Russian lands of the Crimean Tatars made the situation more difficult.

In 1569, the unification of Poland and Lithuania took place in single state- Speech to the Commonwealth. Elected to the throne, Stefan Batory (1533-1586) went on the offensive; Since 1579, Russian troops have been fighting defensive battles. In 1579, Polotsk was taken, in 1581 - Velikie Luki, the Poles besieged Pskov. The heroic defense of Pskov began (it was headed by the governor IP Shuisky), which lasted five months. The courage of the defenders of the city prompted Stefan Batory to abandon further siege.

However, the Livonian War ended with the signing of unfavorable for Russia Yam-Zapolsky (with Poland) and Plyussky (with Sweden) truces. The Russians had to abandon the conquered lands and cities. The Baltic lands were occupied by Poland and Sweden. The war exhausted Russia's forces. The main task of gaining access to the Baltic Sea was not solved.

12. Oprichnina Ivan 4: causes, goals, consequences.

the beginning of the policy of the oprichnina is connected with the events of 1565, when the tsar renounced the throne, referring to the "treason" of the boyars. The political calculation of this step was that Ivan IV set three conditions for agreeing to return to the throne: the right to execute traitors at his own discretion; the introduction of the oprichnina to ensure royal life and security; payment for the "rise" (for the initial device) by the rest of the country (zemstvo) 100 thousand rubles. - a huge amount by the standards of that time. in his destiny (oprichnina), the tsar took many counties in the west, south-west and center of the country, rich northern regions, part of the territory of Moscow. the oprichnina corps - a thousand specially selected nobles - received estates in the oprichnina districts, and all the zemstvos were evicted from them. the oprichnina had its own thought, its own court, its own orders. the tsar concentrated in his hands control over diplomacy and the most important affairs, he removed himself from the current administration, all the hardships of the Livonian war lay on the zemstvo. the oprichnina corps had only two duties: the protection of the king and the extermination of traitors. the fight against the alleged betrayal was carried out through mass repression: executions, resettlement, confiscation of land and property. soon terror seized the whole country, not only individual boyar or noble families, but also entire cities became its victims. mass executions took place in Novgorod (according to minimal estimates, there were about 3 thousand victims). the reason for this was the tsar's suspicions about the treacherous ties of the Novgorodians with the Polish king. The oprichnina terror took on a terrifying scope, the leaders of the oprichnina troops changed (A. Basmanov was executed, a small Skurat took his place), but the reprisals against the "traitors" did not stop. eminent boyars with numerous people close to them, and senior government officials, and not at all eminent people, and peasants became victims of repression. the oprichnina lasted 7 years - until 1572 its abolition was associated with the complete economic decline of the country - the ruin of entire regions, with the defeats of the Russian army in Livonian war , with the campaign of the Crimean Khan against Russia. the history of the oprichnina is still not entirely clear, there are several concepts trying to explain the meaning and reasons for the policy of state terror of Ivan IV (who received the nickname "Terrible"). a number of historians see in the oprichnina a super-tough path to centralization. in their opinion, Ivan the Terrible's refusal to reform was dictated by a desire to accelerate the pace of centralization. another concept connects the causes of the oprichnina with the desire of the king to have the fullness of state power. while the king was too young, he tolerated smart and powerful advisers (the elected council) next to him, and when he gained the necessary political experience, he removed them and began to rule alone. a number of historians see in the oprichnina a way to fight objective opponents of centralization (Novgorod separatism, the church, etc.). there is a point of view on the oprichnina as the result of the tsar's mental disorders, as the product of his painful suspicion and cruelty. his son, the heir to the throne, Ivan, whom he mortally wounded, also became a victim of the unbridled anger of the king. although actual knowledge about the events of the oprichnina has greatly expanded today, a consistent explanation of this event in Russian history is hardly possible. but the results of the oprichnina and their influence on the further course of events are quite obvious. First of all, the oprichnina led to a severe economic crisis. villages were deserted, in the Novgorod lands up to 90% of arable land was not cultivated. for the state, whose economy was based on the agricultural sector, it was a terrible blow. a consequence of the oprichnina was the fall in the combat power of the Russian army. the impoverishment and ruin of the landlords, from whom the armed forces were formed, caused a crisis in the army. the Livonian war was lost. mass repressions during the oprichnina had demographic consequences. R.G. Skrynnikov's approximate estimates determine the number of deaths at 10-15 thousand people. for Russia, with its traditionally low population density, these losses were enormous. the network of settlements was sharply reduced, the working population decreased. terror led to the final establishment of a despotic regime in Russia. even the feudal elite had no protection from the arbitrariness of the monarch, the Russian nobles (whose rights were significantly limited before the oprichnina) became "serfs of the autocracy." the difficult situation of the country after the abolition of the oprichnina did not improve. the tax pressure of the state on the sharply reduced contingent of the tax-paying class did not weaken. the response of the peasants was to run away (including to the outskirts of the country), leaving for lands that were not taxed. in such a situation, the government in 1581 introduced the regime of "reserved years", when the right of the peasant transition was abolished. this was a real step towards the formation of serfdom. Ivan IV's death in 1584 exposed the crisis of the ruling dynasty. power was inherited by the second son of Ivan the Terrible - Fedor, whose inferiority was obvious. the third son of Ivan IV - Tsarevich Dmitry died as a child in a corner. the sick and morally broken monarch stepped aside from government and entrusted it to his brother-in-law, Boris Godunov. Tsar Fyodor died childless in 1598, and power passed to Godonov. Ivan IV's successors inherited great power from him, but did not strengthen it with the help of terror, which was compromised. they relied on the stability of the apparatus of central and local government elected during the reform period.

13. Time of Troubles: causes, stages, consequences.

"Troubled" time in Russia: causes, watered. alternatives, consequences. Reasons: the consequences of the oprichnina and the Livonian War: the ruin of the economy, the growth of social tension, the deaf ferment of almost all segments of the population. The reign of Ivan the Terrible's son Fyodor Ionovich did not change the situation. The death of the youngest son of Ivan the Terrible, Dmitry, deprived the throne of the last legitimate heir. Fyodor Ionovich died childless, Boris Godunov was elected tsar. Crop failure in 1601-1603, attempts by the neighboring Commonwealth to take advantage of the weakness of Russia. Also, a nobleman appeared in Poland, who declared himself Dmitry, he enlisted the tacit support of King Sigismund III and magnate Mniszek, he entered the southern regions of Russia. Trouble began, a lot of people went over to his side, he becomes king, but he cannot fulfill the promised promises to the Poles. At the wedding with the daughter of Sigismund III, he was killed by the nobles (they did not want him to marry a Catholic). Vasily Shuisky (boyar) becomes king. In the summer of 1606, the uprising in Putivl, reaches Moscow, is defeated. In the summer of 1607 they surrender. False Dmitry II appears, the surviving participants in the uprising, Cossacks, and Polish detachments stand up for him. He settles in Tushino. The tsar concludes an agreement with Sweden and the Russian-Swedish army captures several cities of the country. Due to the participation of Sweden, Poland attacks Russia, captures Moscow. The agreement of the seven boyars was signed (rule of 7 boyars) that Vladislav would be king if he converted to Orthodoxy. Having become king, Vladislav does not fulfill the terms of the agreement. A militia is being created, but it could not liberate Moscow, contradictions - one of the leaders of the militia was killed. A second militia is being created - they are recapturing Moscow from the Poles. In January 1613, the Zemsky Sobor elected 16-year-old Mikhail Romanov. A new dynasty of kings has begun. An agreement was signed with Sweden (receives the fortress of Korela and the coast of the Gulf of Finland), Poland (receives Smolensk, Chernigov).

14. Russia in the 17th century: the main trends of political and socio-economic development.

Time of Troubles created in Ross was unique. Situats.- power in the hands of societies. The unity of the state It was destroyed. (Smolensk. - Pole, Novgorod-Swedes) great value. preserved national unity. He had churches and the needs of the people in the king. 1613 - select. New king. Most representative. Patriarch Filaret helped. Elected. The king is his son. - Michael. Ramanov. The power of the tsar at first limited the boyars. The Winter Councils could not stop the enslavement of the taxable estates, including the townspeople. Increasingly role at cathedrals iral. Boya nobles. But they could also limit the king's power. The beginnings of the estate monarchy of Russia. Insignificant Because of the weakness of the city. And people do not know. Their rights in the zemstvo cathedrals. In the 17th century there is a process of transition. From the estates to the obsolete role of the boyar duma in the zemstvo sobor falls. 1648 judicial code - " cathedral code» to the Cator ODA pavovy. The status of the foundations of the estates of Russia. It was enlarged. Taxes, returning the lands to the Pasadians, securing the townspeople for their cities. Code - legal. Designed System. Fortress. Peasants - local, patrimonial, monastery, became dependent. From Mrs. The owners could sell to buy mortgage fronts. By inheritance of the peasants. Nobles podluch the right of inheritance. Exchange of estates for estates. The prohibition of the expansion of the church. Land ownership.

15. Reforms of Peter I and their significance.

16. Foreign policy of Peter I. Formation of the Russian Empire.

1 . By the beginning of the reign of Peter I, the vast territory of Russia was actually deprived of sea routes. The struggle for access to the sea eventually acquired paramount importance for the further development of the Russian state.

From the beginning of his assertion on the Russian throne, Peter I had to conduct military operations with the Crimea. The purpose of the hostilities was the task of consolidating the position of the Russians in the Azov and Black Seas. But the first attempts to solve this problem ended in failure for Russia.

Grand Embassy

Peter I, through diplomatic steps, seeks to strengthen the position of Russia and the alliance of European powers against Turkey (in 1697, Russia, Austria and Venice entered into an offensive alliance). For this purpose, the so-called Great Embassy was organized in Europe in 1697. By creating it, Peter also sought to establish trade, economic and cultural ties with European powers. The embassy consisted of 250 people. In it, incognito, under the name of the officer of the Preobrazhensky regiment Pyotr Mikhailov, was Peter I himself. He headed the embassy F.Ya. Lefort. The great embassy visited Holland, England, Saxony, Venice. In addition to negotiating and clarifying the alignment of forces in Europe, Peter became acquainted with European industry, primarily shipbuilding, fortification and foundry. The tsar inspected shipyards and arsenals, manufactories, visited parliament, museums, theaters, and mints. He even personally worked in the shipyards of the East India Company in Holland.

The central event during the first period of the reign of Peter I was the Northern War.

During the Great Embassy, ​​Peter realized that he would not be able to find allies in the war with Turkey. At the same time, he found allies in the war with Sweden, during which Russia could get a way to the Baltic Sea. The consolidation of Russia on the Baltic coast made it possible to establish trade and economic ties with the developed countries of Europe.

In 1699–1700 The Northern Alliance was concluded between Russia, Denmark, the Commonwealth and Saxony, directed against Sweden.

The course of the Northern War

1. Having enlisted the support of a number of European powers, Peter I declared war on Sweden in 1700, and the Great Northern War (1700–1721) began.

2. At the first stage of the war, Russian troops were defeated during the siege of Narva. The first failures, however, did not break Peter, he energetically set about creating a regular army.

3. The Russians won their first significant victory near Dorpat at the end of 1701. New victories followed - the capture of the Noteburg (Oreshek) fortress, which received the new name Shlisselburg.

4. In 1703, Peter I founded a new city - St. Petersburg - to protect the Neva from the Swedes. Here later he moved the capital of Russia. In 1704, Russian troops managed to capture Narva, the fortress of Ivan-Gorod.

5. The most significant battle of the Northern War was the Battle of Poltava, victorious for the Russian army (June 27, 1709), which changed the entire course of the war and increased the prestige of Russia.

