The temptation to "look" into the past and "see" the bygone life with one's own eyes overwhelms any historian-researcher. In addition, such time travel does not require fantastic devices. An ancient document is the most reliable carrier of information, which, like a magic key, unlocks the treasured door to the past. Daniil Lukich Mordovtsev*, a well-known journalist and writer in the 19th century, received such a blessed opportunity for the historian. His historical monograph "Russian School Books" was published in 1861 in the fourth book of "Readings in the Society of Russian History and Antiquities at Moscow University". The work is devoted to the ancient Russian school, about which at that time (and, by the way, even now) so little was known.
... And before this, there were schools in the Russian kingdom, in Moscow, in Veliky Novograd and in other cities ... Literacy, writing and singing, and they taught honor. Therefore, at that time there were a lot of literacy, and scribes and readers were glorious in all the earth.Many people are still convinced that in the pre-Petrine era in Russia nothing was taught at all. Moreover, education itself was then allegedly persecuted by the church, which demanded only that the students somehow recite prayers by heart and gradually sort out printed liturgical books. Yes, and they taught, they say, only the children of priests, preparing them for taking the dignity. Those of the nobility who believed in the truth "teaching is light ..." entrusted the education of their offspring to foreigners discharged from abroad. The rest were found "in the darkness of ignorance."
All this refutes Mordovtsev. In his research, he relied on a curious historical source, which fell into his hands, - "ABC". In the preface to the monograph dedicated to this manuscript, the author wrote the following: "At present, I have the opportunity to use the most precious monuments of the 17th century, which have not yet been printed anywhere, are not mentioned and which can serve to explain the interesting aspects of ancient Russian pedagogy. Materials these are contained in a lengthy manuscript called "ABC Book" and containing several different textbooks of that time, composed by some kind of "pioneer", partly copied from other, the same publications, which were entitled by the same name, although they differed in content and had different sheet counts.
Having examined the manuscript, Mordovtsev draws the first and most important conclusion: in Ancient Russia schools as such existed. However, this is also confirmed by an older document - the book "Stoglav" (a collection of resolutions of the Stoglav Cathedral, held with the participation of Ivan IV and representatives of the Boyar Duma in 1550-1551). It contains sections that talk about education. In them, in particular, it is determined that the schools are allowed to be maintained by persons of the clergy, if the applicant receives permission from the church authorities. Before giving him one, it was necessary to test the thoroughness of the applicant's own knowledge, and from reliable guarantors to collect possible information about his behavior.
But how were the schools organized, how were they managed, who studied in them? Stoglav did not give answers to these questions. And now, several handwritten ABC books fall into the hands of a historian - very curious books. Despite their name, these are, in fact, not textbooks (they contain neither the alphabet, nor writing, nor learning to count), but rather a guide for the teacher and detailed instructions for the students. It spelled out the full daily routine of the student, by the way, concerning not only the school, but also the behavior of children outside of it.
Following the author, let's look into the Russian school of the 17th century, and we, fortunately, "Azbukovnik" gives this a full opportunity. It all starts with the arrival of children in the morning in a special house - a school. In various "ABCs" instructions on this subject are written in verse or in prose, they, apparently, also served to consolidate reading skills, and therefore the students stubbornly repeated:
In your house, having risen from sleep, wash yourself,
Wipe the good edge of the board that has come,
In the worship of holy images continue,
Bow down to your father and mother.
Go to school carefully
And bring your friend
Enter the school with a prayer,
Just get out.
The prosaic version teaches the same thing.
From the "ABC book" we learn very important fact: education in the times described was not a class privilege in Russia. The manuscript, on behalf of "Wisdom", contains an appeal to parents of different classes to give youths for teaching "cunning literature": wretched, even to the last farmers." The only restriction to learning was the unwillingness of the parents or their absolute poverty, which did not allow at least something to pay the teacher for the education of the child.
But let us follow the student who has entered the school and has already put his hat on the “common garden”, that is, on the shelf, bowing to the images, and the teacher, and the entire student “retinue”. The schoolboy, who came to school early in the morning, had to spend the whole day in it, until the bell for the evening service, which was the signal for the end of classes.