6. The war after the Battle of Poltava continued for another 12 years. It ended in 1721 with the Treaty of Nishtad.

The results of the war

After the conclusion of peace with Sweden in 1721, Russia received a reliable outlet to the Baltic Sea and became a maritime power.

2 . In a quarter of a century, the 18th century, which was not at all as swift as the 19th and even more so the 20th century, Peter I turned Russia into a great power, not inferior in its industrial and military strength to the developed European countries of that time. Peter the Great introduced Russia to the progressive achievements of Western culture, opened an outlet to the Baltic Sea, which the rulers of Moscow wanted to achieve starting from the 16th century. The country not only entered "on the threshold" of Europe, but also became the leader in the east and north of the continent. Most of Peter's innovations have demonstrated amazing vitality. State institutions created by Peter I functioned throughout the 18th century, and some even further. Recruitment kits introduced under Peter the Great existed in Russia until 1874, and the Senate, the Synod, the prosecutor's office, the Table of Ranks, like the Russian Empire itself, until 1917.

The Russian Empire was created:

1) with the further strengthening of serfdom, which suspended the formation of capitalist relations;

2) with the strongest tax pressure on the population. On October 22, 1721, during the celebration of the Peace of Nystadt (the celebrations lasted several weeks), the Senate presented Peter I with the titles of the Great Emperor of All Russia and "Father of the Fatherland." Together with the adoption of the title of Emperor by Peter I, Russia becomes an empire. The increased international authority of the state was reflected in the fact that European countries recognized it as an empire: Prussia, Holland, Sweden, Denmark in 1722–1724, England and Austria in 1742, France in 1744. And Poland recognized the Russian Empire later than all - in 1764

The reforms of Peter I marked the formation of an absolute monarchy: 1) the tsar got the opportunity to unlimitedly and uncontrollably rule the country with the help of officials completely dependent on him; 2) the unlimited power of the monarch found legislative expression in the 20th article of the Military Regulations and the Spiritual Regulations, namely, “the power of monarchs is autocratic, which God himself commands to obey”; 3) the external expression of the absolutism that had established itself in Russia is the adoption in 1721 by Peter I of the title of emperor and the name "Great"; 4) there was a bureaucratization of the administrative apparatus and its centralization; 5) the reforms of central and local government created an outwardly orderly hierarchy of institutions from the Senate in the center to the voivodship office in the counties.

17. Transformations of Peter I in the field of culture and life.

The most important stage in the implementation of the reforms was the visit of Peter as part of the Great Embassy of a number of European countries. Upon his return, Peter sent many young nobles to Europe to study various specialties, mainly to master the marine sciences. The tsar also took care of the development of education in Russia. In 1701, in Moscow, in the Sukharev Tower, the School of Mathematical and Navigational Sciences was opened, headed by the Scotsman Forvarson, professor at the University of Aberdeen. One of the teachers of this school was Leonty Magnitsky - the author of "Arithmetic ...". In 1711 an engineering school appeared in Moscow.

Peter sought to overcome as soon as possible the disunity between Russia and Europe that had arisen since the time of the Tatar-Mongol yoke. One of its manifestations was a different chronology, and in 1700 Peter transferred Russia to a new calendar - the year 7208 becomes 1700, and the celebration of the New Year is transferred from September 1 to January 1. In 1703, the first issue of the Vedomosti newspaper, the first Russian newspaper, was published in Moscow; in 1702, the Kunsht troupe was invited to Moscow to create a theater. Important changes took place in the life of the Russian nobility, which remade the Russian nobility "in the image and likeness" of the European one. In 1717, the book "An Honest Mirror of Youth" was published - a kind of etiquette textbook, and since 1718 there were Assemblies - noble assemblies modeled on European ones. However, we must not forget that all these transformations came exclusively from above, and therefore were quite painful for both the upper and lower strata of society. The violent nature of some of these transformations inspired disgust and led to a sharp rejection of the rest, even the most progressive ones, undertakings. Peter aspired to make Russia a European country in every sense of the word and attached great importance to even the smallest details of the process.

18. "Enlightened absolutism" of Catherine 2. Russia's foreign policy at the end of the 18th century.

The enlightened absolutism of CatherineII. This is the reign of Catherine. The meaning is in the policy of following the ideals of enlightenment, expressed in the implementation of reforms that destroyed some of the most outdated feudal institutions. This acquired in Russia the character of a holistic, state-political reform, during which a new state and legal image of an absolute monarchy was formed. The class division was characteristic: the nobility, the bourgeoisie, the peasantry. Catherine's policy in its class orientation was noble. Catherine imagined her tasks as follows: 1. It is necessary to enlighten the nation, which she must rule. 2. It is necessary to introduce good order in the state, to support society and force it to comply with the laws. 3. It is necessary to establish a good and accurate police force in the state. 4. It is necessary to promote the flourishing of the state and make it abundant. 5. It is necessary to make the state formidable in itself and respectful of its neighbors. In real life, the declarations of the empress often disagreed with deeds.

The time of Catherine II (1762-1796) is the "golden age" of the nobility. His privileges and influence reach their climax - the queen, who came to power illegally, needed his support. The inner circle, helping the queen in solving state affairs, are her favorites G. G. Orlov, G. A. Potemkin and others. In 1767, the Legislative Commission was convened to develop a new code of laws. Various reform projects arose, including easing the position of the peasants (for the first time in Russian history). Since 1768, the commission has hardly been convened in order to avoid excessive free-thinking. In 1764, the secularization (transfer to the state) of church lands began and the autonomy of Ukraine was liquidated. In 1775, a provincial reform was carried out, streamlining local government (dividing into provinces and counties). The Letter of Complaint to the Nobility (1785) guaranteed its exclusive right to own land and peasants, the freedom of the nobles from corporal punishment, and established meetings of the nobility with the right to intercede with the monarch. The letter to the cities determined the order of self-government in the cities. In the economy, as under Elizabeth, a policy of further abolition of petty regulation of production and trade is being pursued. The number of serfs who went to work is growing, some are starting their own enterprises. However, the dissatisfaction of the people with the arbitrariness of officials and landowners is great. In 1771, a "plague riot" broke out in Moscow, in 1772 - an uprising of the Cossacks in the Yaik town. In 1773, a peasant war began, led by the impostor "Peter III" - Emelyan Pugachev. It covers the Urals and the Volga region, but in 1774 Pugachev was defeated and extradited by accomplices, and in 1775 he was executed. In 1796-1801. Paul I ruled. He tried to alleviate the situation of the people (addition of arrears, prohibition of corvée on weekends), but infringed on the nobles - he reduced the rights of noble assemblies, increased censorship, and carried out repressions. In 1801 Pavel was killed by conspirators.

2. For the beginning of the XVIII century. it is very difficult to separate domestic and foreign policy, economic development and Russia's entry into the broad arena of international relations. Many economic events were inspired by the war, but the war itself was necessary for the further economic development of the state. Initially foreign policy Peter's government had the same focus as in the previous period. It was the movement of Russia to the south, the desire to eliminate the Wild Field, which arose in very ancient times as a result of the onset of the nomadic world. It blocked Russia's road to trade in the Black and Mediterranean Seas, hindered the economic development of the country. A manifestation of this "southern" foreign policy line was the campaigns of Vasily Golitsyn in the Crimea "Azov" campaigns of Peter. The second campaign was successful: on July 19, 1696, the Turkish fortress of Azov fell. To search for allies in the West, Peter organized a "great embassy" of 250 people headed by "land admiral" Lefort and General Golovin. Under the name of the "sergeant" of the Preobrazhensky regiment, Pyotr Mikhailov, the sovereign himself rode in the embassy. The departure of the embassy almost fell through because of the Streltsy rebellion, but in March 1697 the "great embassy" set off. It turned out that it was impossible to interest anyone in the war with Turkey during this period, but allies were found to fight Sweden. The sharp reorientation of the foreign policy of the Russian government after the "great embassy" does not at all seem like such, if we remember that the struggle for access to the Baltic Sea has long been one of the most important directions of Russian foreign policy. The Baltic "window to Europe" was supposed to serve as a solution to many urgent economic and political tasks facing Russia.

The war with Sweden, which lasted 21 years and was called "Northern", began in 1700 with a sad defeat for Russia near Narva. The commander of the Swedish army, a talented commander, the Swedish king Charles XII, by that time had managed to disable one of Russia's allies - the Danes. The queue was for another ally - the Commonwealth. Soon this happened. A protege of Sweden was elevated to the throne in Poland. The main theater of military operations is transferred to the south, to the territory of Ukraine. It was here that the famous battle took place near the village of Lesnoy, not far from the town of Propoisk (September 1708). And already in 1709, the famous Poltava battle took place, which became a turning point in the course of the Northern War. The hope of Charles XII to receive support from the Hetman of the Left-Bank Ukraine Mazepa, who had changed Russia, did not come true. Near Poltava, the army of Charles XII was defeated, the king himself fled. He managed to raise Turkey against Russia. The Prut campaign of the Russian army took place. The campaign was unsuccessful, but Russian diplomacy managed to make peace with Turkey. The theater of operations is transferred to the Baltic. In 1713, Peter defeated the Swedes at the Battle of Tammerfors and captured almost all of Finland. On July 27, 1714, the Russian fleet won a brilliant victory over the Swedes at Cape Gangut. The Aland Islands were occupied. In 1720, at Grengam, the Swedish fleet was again defeated. In 1721, peace was concluded in the city of Nystadt in Finland. Under the terms of this peace, part of Finland (Vyborg and Kexholm), Ingria, Estonia and Livonia with Riga were annexed to Russia, the country finally got access to the Baltic Sea.

19. Attempts to reform the political system of Russia under Alexander I.

liberal initiatives. Alexander I began to rule with the abolition of the decrees of Paul I regarding the nobility. 10 thousand officers and officials dismissed by Pavel for bribes were reinstated in the service, the validity of the "Letters of Letters" to the nobility and cities was confirmed, the Secret Expedition (the center of political investigation) was abolished, the free travel of Russians abroad was allowed, the import of any books, torture was prohibited. In the first years of his reign, the young emperor relied on a small circle of friends that had developed even before the beginning of his reign, which included P.A. Stroganov, A.A. Czartoryski, N.N. Novosiltsev, V.P. Kochubey. This entourage of Alexander I began to be called the "Secret Committee". Its members were young, tried to keep up with the spirit of the times, but had no experience in those state affairs that they discussed and decided to reform. The new emperor began to carry out reforms in the field of central administration, the peasant question and education. Public administration reforms. In 1802-1811. ministerial reform. Instead of boards, 11 ministries were introduced. In contrast to the collegiums in the ministry, affairs were decided solely by the minister, responsible only to the emperor. A Committee of Ministers was established for the joint discussion of general matters by the ministers. The Senate was given the right to control the created ministries and became the country's highest judicial body. (See Supplementary Illustrative Material) The ministerial reform has contributed to the improvement of the central administrative apparatus. Alexander I considered the introduction of a constitution in the country, i.e. limiting their absolute power, good. But he realized that it was impossible to introduce a constitution in Russia while maintaining serfdom. It is necessary to prepare society for the introduction of the constitution. To this end, he decided to reorganize the entire system of power and administration in Russia according to Western European models.

20. Patriotic War of 1812: the feat of the army and the people.

21. Movement of the Decembrists and its significance.

The reasons. A very clearly growing gap between Russia and the West began to be noted after the war of 1812 and foreign campaigns of the Russian army, visits by military officers to countries Western Europe. Many young officers of the Russian army wanted to quickly bridge the gap between Russian and European orders.

The changes that took place in Europe after the French Revolution, namely the collapse of monarchies, the establishment of parliamentary institutions, the bourgeois principles of a market economy, could not but affect the development of socio-political thought in Russia.

After the return of Russian troops from foreign campaigns, the first signs of political discontent began to appear among the young noble officers. Gradually, this discontent grew into a socio-political movement, which was called the Decembrist movement.

social composition. The Decembrist movement touched the top of the noble youth. This can be explained by the fact that the bourgeoisie, due to economic weakness and political underdevelopment, began to form only towards the end of the 18th century. and during this period in the life of the country did not play an independent role.

Decembrist societies, their activities. In 1816–1818 the first Decembrist organizations arose - the Union of Salvation and the Union of Welfare. On the basis of the latter, two revolutionary organizations were organized: the Northern Society (under the leadership of N.M. Muravyov, S.P. Trubetskoy, K.F. Ryleev, the center was in St. Petersburg) and the Southern Society (under the leadership of P.I. Pestel, was in Ukraine). Decembrists in their activities:

1) pursued the goal of implementing plans for political changes in the country through a military coup;

2) advocated the introduction of a constitutional order and democratic freedoms, the elimination of serfdom and class distinctions;

3) developed the main policy documents, which became the “Constitution” of N.M. Muravyov and Russkaya Pravda by P.I. Pestel. "Constitution" N.M. Muravyova was more moderate (she recognized the need to preserve the constitutional monarchy).

Program P.I. Pestel was more radical. She ruled out the preservation of the monarchy and advocated the establishment of a republican system in Russia.

Uprising on the Senate Square. On December 14, 1825, the day when the issue of succession to the throne in the country was to be resolved, the Decembrists, having gathered on Senate Square, wanted to disrupt the oath to Nicholas and force the Senate to publish the “Manifesto to the Russian people”, which included the main demands of the Decembrists.

Unfortunately, the Decembrists were late. Senators already before their speech managed to swear allegiance to Nicholas. The Decembrist uprising was brutally suppressed. But their work was not in vain. Many ideas of the Decembrists were implemented in the course of subsequent reforms.

22. Socio-political thought in Russia in the 30s-50s. 19th century: conservatives, liberals, radicals.

1. Petrashevites: Members of the circle professed various views: from liberal to radical revolutionary. Despite the significant number, the Petrashevite society remained precisely a circle where literary and philosophical issues were discussed. Neither program nor charter was created. Petrashevsky himself and his associates professed socialist views in the spirit of Fourier and Saint-Simon, dreamed of the elimination of serfdom and autocracy, of the establishment of a republic. Some members of the society, led by N.A., were more radical. Speshnev, who believed that socialism could only be achieved through a peasant revolution. In the early 1930s, the ideological substantiation of the reactionary policy of the autocracy took shape - the theory of "official nationality" was born. Its principles were formulated by the Minister of Education S. S. Uvarov in the famous triad expressing the age-old foundations of Russian life: "Orthodoxy, autocracy, nationality." Autocracy was interpreted as a guarantor of the inviolability of the Russian state. It is in autocratic Russia, according to the supporters of this ideology, that the best order of things prevails, consistent with the requirements of religion and political wisdom. Orthodoxy was proclaimed the basis of the spiritual life of the people. By “nationality” was meant the “unity” of the tsar with the people, which implies the absence in Russian society of a basis for social conflicts. It should be noted that representatives of all areas of the social movement in Russia spoke for nationality, but they invested completely different content in this concept. The official ideology sought to present the autocratic-serf regime as corresponding to the "people's spirit", and in this case the nationality was interpreted as the adherence of the masses to the "primordially Russian principles" - autocracy and Orthodoxy. Theorists of official ideology were professors of Moscow University S.P. Shevyrev and M.P. Pogodin, publishers N.I. Grech, F.V. Bulgarin. In the late 30s - early 40s. Disputes about the historical fate of Russia came to the fore in the development of social thought. There were two camps: Slavophiles and Westerners. The most prominent ideologists of Slavophilism were I.S. and K.S. Aksakovs, I.V. and P.V. Kireevsky, A.I. Koshelev, A.S. Khomyakov and Yu.F. Samarin. The leaders of Westernism were the outstanding historian of the Middle Ages T.N. Granovsky, M.A. Bakunin, V.P. Botkin, K.D. Kavelin, M.N. Katkov. V.G. is usually called the left Westerners. Belinsky, A.I. Herzen, N.P. Ogareva. A common feature of Westernism and Slavophilism was the rejection of the existing order in Russia. Both understood the fatality of serfdom, censorship and police arbitrariness. But the Westerners believed that Russia should follow the same path as Western Europe, eventually becoming a parliamentary constitutional monarchy. For the left Westernizers, development along the European path should have led to the establishment of socialism in Russia, understood in the spirit of the ideas of Saint-Simon. Unlike the Westernizers, the Slavophiles considered the European path unacceptable and disastrous for Russia. They associated all the troubles that befell Russia precisely with the fact that, starting from the time of Peter I, Russia abandoned its characteristic original development and began to adopt alien European orders. Already nineteenth-century thinkers noted the ideological duality of Slavophilism. V.S. Solovyov believed that Slavophilism was characterized by "a contradiction between the universal ideal of Christianity and the pagan tendency to "separateness." The ideal of the Slavophiles was pre-Petrine Russia with the Zemsky Sobor. The Slavophils considered the Russian people to be alien to politics, sincerely devoted to the legitimate monarch. revolution. The Slavophils denied the constitution, the separation of powers and parliamentarism. Their slogan was: "The power of power - to the king, the power of opinion - to the people." They represented the royal power as unlimited, but listening to the people, expressing their opinion through the free press and the Zemsky Sobor. ", however, the question arose of what could guarantee against the transformation of unlimited tsarist power into despotic power. In this respect, the Slavophiles were forced to place their hopes on the church and moral development. Considering that the original Russian beginnings were preserved only in the thickness of the people, untouched by the superficial Peter's " Europeanization", the Slavophiles devoted much e attention to the study of folk customs, life, folklore.

23. Reforms of Alexander II

Emperor Alexander II (1855-1881). The eldest son of Nicholas I ascended the Russian throne on February 19, 1855. Unlike his father, he was quite well prepared to govern the state. By October 1860, the projects summarized by the editorial commissions were received by the Main Committee. He further reduced the size of peasant land plots, and increased duties. On February 17, 1861, the draft reform was approved by the State Council. On February 19 it was signed by Alexander II. The abolition of serfdom was announced by the Manifesto On the most merciful granting to serfs of the rights of the state of free rural inhabitants ...? The practical conditions for release were defined in 17 acts -?Regulations? about peasants emerging from serfdom. Manifesto and? Provisions? concerned three main issues: the personal liberation of the peasants, the allocation of land to them and the redemption deal. Personal liberation. From now on, the peasant could own movable and immovable property, conclude transactions, and act as a legal entity. He was freed from the personal guardianship of the landowner, could, without his permission, marry, enter the service and educational establishments , change their place of residence, move into the class of philistines and merchants. Allotments. ?Regulations? regulated the allocation of land to peasants. The size of the plots depended on the fertility of the soil. The territory of Russia was conditionally divided into three zones: black earth, non-black earth and steppe. Each of them established the highest and lowest sizes of the peasant field allotment (the highest? more than which the peasant could not demand from the landowner, the lowest? less than which the landowner should not have offered the peasant). Within these limits, a voluntary deal was concluded between the peasant community and the landowner. Their relationship was finally fixed by charters. If the landowner and the peasants did not come to an agreement, then mediators were involved to resolve the dispute. Ransom. When receiving land, the peasants were obliged to pay its cost. The peasants did not have the money needed to buy the land. In order for the landlords to receive the redemption sums at a time, the state provided the peasants with a loan in the amount of 80% of the value of the allotments. The remaining 20% ​​was paid by the peasant community itself to the landowner. Within 49 years, the peasants had to return the loan to the state in the form of redemption payments with an accrual of 6% per annum. By 1906, when the peasants stubbornly achieved the abolition of redemption payments, they had already paid the state about 2 billion rubles, that is, almost 4 times more than the real market value of the land in 1861. Contemporaries called the reform of 1861 Great. freedom for more than 30 million serfs, cleared the way for the formation of bourgeois relations, the economic modernization of the country. Zemstvo, urban, judicial, military and other reforms were a natural continuation of the abolition of serfdom in Russia. Their main goal? to bring the state system and administrative management in line with the new social structure, in which the multi-million peasantry received personal freedom. Reorganization of local government. After the abolition of serfdom, it became necessary to change local government. E 1864 Zemstvo reform was carried out. Zemstvo institutions (zemstvos) were created in provinces and districts. These were elected bodies from representatives of all estates. A high property qualification and a multi-stage estate (according to curia) elective system ensured the predominance of landowners in them. Zemstvos were deprived of any political functions. The scope of their activities was limited exclusively to economic issues of local importance: the arrangement and maintenance of communication lines, zemstvo schools and hospitals, care for trade and industry. The zemstvos were under the control of the central and local authorities, who had the right to suspend any decision of the zemstvo assembly. The next step was urban reform. ?Urban position? 1870 created all-class bodies in the cities? city ​​councils. They dealt with the improvement of the city, took care of trade, provided educational and medical needs. In city dumas, in connection with the high property electoral qualification, the leading role belonged to the big bourgeoisie. Like the zemstvos, they were under the strict control of the government administration. Judicial reform. ?New judicial statutes? In 1864, a fundamentally new system of legal proceedings was introduced in Russia. They provided for the all-estate court, its independence from the administration, the irremovability of judges, the publicity and competitiveness of the trial. It was attended by a prosecutor (accuser) and a lawyer (defender). The question of the guilt of the accused was decided by the jury. The competence of different judicial instances was strictly delineated. Minor civil cases were dealt with in the magistrate's court, criminal and serious? in the district. Particularly important state and political crimes were considered in the judicial chamber. The Senate became the highest court. The created system reflected the most progressive tendencies in the world judicial practice. However, in carrying out the reform, the government left many loopholes for interference in the judiciary. Some principles were only declared. For example, the peasants were subject to their class court. For political processes, a Special Presence of the Senate was created, whose meetings were closed, which violated the principle of publicity. military reform. key element reform was the law of 1874 on the all-class military service of men who have reached 20 years of age. The term of active service was set at ground forces up to 6, in the navy? up to 7 years old. The terms of active service were significantly reduced depending on the educational qualification. Persons who had a higher education served only six months. In the 60s, the rearmament of the army began: the replacement of smooth-bore weapons with rifled ones, the introduction of a system of steel artillery pieces, and the improvement of the horse fleet. Of particular importance was the accelerated development of the military steam fleet. For the training of officers, military gymnasiums, specialized cadet schools and academies were created? General Staff, Artillery, Engineering, etc. The command and control system of the armed forces has improved. Reforms in education and the press. The main thing was that an accessible all-class education was actually introduced. Along with the state schools, zemstvo, parochial, Sunday and private schools arose. Gymnasiums were divided into classical and real ones. They accepted children of all classes capable of paying tuition fees. In 1863, the new Charter returned autonomy to the universities, which was abolished by Nicholas I in 1835. In 1865, were introduced? Provisional rules? about printing. They abolished preliminary censorship for a number of printed publications: books designed for the wealthy and educated part of society, as well as central periodicals. The value of the reforms. The reforms carried out were progressive. They began to lay the foundation for the evolutionary path of the country's development. Russia, to a certain extent, approached the advanced for that time European socio-political model. The first step was taken to expand the role of the public in the life of the country and turn Russia into a bourgeois monarchy.

24. Revolutionary populists: ideology, currents, organization.

Populism is the main direction of the Russian revolutionary movement in the second half of the 19th century. Its ideological foundation was the theory of "communal socialism", developed by A.I. Herzen and N.G. Chernyshevsky. The ideological formation of populism takes place at the turn of the 1860s - 1870s. The period of his greatest influence fell on the 1870s - early 1880s. IN AND. Lenin (an ardent opponent of populism) described its essential features as follows:

recognition of capitalism in Russia as a decline, a regression;

recognition of the originality of the Russian economic system in general and the peasant with his community, artel, etc. in particular;

ignoring the connection between the “intelligentsia” and the legal and political institutions of the country with the material interests of certain classes.