The teaching began with the answer to the lesson learned the day before. When the lesson was told by everyone, the whole “team” performed a common prayer before further classes: “Lord Jesus Christ our God, the creator of all creatures, enlighten me and teach book writing and by this we will know Your desires, as if I glorify You forever and ever, amen !"
Then the students approached the headman, who gave them books to study from, and sat down at a common long student table. Each took the place indicated to him by the teacher, while observing the following instructions:
Malia in you and greatness are all equal,
Teachings for the sake of those who are higher in the place, let them be noble ...
Do not oppress your neighbor
And don't call your comrade by his nickname...
Do not get close to each other,
Do not assign your knees and elbows ...
A place given to you by your teacher
Here your life will be together ...
Books, being the property of the school, were its main value. The attitude to the book was inspired by quivering and respectful. It was required that the students, "closing the book", always put it with the seal up and did not leave "pointing trees" (pointers) in it, did not unbend too much and did not leaf through in vain. It was strictly forbidden to put books on the bench, and at the end of the teaching, the books had to be given to the headman, who put them in the appointed place. And one more piece of advice - do not get carried away looking at book decorations - "falls", but strive to understand what is written in them.
Keep your books well
And put it in place dangerously.
... The book, having closed, with a seal to the height
suppose
The index tree in it is by no means
don't immerse...
Books to the headman in observance,
with prayer, bring
Taking the same in the morning
with respect, regard ...
Do not unfold your books,
And do not bend the sheets in them either ...
Books on the seat
Do not leave,
But on the prepared table
good supply...
If someone does not save books,
Such a soul does not protect his soul ...
The almost verbatim coincidence of the phrases of the prosaic and poetic versions of different "Azbukovnikov" allowed Mordovtsev to assume that the rules reflected in them are the same for all schools of the 17th century, and therefore, we can talk about their general structure in pre-Petrine Russia. This assumption is also prompted by the similarity of instructions regarding a rather strange requirement that forbids students to talk outside the school walls about what is happening in it.
Going to the house, school life
don't say
Punish this and every comrade of yours ...
Words of ludicrous and imitation
do not bring to school
Do not wear out the cases that were in it.
Such a rule, as it were, isolated the students, closing school world into a separate, almost family community. On the one hand, it protected the student from the "unuseful" influences of the external environment, on the other hand, linking the teacher and his wards with special relationships that were inaccessible even to the closest relatives, it excluded outsiders from interfering in the process of training and education. Therefore, it was simply unthinkable to hear from the lips of the teacher of that time the phrase "Don't come to school without your parents" so often used today.
Another instruction, which makes all the ABCs related, speaks of the duties that were assigned to students at school. They had to "attach a school": sweep the rubbish, wash the floors, benches and tables, change the water in the vessels under the "light" - a stand for a torch. Lighting the school with the same torch was also the responsibility of the students, as was the firebox of the stoves. For such work (in modern terms - on duty), the headman of the school "team" appointed students in shifts: "Whoever heats the school, he will build everything in that one."
Bring vessels of fresh water to school,
Wear out the tub with stagnant water,
The table and benches are cleanly washed,
Yes, those who come to school are not vilely seen;
Sim bo your personal beauty is known
And you will have school cleanliness.
Instructions urge students not to fight, not to play pranks, not to steal. It is especially strictly forbidden to make noise in the school itself and next to it. The rigidity of such a rule is understandable: the school was located in a house owned by a teacher, next to the estates of other residents of the city. Therefore, the noise and various "disturbances" that could provoke the anger of the neighbors could well turn into a denunciation to the church authorities. The teacher would have had to give the most unpleasant explanations, and if this was not the first denunciation, then the owner of the school could "fall under a ban on maintaining the school." That is why even attempts to break school rules were stopped immediately and mercilessly.
In general, the discipline in the Old Russian school was strong and severe. The whole day was clearly outlined by the rules, even drinking water was allowed only three times a day, and "for the sake of need, you could go out into the yard" only a few times with the permission of the headman. The same paragraph contains some hygiene rules:
For the sake of someone's need to depart,
Go to the elder four times a day,
Come back from there immediately,
Wash your hands for cleanliness
Whenever you are there.