The Narodniks believed that the most powerful political force was the working people (primarily the peasantry), which must carry out a socialist revolution. They saw their mission in organizing the masses and rousing them to a struggle that would enable Russia to bypass the stage of capitalism and establish a new system based on the principles of equality and social justice. Despite the fact that revolutionary populism was a unified trend of socio-political thought, in it at the turn of the 1860s - 1870s. three main trends emerged.

Propaganda. Its creator and main ideologist was Professor of Mathematics P.L. Lavrov (1823 - 1900). He outlined his views in Historical Letters. The main idea of ​​P.L. Lavrov lies in the fact that an "educated society" is indebted to the common people, since the latter, living in poverty and ignorance, with their work for centuries provides a decent life for the privileged classes. "Critically thinking individuals" must be imbued with a sense of responsibility to the people. There is only one way they can repay the debt, by preparing the people for the revolution. However, for this, the revolutionary youth themselves must be ready to fight. It needs to acquire the appropriate knowledge and develop its character, and only then "go to the people" in order to propagate socialist ideas and a new way of life, in order to awaken the "revolutionary consciousness of the masses" in this way.

Rebellious. Its creator was the founder of scientific anarchism M.A. Bakunin (1814 - 1876) - a comrade-in-arms of K. Marx in the First International and ... a staunch opponent of Marxism. In the work "Statehood and anarchy" M.A. Bakunin develops the idea that any state (even a socialist one) is based on violence. He categorically rejected the Marxist idea of ​​a proletarian dictatorship and declared that any "top-down" management of society is detrimental to the people. M.A. Bakunin proposed to create instead of the state a free federation (“from the bottom up”) of peasant communities, workers' unions, professional associations, regions and peoples. In such a society, private property is unacceptable, and it is based on collective labor. It is possible to go to this social structure only as a result of a spontaneous popular revolt. Russia is a country traditionally rebellious and therefore ideally suited to start a world revolution. Only the lumpen (beggars, vagabonds, etc.) can become the hegemon of the revolt, and not the working class, as K. Marx believed. It is the outcasts who truly have "nothing to lose" in public life and are always ready to rebel. The main task of the revolutionaries is to coordinate the actions of the people, and after the revolution, to prevent a return to the old state order.

Conspiratorial (Blanquist - named after the French revolutionary O. Blanqui). Its ideology was developed by the lawyer and talented publicist P.N. Tkachev (1844 - 1885). Unlike P.L. Lavrov, he did not want to deal only with the "preparation" of the revolution, but worked out ways to implement it. P.N. Tkachev also opposed the anarchism of M.A. Bakunin, believing that the state should play a crucial role in the renewal of society. P.N. Tkachev declared that a "social revolution" could only be carried out by a small but well-trained and cohesive party of conspirators. They will seize power, carry out the transformations necessary for the people, after which they will retire, transferring the reins of government into the hands of society itself. According to P.N. Tkachev, a revolutionary conspiracy is quite feasible, since the Russian state has not enjoyed the support of the general population for a long time. However, to be completely sure of success, power should be weakened. One of the most effective means of "loosening" the old regime of P.N. Tkachev considered political terror.

25. The labor movement in the 70s-80s of the 19th century. The emergence of social democracy.

The labor movement is gradually gaining strength, and already in the late 90s. economic strikes are widespread. Becoming more and more mass and organized, the working-class movement simultaneously changes its character: under the influence of social democracy, its participants more and more often put forward political demands along with economic ones. Created in 1895, the St. Petersburg Union of Struggle for the Emancipation of the Working Class (leaders A. A. Vaneev, P.-K. Zaporozhets, V. I. Ulyanov, Yu. O. Martov, and others) sought to make the transition to new tactics - mass economic and political agitation among the workers and organized a number of major strikes. Similar organizations also arose in Moscow (1894 - the Moscow "Workers' Union", since 1898 - the Moscow "Union of Struggle for the Emancipation of the Working Class", then - the committee of the RSDLP), in Tula, Yaroslavl, Rostov-on-Don, on Ukraine, in the Caucasus. Since the beginning of the 20th century, the labor movement has been moving from a predominantly economic struggle to mass political demonstrations: 1900 - May demonstration in Kharkov; May 1901 - strike at the Obukhov steel plant: in St. Petersburg (“Obukhov defense”); 1902 - mass demonstrations and rallies in Kharkov, Batum, Baku, Sormov, Saratov, etc., and in November of the same year - a powerful Rostov strike; 1903 - a general strike of the workers of the South of Russia, in which about 200 thousand people took part. Social Democrats. On March 1-3, 1898, the first congress of social democratic organizations took place in Minsk. At the congress, a decision was made to form the Russian Social Democratic Labor Party (RSDLP). Rabochaya Gazeta was declared the official organ of the party. The Central Committee (together with P. B. Struve) prepared the Manifesto of the RSDLP. The II Congress of the RSDLP was held in July - August 1903. The Congress adopted a program prepared by Iskra, which contained tasks at the stage of the bourgeois-democratic revolution (the overthrow of the autocracy, the establishment of a democratic republic, the proclamation of political freedoms, etc.) and at the stage of the socialist revolution (establishment of the dictatorship of the proletariat). The charter of the party was approved. At the congress, the Social Democrats split into Bolsheviks and Mensheviks. Yu. O. Martov was Lenin's main opponent. After the split in the party, Lenin set a course for the isolation of the Bolsheviks. In November 1905, he illegally returned to St. Petersburg and headed the Bolsheviks, but in December 1907 he emigrated again. Over the next ten years, V. I. Lenin carried out party work abroad, becoming the undisputed leader of Bolshevism. charismatic, a leader who knows the true path to victory. It was in this capacity that he arrived in Petrograd on April 3, 1917. The self-determination of the Menshevik faction took place in April - May 1905 at the All-Russian Conference of Party Workers in Geneva; Almost simultaneously, in April 1905, the Third Congress of the RSDLP, convened by supporters of Lenin, took place in London. However, in the summer of 1905 a strong unification movement began, at the same time a united Central Committee of the RSDLP was created.

26. Socio-economic development of Russia at the turn of the 19th-20th century. S.K Witte.

· Feudal fragmentation– political and economic decentralization. The creation on the territory of one state of independent independent principalities, formally having a common ruler, a single religion - Orthodoxy, uniform laws of "Russian Truth".

· The energetic and ambitious policy of the Vladimir-Suzdal princes led to the growth of the influence of the Vladimir-Suzdal principality on the entire Russian state.

· Yuri Dolgoruky, son of Vladimir Monomakh, received the Vladimir principality in his reign. 1125-1157.

· 1147 Moscow first appears in chronicles. The founder is boyar Kuchka.

Andrey Bogolyubsky, son of Yuri Dolgoruky. 1157-1174. The capital was moved from Rostov to Vladimir, the new title of the ruler is Tsar and Grand Duke.

· Vladimir-Suzdal principality flourished under Vsevolod the Big Nest. 1176-1212. The monarchy was finally established.

Consequences of fragmentation.

Positive

Growth and strengthening of cities

Active development of crafts

Settling undeveloped lands

Laying roads

Development of domestic trade

heyday cultural life principalities

Strengthening the local self-government apparatus

Negative

Continuation of the process of fragmentation of lands and principalities

Internecine wars

Weak central government

Vulnerability to external enemies

Specific Russia (XII-XIII centuries)

With the death of Vladimir Monomakh in 1125. the decline of Kievan Rus began, which was accompanied by its disintegration into separate states-principalities. Even earlier, the Lyubech Congress of Princes in 1097 established: “... let each one keep his fatherland” - this meant that each prince becomes the full owner of his hereditary principality.

The collapse of the Kievan state into small principalities-patrimonies, according to V.O. Klyuchevsky, was caused by the existing order of succession to the throne. The princely throne was not passed from father to son, but from the elder brother to the middle and younger. This gave rise to strife in the family and the struggle for the division of estates. External factors played a certain role: nomad raids devastated the southern Russian lands and interrupted the trade route along the Dnieper.

As a result of the decline of Kyiv in southern and southwestern Russia, the Galicia-Volyn principality rose, in the northeastern part of Russia - the Rostov-Suzdal (later Vladimir-Suzdal) principality, and in northwestern Russia - the Novgorod Boyar Republic, from which in the XIII century stood out Pskov land.

All these principalities, with the exception of Novgorod and Pskov, inherited political system Kievan Rus. They were led by princes, relying on their squads. The Orthodox clergy had great political influence in the principalities.

Question

The main occupation of the inhabitants of the Mongolian state was nomadic cattle breeding. The desire to expand their pastures is one of the reasons for their military campaigns. It must be said that the Mongol-Tatars conquered not only Russia, it was not the first state they took. Prior to that, they subjugated Central Asia, including Korea and China, to their interests. From China, they adopted their flamethrower weapons, and because of this they became even stronger. The Tatars were very good warriors. They were armed "to the teeth", their army was very large. They also used psychological intimidation of enemies: in front of the troops were soldiers who did not take prisoners, brutally killed opponents. The very sight of them frightened the enemy.

But let's move on to the Mongol-Tatar invasion of Russia. The first time the Russians faced the Mongols was in 1223. The Polovtsy asked the Russian princes to help defeat the Mongols, they agreed and a battle took place, which is called the Battle of the Kalka River. We lost this battle for many reasons, the main of which is the lack of unity between the principalities.

In 1235, in the capital of Mongolia, Karakorum, a decision was made on a military campaign to the West, including Russia. In 1237, the Mongols attacked the Russian lands, and the first city captured was Ryazan. There is also in Russian literature the work “The Tale of the Devastation of Ryazan by Batu”, one of the heroes of this book is Yevpaty Kolovrat. In the "Tale .." it is written that after the ruin of Ryazan, this hero returned to native city and wanted to take revenge on the Tatars for their cruelty (the city was plundered and almost all the inhabitants were killed). He gathered a detachment of the survivors and rode after the Mongols. All wars fought bravely, but Evpaty distinguished himself with special courage and strength. He killed many Mongols, but in the end he himself was killed. The Tatars brought the body of Yevpatiy to Batu, talking about his unprecedented strength. Batu was struck by the unprecedented power of Yevpaty and gave the body of the hero to the surviving tribesmen, and ordered the Mongols not to touch the Ryazans.

In general, the years 1237-1238 were the years of the conquest of northeastern Russia. After Ryazan, the Mongols took Moscow, which resisted for a long time, and burned it. Then they took Vladimir.

After the conquest of Vladimir, the Mongols split up and began to ravage the cities of northeastern Russia. In 1238, a battle took place on the Sit River, the Russians lost this battle.

The Russians fought with dignity, no matter what city the Mongol attacked, the people defended their homeland (their principality). But in most cases, the Mongols still won, only Smolensk was not taken. Kozelsk also defended for a record long time: as many as seven weeks.

After a trip to the north-east of Russia, the Mongols returned to their homeland to rest. But already in 1239 they returned to Russia again. This time their goal was the southern part of Russia.

1239-1240 - the campaign of the Mongols in the southern part of Russia. First they took Pereyaslavl, then the Principality of Chernigov, and in 1240 Kyiv fell.

On this Mongol invasion ended. The period from 1240 to 1480 is called the Mongol-Tatar yoke in Russia.

What are the consequences of the Mongol-Tatar invasion, the yoke?

· Firstly, this is the backwardness of Russia from the countries of Europe. Europe continued to develop, but Russia had to restore everything destroyed by the Mongols.

· Second is the decline of the economy. A lot of people were lost. Many crafts disappeared (the Mongols took artisans into slavery). Also, farmers moved to more northern regions of the country, safer from the Mongols. All this hindered economic development.

· Third- the slowness of the cultural development of Russian lands. For some time after the invasion, no churches were built in Russia at all.

· Fourth- termination of contacts, including trade, with the countries of Western Europe. Now the foreign policy of Russia was focused on Golden Horde. The Horde appointed princes, collected tribute from the Russian people, and, in case of disobedience of the principalities, carried out punitive campaigns.

· Fifth consequences are highly controversial. Some scientists say that the invasion and the yoke preserved the political fragmentation in Russia, others argue that the yoke gave impetus to the unification of Russians.

Question

In 1236, Alexander was invited to reign in Novgorod, he was then 15 years old, and in 1239 he married the daughter of the Polotsk prince Bryachislav. With this dynastic marriage, Yaroslav sought to consolidate the union of the northwestern Russian principalities in the face of the threat looming over them from the German and Swedish crusaders. The most dangerous situation developed at that time on the Novgorod borders. The Swedes, who had long competed with the Novgorodians for control over the lands of the Finnish tribes of Em and Sum, were preparing for a new onslaught. The invasion began in July 1240. The Swedish flotilla under the command of Birger, the son-in-law of the Swedish king Eric Kortavy, passed from the mouth of the Neva to the fall of the river. Izhora. Here the Swedes made a stop before advancing on Ladoga, the main northern fort of the Novgorodtsev post. Meanwhile, Alexander Yaroslavich, warned by the sentinels about the appearance of the Swedish flotilla, hastily left Novgorod with his squad and a small auxiliary detachment. The calculation of the prince was based on the maximum use of the element of surprise. The blow should have been delivered before the Swedes, who outnumbered the Russian army, had time to completely disembark from the ships. On the evening of July 15, the Russians swiftly attacked the Swedes' camp, trapping them on a cape between the Neva and Izhora. Thanks to this, they deprived the enemy of freedom of maneuver and at the cost of small losses, all 20 people. This victory secured the northwestern border of the Novgorod land for a long time and earned the 19-year-old prince the glory of a brilliant commander. In memory of the defeat of the Swedes, Alexander was nicknamed Nevsky. In 1241, he expelled the Germans from the fortress of Koporye, and soon freed Pskov. The further advance of the Russian troops to the northwest, bypassing Lake Pskov, ran into fierce resistance from the Germans. Alexander retreated to Lake Peipsi, pulling up all available forces here. The decisive battle took place on April 5, 1242. The battle formation of the Germans had the traditional wedge shape for the crusaders, at the head of which were several rows of the most experienced heavily armed knights. Knowing about this feature of knightly tactics, Alexander deliberately concentrated all his forces on the flanks, in the regiments of the right and left hands. He left his own squad - the most combat-ready part of the army - in ambush in order to bring it into battle at its most critical moment. In the center, along the very edge of the Uzmeni bank (channels between Lake Peipsi and Pskov), he placed the Novgorod infantry, which could not withstand the frontal attack of the knightly cavalry. In fact, this regiment was initially doomed to defeat. But having crushed and thrown it to the opposite shore (to the island of Voronii Kamen), the knights inevitably had to substitute the weakly protected flanks of their wedge under the blow of the Russian cavalry. In addition, now the Russians would have a shore behind their backs, and the Germans would have thin spring ice. The calculation of Alexander Nevsky was fully justified: when the knight's cavalry broke through a pig regiment, it was taken in pincers by the regiments of the Right and Left hands, and a powerful attack by the prince's squad completed the rout.

ESSAY

RUSSIA IN THE PERIOD OF FEUDAL Fragmentation ( XII- 13th century)

PLAN.

REASONS AND ESSENCE

1. The reasons.

1.1. Change of early feudal monarchy

1.2. Division of labor.

1.3. Strengthening the political power of local princes and boyars.

1.4. First strife.

1.5. Russia in the middle of the XI century.

1.6. strife at the end of the 11th century.

2. Essence.

2.1. The weakening of the country on the eve of the Mongol-Tatar invasion.

2.2. The collapse of a single state.

SOCIAL - ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT.

1. Agriculture.

1.1. General characteristics.

1.2. Benefits of estates.

1.3. feudal landownership.

1.4. Enslavement of the peasants.

1.5. exploitation of the peasants.

2. City and craft XII - XIII centuries

2.1. Formation of market relations.

2.2. Urban population.

2.3. Associations.

2.4. Trade and craft nobility.

2.5. Veche meetings.

STATE - POLITICAL STRUCTURE AND MANAGEMENT.

1. Prince's power.

1.1. Princely power.

1.2. political centers.

1.3. All-Russian congresses.

2. Vassals and overlords.

2.1. Scheme of government in small principalities.

2.2. Boyars.

2.3. The role of the clergy in the administration of the principality.

RUSSIAN LANDS AND PRINCIPALITIES IN XII - FIRST HALF XIII in.

1. Vladimir-Suzdal principality.

1.1. Expanding the boundaries.

1.2. City.

1.3. Protecting cities from enemies.

1.4. Indigenous population.

1.5. Conditions for the development of trade, crafts, trade, agriculture, and cattle breeding.

1.6. Princely and boyar land tenure.

1.7. Peculiarities.

1.8. political device.

1.9. major political events.

1.10. The rise of the principality.

1.11. Decay.

2. Galicia-Volyn principality.

2.1. Borders.

2.2. Cities.

2.3. Population.

2.4. Trade routes.

2.5. Conditions for the development of agriculture, cattle breeding, feudal relations, crafts.

2.6. Political life.

2.7. The basis for the restoration of princely power.

2.8. Daniil Romanovich's statement.

3. Novgorod feudal republic.

3.1. Borders.

3.2. Spots.

3.3. Hundreds and graveyards.

3.4. Suburbs.

3.5. Population.

3.6. Conditions for the development of fishing, trade, handicrafts, iron ore mining.

3.7. Features of social - economic development.

3.9. Craft and merchant associations.

3.10. Colonization.

3.11. political system.

4. Kievan principality.

4.1. Loss of national significance.

4.2. Kyiv is the arena of hostilities.

5. Chernigov and Smolensk principalities.

5.1. Allocation of Chernihiv land.

5.2. Fight for Kyiv.

6. Polotsk - Minsk land.

6.1. Isolation from Kyiv.

6.2. Crushing of the Polotsk-Minsk land.

CONCLUSION.

INTRODUCTION.

Feudal fragmentation in Russia was a natural result of the economic and political development of early feudal society.

The formation in the Old Russian state of large land ownership - estates - under the dominance of natural economy inevitably made them completely independent production complexes, the economic ties of which were limited to the nearest district.

The emerging class of feudal landowners sought to establish various forms of economic and legal dependence of the agricultural population. But in the XI - XII centuries. the existing class antagonisms were mostly of a local nature; enough power to resolve local authorities and they did not require nationwide intervention. These conditions made large landowners - boyars-patrimonials almost completely economically and socially independent from the central government.

The local boyars did not see the need to share their income with the great Kyiv prince and actively supported the rulers of individual principalities in the struggle for economic and political independence.

Outwardly, the collapse of Kievan Rus looked like a division of the territory of Kievan Rus between various members of the ruined princely family. According to the established tradition, local thrones were occupied, as a rule, only by the descendants of the house of Rurik.

offensive process feudal fragmentation was objectively inevitable. He made it possible for the developing system of feudal relations to be more firmly established in Russia. From this point of view, one can speak of the historical progressivity of this stage of Russian history, within the framework of the development of the economy and culture.

Sources.

Chronicles remain the most important sources for the history of medieval Russia. FROM late XII in. their circle is expanding considerably. With the development of individual lands and principalities, regional chronicles spread.

The largest body of sources is made up of act materials - letters written on a variety of occasions. Letters were granted, deposit, in-line, bill of sale, spiritual, truce, statutory, etc., depending on the purpose. With the development of the feudal-local system, the number of current clerical documentation (scribe, sentinel, bit, genealogical books, replies, petitions, memory, court lists) increases. Actual and office materials are valuable sources on the socio-economic history of Russia.

Reasons and essence

1. Reasons

Feudal fragmentation new form state political organization

From the second third of the 12th century, Russia began a period of feudal fragmentation that lasted until the end of the 15th century, through which all the countries of Europe and Asia passed. Feudal fragmentation as a new form of state political organization, which replaced the early feudal Kievan monarchy, corresponded to a developed feudal society.

1.1 Change of early feudal monarchy

It was not by chance that feudal republics developed within the framework of former tribal unions, whose ethnic and regional stability was supported by natural boundaries and cultural traditions.

1.2. Division of labor

As a result of the development of productive forces and the social division of labor, the old tribes. centers and new cities have become economic and political centers. With the "reigning" and "charming" of communal lands, peasants became involved in the system of feudal dependence. The old tribal nobility turned into zemstvo boyars and, together with other categories of feudal lords, formed corporations of landowners.

1.3. Strengthening the political power of local princes and boyars

Within the limits of small states-principalities, the feudal lords could effectively protect their interests, which were little considered in Kyiv. Selecting and securing suitable princes at their "tables", the local nobility forced them to abandon the view of the "tables" as temporary feeding for them.

1.4. The first strife

After the death of Vladimir Svyatoslavovich in 1015, a long war began between his numerous sons, who ruled over separate parts of Russia. The instigator of the strife was Svyatopolk the Accursed, who killed his brothers Boris and Gleb. In internecine wars, princes - brothers brought to Russia either the Pechenegs, or the Poles, or the mercenary detachments of the Varangians. In the end, the winner was Yaroslav the Wise, who divided Russia (along the Dnieper) with his brother Mstislav of Tmutarakan from 1024 to 1036, and then, after the death of Mstislav, became "autocratic".

1.5. Russia in the middle 11th century

After the death of Yaroslav the Wise in 1054, a significant number of sons, relatives and cousins ​​of the Grand Duke ended up in Russia. Each of them had one or another "fatherland", his own domain, and each, to the best of his ability, sought to increase the domain or exchange it for a richer one. This created a tense situation in all princely centers and in Kyiv itself. Researchers sometimes call the time after the death of Yaroslav the time of feudal fragmentation, but this cannot be considered correct, since real feudal fragmentation occurs when individual lands crystallize, large cities grow up to head these lands, when each sovereign principality consolidates its own princely dynasty. All this appeared in Russia only after 1132, and in the second half of the 11th century. everything was changeable, fragile and unstable. Princely strife ruined the people and the squad, shook the Russian state, but did not introduce any new political form.

1.6. End strife 11th century

AT last quarter 11th century in the difficult conditions of an internal crisis and the constant threat of external danger from the Polovtsian khans, princely strife acquired the character of a national disaster. The Grand Duke's throne became the object of contention: Svyatoslav Yaroslavich expelled his older brother Izyaslav from Kyiv, "initiating the expulsion of the brothers."

The strife became especially terrible after the son of Svyatoslav Oleg entered into allied relations with the Polovtsy and repeatedly brought the Polovtsian hordes to Russia for a self-serving solution between princely quarrels.

Oleg's enemy was the young Vladimir Vsevolodovich Monomakh, who reigned in the border Pereslavl.

Monomakh managed to convene a princely congress in Lyubech in 1097, the task of which was to secure the "fatherland" for the princes, condemn the instigator of the strife Oleg and, if possible, eliminate future strife in order to resist the Polovtsy with united forces. However, the princes were powerless to establish order not only in the entire Russian land, but even within their princely circle of relatives and cousins ​​and nephews. Immediately after the congress, a new strife broke out in Lyubech, which lasted for several years. The only force that, under those conditions, could really stop the rotation of the princes and the princely squabbles was the boyars - the main composition of the then young and progressive feudal class. Boyar program at the end of the 11th and beginning of the 12th centuries. consisted in limiting princely arbitrariness and excesses of princely officials, in eliminating strife and in the general defense of Russia from the Polovtsians. Coinciding in these points with the aspirations of the townspeople, this program reflected the interests of the whole people and was, of course, progressive.

Feudal fragmentation in Russia in the XII-XIII centuries: causes, main principalities and lands, differences in the state system.

Reason to start political fragmentation was the formation of large land holdings, received on the basis of freehold.

Feudal fragmentation- a historical period in the history of Russia, which is characterized by the fact that formally being part of Kievan Rus, the specific principalities are constantly separated from Kyiv

Start - 1132 (death of the Kyiv prince Mstislav the Great)

The ending - the formation of a single Russian state at the end of the 15th century

Causes of feudal fragmentation:

Preservation of significant tribal fragmentation under the dominance of subsistence farming (social)

The development of feudal ownership of land and the growth of specific, princely-boyar land ownership - estates (economic)

Struggle for power between princes, feudal civil strife (internal political)

Constant raids of nomads and the outflow of the population to the north-east of Russia (foreign policy)

The decline of trade along the Dnieper due to the Polovtsian danger and the loss by Byzantium of the leading role in international trade (economic)

The growth of cities as centers of specific land, the development of productive forces (economic)

The absence in the middle of the 12th century of a serious external threat (Poland, Hungary), which rallied the princes to fight

Emergence of principalities:

Novgorod boyar republic:

Novgorod land (north-western Russia) occupied a vast territory from the Arctic Ocean to the upper reaches of the Volga, from the Baltic to the Urals.

Novgorod land was far from the nomads and did not experience the horror of their raids. The wealth of the Novgorod land consisted in the presence of a huge land fund, which fell into the hands of the local boyars, who grew out of the local tribal nobility. Novgorod did not have enough of its own bread, but fishing activities - hunting, fishing, salt making, iron production, beekeeping - received significant development and gave considerable income to the boyars. The rise of Novgorod was facilitated by an exceptionally favorable geographical position: the city was at the crossroads of trade routes that connected Western Europe with Russia, and through it - with the East and Byzantium. Dozens of ships were moored at the berths of the Volkhov River in Novgorod.

The Novgorod boyar republic is characterized by some features of the social system and feudal relations: the significant social and feudal weight of the Novgorod boyars, which has long traditions, and its active participation in trade and fishing activities. The main economic factor was not land, but capital. This led to a special social structure of society and an unusual form of state government for medieval Russia. The Novgorod boyars organized commercial and industrial enterprises, trade with their western neighbors (the Hanseatic Trade Union) and with the Russian principalities.

By analogy with some regions of medieval Western Europe (Genoa, Venice), a peculiar republican (feudal) system. The development of crafts and trade, more intensive than in the ancient Russian lands, which was explained by access to the seas, required the creation of more democratic state system, the basis of which was a rather broad middle class Novgorod society: live people engaged in trade and usury, natives (a kind of farmers or farmers) leased or cultivated the land. Merchants united in several hundred (communities) and traded with the Russian principalities and with "abroad" ("guests").

The urban population was divided into patricians (“oldest”) and “black people”. The Novgorod (Pskov) peasantry consisted, as in other Russian lands, of smerds - community members, ladles - dependent peasants working "from the floor" for part of the product on the master's land, pawns ("mortgaged") who entered bondage and serfs.

State administration of Novgorod was carried out through a system of veche bodies: in the capital there was city ​​council , separate parts of the city (sides, ends, streets) convened their veche meetings. Formally, the veche was the highest authority (each at its own level).

Veche - part assembly male the population of the city, had broad powers (the "city-wide" veche): there were cases that it called the prince, judged his "guilts", "showed him the way" from Novgorod; elected the posadnik, the thousandth and the lord; resolved issues of war and peace; made and repealed laws; established the amount of taxes and duties; elected representatives of power in the Novgorod possessions and judged them.

Prince - was invited by citizens to reign, served as commander in chief and organizer of the defense of the city. He shared military and judicial activities with the posadnik. According to agreements with the city (about eighty agreements of the 13th-15th centuries are known), the prince was forbidden to acquire land in Novgorod, to distribute the land of Novgorod volosts to his entourage. Also, according to the agreement, he was forbidden to manage Novgorod volosts, administer justice outside the city, legislate, declare war and make peace. please him. In case of violation of the treaties, the prince could be expelled.

Posadnik - The executive power was in the hands of the posadnik, the first civil dignitary, chairman of the people's council. Their functions included: relations with foreign states, courts and internal administration. During the performance of their duties, they were called sedate (from the word "degree" - the platform from which they addressed the veche). Upon retirement, they received the title of the old posadnik and the old thousand.

Tysyatsky - the leader of the Novgorod militia, and also his duties included: tax collection, commercial court.

The Council of Masters is a kind of Novgorodian supreme chamber. The council included: the archbishop, the posadnik, the thousand, the Konchansky elders, the sotsk elders, the old posadniks and the thousand.

The regulation of relations between the Council of Lords, the posadnik and the veche with the prince were established by special rules. contract letters.

The sources of law in this region were Russkaya Pravda, veche legislation, city treaties with princes, judicial practice, and foreign legislation. As a result of codification in the 15th century, Novgorod judicial charters appeared in Novgorod.

As a result of the war of 1471 and the campaign of Moscow troops against Veliky Novgorod in 1477-1478. many institutions of republican power were abolished. The Novgorod Republic became an integral part of the Russian state, while retaining some autonomy. Vladimiro - Suzdal Principality

The Vladimir-Suzdal principality is a typical example of the Russian principality of the period of feudal fragmentation. Occupying a large territory - from the Northern Dvina to the Oka and from the sources of the Volga to its confluence with the Oka, Vladimir-Suzdal Rus eventually became the center around which the Russian lands united, it developed Russian centralized state. Moscow was founded on its territory. The growth of the influence of this large principality was largely facilitated by the fact that it was there passed from Kyiv the grand ducal title. All Vladimir-Suzdal princes, descendants of Vladimir Monomakh, from Yuri Dolgoruky (1125-1157) to Daniil of Moscow (1276-1303) bore this title.

The metropolitan see was also moved there. The Vladimir-Suzdal principality did not retain its unity and integrity for long. Shortly after its rise under Grand Duke Vsevolod the Big Nest (1176-1212), it broke up into small principalities. In the 70s. 13th century the Moscow principality also became independent.

Social system. The structure of the class of feudal lords in the Vladimir-Suzdal principality differed little from that in Kyiv. However, here a new category of petty feudal lords arises - the so-called boyar children. In the XII century. there is also a new term - " nobles". The ruling class also included clergy, which in all Russian lands of the period of feudal fragmentation, including the Vladimir-Suzdal principality, retained its organization, which was built according to the church charters of the first Russian Christian princes - St. Vladimir and Yaroslav the Wise. Having conquered Russia, the Tatar-Mongols left the organization of the Orthodox Church unchanged. They confirmed the privileges of the church with khan's labels. The oldest of them, issued by Khan Mengu-Temir (1266-1267), guaranteed the inviolability of faith, worship and church canons, retained the jurisdiction of the clergy and other church persons to church courts (with the exception of cases of robbery, murder, exemption from taxes, duties and duties). The metropolitan and bishops of the Vladimir land had their own vassals - the boyars, the children of the boyars and the nobles, who carried out their military service.

The bulk of the population of the Vladimir-Suzdal principality were villagers, who were called here orphans, Christians, and later - peasants. They paid dues to the feudal lords and were gradually deprived of the right to freely move from one owner to another.

Politic system. The Vladimir-Suzdal principality was early feudal monarchy with strong grand ducal power. Already the first Rostov-Suzdal prince - Yuri Dolgoruky - was a strong ruler who managed to conquer Kyiv in 1154. In 1169 Andrei Bogolyubsky again conquered the "mother of Russian cities", but did not transfer his capital there - he returned to Vladimir, thereby reaffirming its metropolitan status. He also managed to subjugate the Rostov boyars to his power, for which he was nicknamed the "autocracy" of the Vladimir-Suzdal land. Even at the time of the Tatar-Mongol yoke, the Vladimir table continued to be considered the first grand princely throne in Russia. The Tatar-Mongols preferred to leave intact the internal state structure of the Vladimir-Suzdal principality and the tribal order of succession of the grand duke's power.

The Grand Duke of Vladimir relied on a squad, from among which, as in the times of Kievan Rus, the Council under the prince was formed. In addition to the warriors, the council included representatives of the higher clergy, and after the transfer of the metropolitan see to Vladimir, the metropolitan himself.

The Grand Duke's court was ruled by a courtier (butler) - the second most important person in the state apparatus. The Ipatiev Chronicle (1175) among the princely assistants also mentions tiuns, swordsmen, children, which indicates that the Vladimir-Suzdal principality inherited from Kievan Rus palace and patrimonial system of government.

Local power belonged to governors (in cities) and volostels (in rural areas). They ruled the court in the lands under their jurisdiction, showing not so much concern for the administration of justice, but the desire for personal enrichment at the expense of the local population and replenishment of the grand ducal treasury, because, as the same Ipatiev Chronicle says, "they created a lot of burden for people with sales and virami".

Right. The sources of law of the Vladimir-Suzdal Principality have not reached us, but there is no doubt that there were national legislative codes of Kievan Rus. The legal system of the principality included sources of secular and ecclesiastical law. Secular law was introduced Russian Truth. Church law proceeded from the norms of the all-Russian charters of the Kyiv princes of an earlier time - the Charter of Prince Vladimir on tithes, church courts and church people, the Charter of Prince Yaroslav on church courts.

Galicia-Volyn principality

Social system. A feature of the social structure of the Galicia-Volyn principality was that a large group of boyars was formed there, in whose hands almost all land holdings were concentrated. The most important role played Galician men"- large votchinniki, who already in the 12th century opposed any attempts to limit their rights in favor of princely power and growing cities.

The other group consisted service feudal lords. The sources of their land holdings were princely grants, boyar lands confiscated and redistributed by the princes, as well as seized communal lands. In the vast majority of cases, they held the land conditionally while they served. Serving feudal lords supplied the prince with an army consisting of peasants dependent on them. It was the support of the Galician princes in the fight against the boyars.

The large church nobility in the person of archbishops, bishops, abbots of monasteries who owned vast lands and peasants. The church and monasteries acquired land holdings at the expense of grants and donations from the princes. Often they, like princes and boyars, seized communal lands, turning the peasants into monastic and church feudal-dependent people.

The bulk of the rural population in the Galicia-Volyn principality were peasants (smerdy). The growth of large landownership and the formation of a class of feudal lords were accompanied by the establishment of feudal dependence and the appearance of feudal rent. Such a category as serfs has almost disappeared . Serfdom merged with the peasants who were sitting on the ground.

The largest group of the urban population were artisans. In the cities there were jewelry, pottery, blacksmith and other workshops, the products of which went not only to the domestic, but also to the foreign market. Bringing big income salt trade. Being the center of crafts and trade, Galich gained fame as a cultural center. The Galician-Volych chronicle was created here, as well as other written monuments of the 11th-111th centuries.

Political system. The Galicia-Volyn principality remained united longer than many other Russian lands, although power in him belonged big boyars . power princes was fragile. Suffice it to say that the Galician boyars disposed of even the princely table - they invited and removed the princes. The history of the Galicia-Volyn principality is full of examples when the princes, who lost the support of the top of the boyars, were forced to go into exile. To fight the princes, the boyars invited Poles and Hungarians. Several Galician-Volyn princes were hanged by the boyars. The boyars exercised their power with the help of a council, which included the largest landowners, bishops and persons holding the highest government positions. The prince had no right to convene a council at will, could not issue a single act without his consent. Since the council included boyars who occupied major administrative positions, the entire state administration apparatus was actually subordinate to it.

The Galician-Volyn princes from time to time, under emergency circumstances, convened a veche, but it did not have much influence. They took part in all-Russian feudal congresses. Occasionally, congresses of feudal lords and the Galicia-Volyn principality were convened. In this principality, there was a palace-patrimonial system of government.

The territory of the state was divided into thousands and hundreds. As the thousand and sotsky with their administrative apparatus gradually became part of the palace and patrimonial apparatus of the prince, the positions of voivodes and volostels arose instead of them. Accordingly, the territory was divided into voivodeships and volosts. Elders were elected in the communities, who were in charge of administrative and petty court cases. Posadniks were appointed to cities. They possessed not only administrative and military power, but also performed judicial functions, collected tributes and duties from the population.

Even during the life of Yaroslav the Wise, and especially after his death, the fragmentation of Russia into small specific principalities with its own table begins. Strengthening of princely strife in the XII century. led to the active isolation of individual lands. In the XII - early XIII century. in different Russian lands their own art schools arise: Novgorod, Vladimir-Suzdal, Galicia-Volyn, Ryazan, schools of Polotsk and Smolensk. They are formed on the basis of the traditions of Kievan Rus, but each brings something of its own, characteristic only for this land, associated with everyday features and artistic achievements, with socio-political and geographical conditions.

Each land, each principality has a main city, diligently defended, like all medieval cities. The upper part of the city, the most fortified, is the citadel, later more often called the Kremlin, the lower part is a settlement with a trading square, also often surrounded by ramparts and wooden walls. Small towns were fortified in the same way.

For the longest time, Kievan traditions were preserved in Chernihiv. In the XII century. the "striped" masonry system is being replaced by a new, ordinary equal-layer, brick rectangular shape. So that the facades do not look poor, they are modestly decorated with arcade belts, also made of brick, multi-ledged portals and niches. Some Chernigov churches, such as, for example, the now restored temple of Boris and Gleb, had pilasters with beautiful capitals, decorated with white stone carvings. The Church of Boris and Gleb is a majestic six-pillar temple, like another Chernihiv church that appeared as a result of excavations, the Annunciation Cathedral of 1186, which has preserved fragments of a richly decorated mosaic floor.

In the Chernihiv church of Paraskeva Pyatnitsa, with the help of a special system of girth arches and false decorative zakomaras - kokoshniks at the base of the drum - an amazingly simple architectural image of a rapid upward movement was solved while maintaining the traditional scheme of a four-pillar, three-apse church. There is a version that the architect Peter Miloneg built the Chernihiv church.

Actually, the Pyatnitsky temple is a modification of the already found image of the growing movement (thanks to the high pedestal of the central part, carrying the drum and the head) - in the Transfiguration Cathedral of the Euphrosyne Monastery in Polotsk, executed by the architect John in 1159 in the ancient technique of "striped" masonry with "recessed near” and preserved beautiful frescoes, still awaiting their complete clearing. We see the same principle in the Smolensk Cathedral of the Archangel Michael, built by order of Prince David Rostislavich in the 80-90s of the 12th century, with its cubic shape of the main building, as if elevated above three narthexes. Aspiration upwards is emphasized by beam pilasters of a complex profile. Construction material there is also brick here, but Smolensk architects preferred to hide it under whitewash. Highly qualified artels of builders worked in Smolensk, here they found a creative embodiment of the traditions of Byzantium, the Balkans, the Romanesque West. The same variety of cultural contacts is characteristic of the Galician-Volyn school, which developed in the west of Russia, in the Dniester region. The peculiarity of the Galician-Volyn culture was especially manifested in the style of the annals, in their complex ornate style with bold, unexpected turns: “Let's start countless rati and great labors and frequent wars and many seditions, uprisings and many rebellions” - with these words the Galician-Volyn Chronicle begins .

The architects of Galich used white stone - local limestone, from which they built temples of various plans: four- and six-pillared, and pillarless, and round in plan - rotundas. Unfortunately, Galician architecture is known to us mainly from literary descriptions, however, as a result of archaeological work in recent years, the nature of this architecture is becoming clearer. art school. It is especially difficult to restore the true appearance of the temples of Western Russia, because Catholic Church for many centuries destroyed all traces of Russian culture. The Church of Panteleimon near Galich (beginning of the 13th century), with its perspective portal and carved capitals, speaks of high level Galician architectural school. It is interesting to note that if the masonry technique and decoration of Galician churches are associated with Romanesque architecture, then the plan of these four-pillar cross-domed churches is typical of Russian architecture of the 12th century. Let us note here that in those terrible decades of the second half of the 13th century, when most of the Russian lands were scorched by the Mongol-Tatars, it was a relatively prosperous time for Galich and Volyn (the western part of the principality). The center of artistic life then becomes the new capital of the Galician Principality - the Hill, where especially lively construction is underway under Prince Daniel. The Church of St. John Chrysostom, for example, was decorated with carved stone, colored and gilded, carved by the Russian master Obadius in 1259. Inside the temple, the floor, lined with copper plates and majolica, sparkled. And such a church was not the only one, which is confirmed by excavations.

Galician-Volyn architecture experienced a certain influence of Western early Gothic architecture. This is also evidenced by round rotunda churches (for example, the remains of a church in Vladimir-Volynsky), and a new type of brick - squared (and not a flat Kyiv plinth). In the middle of the XIV century. The Galicia-Volyn lands lost their independence and became part of Poland and Lithuania.

The art of the Vladimir-Suzdal and Novgorod-Pskov lands is developing most interestingly. The lands of Vladimir and Suzdal, rich in forests and rivers, stretched from Ustyug to Murom. The Slavs, who settled these territories in the 9th–10th centuries, merged with the local tribes of the Finno-Ugric group (Mer, Vesy, Murom), creating a center of the Great Russian people. The princes founded new cities on these lands: Yaroslav the Wise gave rise to the city of Yaroslavl, Monomakh founded the city of his own name - Vladimir, Yuri Dolgoruky - Pereslavl-Zalessky, in which he built the Cathedral of the Transfiguration of the Savior, and in his princely residence Kideksha - a church in honor of the martyr princes Boris and Gleb (1152). At the dawn of the formation of the Vladimir-Suzdal artistic tradition, in the 50s of the 12th century, mainly Galician masters worked here.

The art of the Vladimir land acquires its distinctive features and flourishes under the son of Yuri, Andrei Bogolyubsky, who moved the table to Vladimir and fortified the city with a wooden wall. In the Ipatiev Chronicle it is said about him that he "made Volodymyr very much." The surviving monument of those years is the Golden Gate in Vladimir, built in the western part of the city, facing Moscow, and named so in imitation of Kyiv: two powerful pillars (a triumphal arch at the same time as a defense knot) with a gate church of the Deposition of the Robe (1164).

Andrei Bogolyubsky also erected the main shrine of Vladimir - the Assumption Cathedral (1158-1161), a majestic six-pillar temple, built of large, tightly fitting slabs of local white limestone with backfill ("but" - crushed stone, building remains that filled the space between the two plates). An arcade belt runs horizontally along the entire facade of the Vladimir Assumption Cathedral: the shoulder blades dividing the facade are decorated with semi-columns, the same semi-columns on the apses; perspective portals, slit-like windows. Spindles (still very sparingly) are decorated with sculptural reliefs. All these features will become typical for the architecture of the Vladimir-Suzdal land. The majestic helmet of a powerful drum sparkles with gold. The cathedral rises proudly over the Klyazma. No less solemn was the interior of the cathedral, as contemporaries wrote, richly decorated with precious utensils. Both Russian and foreign masters took part in the construction of the Assumption Cathedral in Vladimir.

As in Chernihiv, Romanesque features appeared on this land mainly in decor, in carving, but in the main thing - in construction, plan, in solving volumes - Kyiv traditions affected. It was not for nothing that Vladimir Monomakh built the Rostov Cathedral on the model of the Kyiv Assumption Cathedral (to the same extent, as it is said in the Caves Patericon - a collection of legends about the monks of the Kiev Caves Monastery).

In memory of the successful campaign of the Suzdal troops against the Volga Bulgars, one of the most poetic ancient Russian churches, the Intercession on the Nerl (1165), was founded. It is dedicated to a new feast of the Mother of God cycle - the Feast of the Intercession. (According to one old source, the prince built the temple “in the meadow”, grieving over the death of his beloved son Izyaslav.) The Church of the Intercession on the Nerl River is like a typical one-domed four-pillar temple of the 12th century. It has all the characteristic features of Vladimir architecture: slit-like windows, perspective portals, arcade belt along the facades and eaves of the apses. But unlike the Assumption Cathedral, it is all directed upwards, vertical lines prevail in it, which is emphasized by narrow curtains, and windows, and semi-columns on the apses, and even by the fact that, starting from the arcade belt, the walls at the top are somewhat tilted inward. Excavations by N.N. Voronin showed that during the time of Prince Andrei, the temple looked somewhat different: it was surrounded on three sides by a gallery-ambulance and stood on an artificial hill paved with white slabs, the construction of which was necessary, since the meadow was flooded in spring. The interior of the temple was expanded by shifting the pillars of the side aisles closer to the walls, and in this case the height of the aisles is 10 times their width.

Three wide central shrouds of the three facades of the temple are decorated with the figure of David the Psalmist, with a harp on his knees, surrounded by animals and birds, singing all the diversity of the world, glorifying "all creatures of the earth" ("Praise the Lord in heaven, praise him all creatures of the earth"). Often there is also the motif of a female mask. The harmony of forms, the lightness of proportions, the poetic image of the Church of the Intercession strikes anyone who sees this amazing creation of ancient Russian architects. The chronicle says that craftsmen "from all lands" took part in the construction of the Intercession Church.

There is a legend that Andrei Bogolyubsky was carrying the icon of Our Lady of Vladimir from Kyiv, 10 km before reaching Vladimir, the horses stumbled, and this was regarded by the prince as a sign to build his suburban residence. So, according to legend, the Bogolyubov Palace (1158-1165) arose, or rather, a real castle-fortress, which included a cathedral, transitions from it to the prince's tower, etc. In front of the cathedral, on the square, there was an eight-column kiborium (canopy) with a water-blessing cup, completed with a tent. One staircase tower with a passage to the church has survived to this day. Probably, it was in such a passage that the boyars killed the prince, and he, bloodied, crawled up the stairs, as the annals unforgettably vividly tell about this. Excavations of recent years have also discovered the lower parts of the church, the ciborium and the remains of the stone walls around.

During the reign of Vsevolod III, nicknamed Vsevolod the Big Nest for his numerous offspring, the Assumption Cathedral in Vladimir received the appearance that is familiar to us. After a fire in 1185, the cathedral was rebuilt into a five-domed one, surrounded by a gallery, and thus the old St. Andrew's Church turned out to be, as it were, enclosed in a new shell.

On the central hill of Vladimir, in the complex of a palace that has not survived to our time, was erected in honor of the patron Vsevolod - Dmitry Solunsky - Dmitrievsky Cathedral (1194-1197), one-domed, three-aisled, four-pillared, originally had towers, galleries, a cathedral of the same clear and precise design, as the Church of the Intercession, but essentially different from it. Demetrius Cathedral is not directed upward, but solemnly, calmly and majestically stands on the ground. Not with lightness and grace, but with epic power, his impressively massive image emanates, as from epic hero Ilya Muromets, which is achieved by proportions: the height of the wall is almost equal to the width, while in the temple on the Nerl it is several times greater than the width. A feature of the Dmitrievsky Cathedral is its carving. A powerful columnar belt divides the facades horizontally into two parts, the entire upper part is completely decorated with carvings. In the middle zakomars, as in the Church of the Intercession, David is also depicted, and on one of the spindles there is a portrait of Prince Vsevolod with his younger son Dmitry and other older sons approaching him from two sides. All the rest of the space is occupied by the image of animals and "birds", filled in abundance with floral ornaments, fairy-tale and everyday motifs (hunter, fighting people, centaur, mermaid, etc.). Everything is mixed up: people, animals, real and fabulous, and everything together makes up a unity. Many of the motifs have a long "pagan history", inspired by pagan symbols, once had an ancient magical, incantatory meaning (the "tree of life" motif, images of birds, lions, griffins, two birds fused with their tails, etc.). The manner of the image is purely Russian, flat, in some cases coming from the skills wood carving in which the Russian people were so skillful. The arrangement of the reliefs is "linear", as in folk art, in the art of towel embroidery. If the craftsmen "from the Germans" still worked under Prince Andrei, then the decoration of the Dmitrievsky Cathedral is most likely the work of Russian architects and carvers.

Under the successors of Vsevolod III, other cities of the principality began to rise: Suzdal, Nizhny Novgorod. Under Prince Yuri Vsevolodovich, the Cathedral of the Nativity of the Virgin was built in Suzdal (1122-1125, the upper part was rebuilt in the 16th century), six-pillared, with three vestibules and at first with three domes. One of the last buildings of the pre-Mongol era was St. George's Cathedral in Yuryev-Polsky in honor of St. George (1230–1234): a cubic temple with three vestibules, unfortunately rebuilt in the 15th century. and became much more squat as a result of restructuring. The zakomars and archivolts of the portals retained their keeled shape. Distinctive feature Cathedral in Yuriev - its plastic decoration, because the building was completely covered with carvings. Perestroika of the 15th century violated its decorative system. Separate figures of saints and scenes of the Holy Scriptures were made mainly in high relief and on separate slabs inserted into the walls, while a continuous patterned ornament - vegetable and animal - was performed directly on the walls and in flat carving. Covered from top to bottom with a carving pattern, the temple really resembles some kind of intricate box or a giant, woven with a pattern of boards. Religious and political themes, fairy tales, and the military theme are reflected here, not without reason on the main, northern facade, warriors are depicted - patrons of the Grand Duke's house of the Vladimir land, and above the portal - St. George, the patron of Grand Duke Yuri, in chain mail and a shield decorated with a figure of a leopard - the emblem of the Suzdal princes.

Applied art was at the same high level in the Vladimir-Suzdal land, suffice it to recall the copper western gates of the already mentioned Suzdal Cathedral, painted with “burnt gold” (a complex technique of the so-called fire gilding, “gold aiming”, reminiscent of etching in graphics), or bracelets of the Vladimir treasures, in which the pattern of the ornament (for example, the double contour of the figure) finds an analogue in the sculpture of cathedrals.

We can judge the monumental painting of this school by the surviving fragments of the scene of the Last Judgment of the Dmitrievsky Cathedral (end of the 12th century), the murals of which, according to researchers, were performed by both Russian and Byzantine masters. Among the easel works, one can point out the large “Yaroslavskaya Oranta” (more precisely, “Our Lady of Oranta – the Great Panagia”, State Tretyakov Gallery), a work that echoes the Oranta of Kyiv Sophia in its festive color, but this is only an external resemblance. The essence of the image is not in the presence of the Mother of God to Christ, as in Kyiv, but in her address to the upcoming, praying, and it is no coincidence that the maforium resembles a cover in the future purely Russian origin of the iconography of the image of the "Protection".

Over the course of a century, Vladimir-Suzdal art has gone from the harsh simplicity of early churches, like the Church of Boris and Gleb in Kideksha and the Church of the Savior in Pereslavl-Zalessky, to the refined elegance of St. George's Cathedral in Yuryev.

On such a high note, at such a level of skill, this development was interrupted by the invasion of the Batu hordes. Vladimir-Suzdal land was destined to be the first to take a hit. But the art of the principality was not completely destroyed, it managed to have a decisive influence on the culture of the emerging Moscow, and this is a huge historical meaning art of the Vladimir-Suzdal land as a whole.

The north-west of Russia - the Novgorod and Pskov lands - due to its geographical position on the outskirts of the Russian lands, experienced a wide variety of artistic influences. Starting from the XII century. the face of Novgorod culture began to be determined by the trade and craft environment. Novgorod trade in the XII century. acquired an international character. In 1136 Novgorod became a veche republic. The prince was limited in his rights, and soon he was generally evicted beyond the boundaries of Novgorod, to the "fortified settlement". “The Novgorodians showed the way to Prince Vsevolod; we don’t want you, go whatever you want,” it is recorded in the Novgorod Chronicle.

Princely tastes manifested themselves in the first buildings of the beginning of the 12th century, which have already been mentioned, primarily in three cathedrals built by the master Peter: Blagoveshchensky, Nikolo-Dvorishchensky and St. ). The epic power, grandeur, simplicity of the constructive solution, the true monumentality of forms were especially expressed in the St. George's Cathedral, the static masses of which are given dynamism by the asymmetric completion of the top. Its walls are breathtakingly high and impregnable.

But it is not this majestic six-pillared cathedral that becomes a typical temple of the feudal era, but a small cubic-shaped one-domed church with one or three apses, of which two side apses are lowered, such as, for example, the Church of the Savior on Nereditsa in 1198, built (already in accordance with with the tastes of Novgorod Posad) by Prince Yaroslav Vladimirovich at the settlement.

Spas-Nereditsa as a princely order is an exception in the second half of the 12th century. From now on, these temples become parish churches of the street, or “end”, they are created with the money of “stalkers” (residents of one street) or a rich boyar, from a local limestone slab, rubbed with mortar interspersed with rows of bricks. The local stone was difficult to carve - and Novgorod churches, in fact, have no decor, it is difficult to maintain clarity, geometric lines, as in brickwork, and the curvature of the walls erected without a plumb line, the unevenness of the planes give the Novgorod churches a kind of "sculpture", plasticity . Kyiv's exquisite luxury was alien to trade and craft, business, enterprising Novgorod. Democratic simplicity, rigor, impressive strength - his aesthetic ideal. As hegumen Daniel said, "not cunningly, but simply." An analogue of the Nereditskaya church, with slight modifications, can be found in the church of George in Staraya Ladoga (second half of the 12th century). Starting from the XII century. Novgorodians began to cover brick churches with whitewash.

The Novgorod school acquires its own face in the 12th century. and in painting. If the fresco painting of 1108 in Novgorod Sofia is characterized by the highest degree of conventionality of frozen figures, so familiar to the early period of ancient Russian art; if in the fragmentary preserved painting of the Nativity Cathedral of the Antoniev Monastery (1125) one can feel the influence of the Romanesque and Balkan schools, and in the scene “Job with his wife” of the St. Nicholas Cathedral, the classical tradition of Kyiv monuments is obvious, then in the painting of St. In all, the Byzantine master, a planar, linear, graphic principle prevails (for example, in the fresco "The Miracle of George about the Serpent" with its exquisite linear rhythm and color, in which Saint George the serpent fighter is perceived as a valiant warrior, defender of the borders of the Russian Land). The ornamental beginning can be traced even more strongly on the surviving faces of saints in the frescoes of the Church of the Annunciation near the village of Arkazhi (now it is within the city), whose hair and beards are modeled using linear highlights - “gaps”.

A genuine "encyclopedia of medieval life", according to V.N. Lazarev, the murals of the Church of the Savior Nereditsa, which died during the Great Patriotic War, were an artistic expression of the medieval worldview. The temple was painted the next year after it was built, in 1199. The frescoes covered the walls completely, from top to bottom, like a carpet, regardless of the tectonics of the wall. Their location is traditional, canonical. The composition of the Ascension was depicted in the dome, the prophets in the drum, the evangelists in the sails, the Mother of God of the Sign in the central apse, the Eucharist below, the hierarchal rank, and then the Deesis. Feasts (ie scenes from the life of Christ and Mary) and the Passion of Christ were placed on the walls. On the western wall, as usual, was presented Last Judgment, which was supported by the inscription: "Terrible Judgment". The apostles and angels looked with sorrow and anxiety at mankind full of sinfulness; for greater persuasiveness, some scenes of hell are provided with explanatory inscriptions: "Mraz", "gnashing of teeth", "pitch darkness". Only in democratic Novgorod could a scene depicting a rich man be born, to whom, at the request to “drink some water”, the devil brings a flame - a visual evidence of the punishment of the rich in the afterlife. An inscription near a naked rich man sitting on a bench in hell reads: “Father Abram, have mercy on me, and eat Lazor, let him soak his finger in water and make my tongue cool from (not) I can’t in this flame.” To which the devil replies: "Rich friend, drink the burning flame."

In the Church of the Savior on Nereditsa, several individual handwritings are clearly visible, among which there are both more picturesque and more graphic, but this does not deprive temple painting of stylistic unity. The general impression of the murals of Nereditsa is severity, almost asceticism, and inflexibility, sometimes reaching frenzy, all the more impressive because they did not come from abstract Byzantine faces, but from samples of uniquely individual, elusive features reminiscent of Novgorod faces. These, of course, are not portraits, but generalized types, in which the features inherent in Novgorod were expressed: fortitude, the ability to stand up for oneself, to defend one's case, characters are strong and whole. In the murals of Nereditsa there is no hint of secular subjects, the whole cycle is intended to serve the main thing - to instruct in the faith.

In icon painting, next to the still living Kyiv tradition, when icons retain a festive character, are filled with exquisite writing, with the introduction of gold, another line of writing is formed - more primitive, in which much is borrowed from folk art. Most often these are red-backed icons.

It is against this background that “Evan, George and Vlasy” is presented in an icon from the collection of the Russian Museum (second half of the 13th century). The painting is built on contrasts of bright colors (blue, yellow and white clothes of saints on a red background), the image is flat, graphic, the figures are frontal, and, in order to emphasize the dominant role of John of the Ladder (“Evan”), the master makes his image emphasized large in comparison with figures of two other saints. In Novgorod icons, as well as in murals, the masters show keen observation, hence the vitality of their images.

Painting is also developing in a handwritten book. In the Yuryev Gospel, created for the abbot of the Yuryev Monastery Kyriakos in 1119-1128, the design of the initials is induced by one cinnabar, planes, just like ancient Russian carvings are flat; the motifs of capital letters are extremely diverse, from figurative (images of people and animals - a horse under a saddlecloth, a camel, etc.) to vegetative ones.

Novgorodians were no less skillful in artistic crafts. Several remarkable silver church vessels have survived from this time: two signed craters (a vessel for the Eucharist) by the craftsmen Bratila and Kosta and two sions (church vessels in the form of a temple model) - brilliant works of Russian goldsmiths (all mid-12th century, Novgorod Historical and Architectural Museum -reserve).

The "younger brother" of Novgorod, Pskov, was under his powerful influence for a long time, but over time it acquired its own expressive artistic style. Around 1156, outside the city limits (now in the center of Pskov), the Transfiguration Cathedral of the Mirozhsky Monastery was erected - with a strongly emphasized cross-domed plan, with a massive, disproportionately heavy dome on an equally wide drum. The sharply lowered side apses, emphasizing the central space, testify to a certain Greek influence. Inside the cathedral, paintings have been preserved, completely cleared today, in some scenes, in their expressiveness, anticipating the style of Nereditsa.

So in different lands Ancient Russia in local forms, with local modifications, one general idea was born in architecture, in painting, where mosaic gave way to fresco, in applied arts. At the highest level, the development of ancient Russian art was interrupted by the Mongol-Tatar invasion. “And longing spread over the Russian land, and sad sadness flows through the Russian land,” says the Tale of Igor's Campaign.