All "ABCs" had an extensive section - about the punishments of lazy, negligent and obstinate students with a description of the most diverse forms and methods of influence. It is no coincidence that the ABCs begin with a panegyric of the rod, written in cinnabar on the first page:
God bless these forests
Even rods give birth for a long time ...
And not only "Azbukovnik" sings of the rod. In the alphabet, printed in 1679, there are such words: "The rod sharpens the mind, excites the memory."
It is not necessary, however, to think that the power that the teacher possessed, he used beyond all measure - you cannot replace good teaching with skillful flogging. Someone who became famous as a tormentor, and even a bad teacher, no one would give his children to teach. Congenital cruelty (if any) does not appear suddenly in a person, and no one would allow a pathologically cruel person to open a school. How children should be taught was also mentioned in the Code of the Stoglavy Cathedral, which was, in fact, a guide for teachers: "not with rage, not with cruelty, not with anger, but with joyful fear and love custom, and sweet teaching, and affectionate consolation."
It was between these two poles that the path of education ran somewhere, and when the "sweet teaching" did not go to good use, then a "pedagogical tool" came into play, according to the assurances of connoisseurs, "sharpening the mind, stimulating the memory." In various "ABCs" the rules on this subject are set out in an accessible way to the most "rude" student:
If anyone becomes lazy in learning,
Such a wound is not ashamed to endure ...
Flogging did not exhaust the arsenal of punishments, and it must be said that the rod was the last in that row. A scamp could be sent to a punishment cell, the role of which was successfully played by the school's "necessary closet." There is also a mention in the ABCs of such a measure, which is now called "leave after school":
If someone does not teach a lesson,
That of a free leave school
won't get...
However, there is no exact indication of whether the students went home for dinner in the Azbukovniki. Moreover, in one of the passages it is said that the teacher "at the time of the food-eating and the noon from the teaching of the teaching" should read to his students "useful scriptures" about wisdom, about encouraging learning and discipline, about holidays, etc. It remains to be assumed that schoolchildren listened to such teachings at a common lunch at school. Yes, and other signs indicate that the school had a common dinner table, contained in the parent pool. (However, it is possible that this particular order was not the same in different schools.)
So, most of the day the students were inseparably at school. In order to be able to rest or be away on necessary business, the teacher chose an assistant from his students, called the headman. The role of the headman in the inner life of the then school was extremely important. After the teacher, the headman was the second person in the school, he was even allowed to replace the teacher himself. Therefore, the choice of a headman for both the student "team" and the teacher was the most important thing. "ABC Book" prescribed to choose those of the teacher himself from the older students, in the study of diligent and favorable spiritual qualities. The book instructed the teacher: "Keep them in your guard (that is, the elders. - V.Ya.). The kindest and most skillful students who can announce them without you (students. - V.Ya.) shepherd's word".
The number of elders is spoken of in different ways. Most likely, there were three of them: one headman and two of his henchmen, since the circle of duties of the "chosen ones" was unusually wide. They watched the progress of their studies in the absence of a teacher and even had the right to punish those responsible for violating the order established in the school. They listened to the lessons of younger schoolchildren, collected and gave out books, monitored their safety and proper handling. They were in charge of "vacation in the yard" and drinking water. Finally, they controlled the heating, lighting and cleaning of the school. The headman and his henchmen represented the teacher in his absence, and with him - trusted assistants.
All management of the school by the headman was carried out without any denunciation to the teacher. At least, Mordovtsev thought so, not having found a single line in the Azbukovniki that encouraged fiscalism and fakery. On the contrary, the students were accustomed in every possible way to camaraderie, life in the "team". If the teacher, looking for the offender, could not accurately point to a particular student, and the "team" did not betray him, then the punishment was announced to all students, and they chanted in chorus:
Some of us have guilt
Which was not before many days,
Guilty, hearing this, face flush,
After all, they are proud of us, the humble.
Often the culprit, in order not to let the "team" down, took off the ports and "climbed the goat" himself, that is, lay down on the bench, on which the "assignment of lozan by sirloin parts" was carried out.
Needless to say, both the teaching and the upbringing of the youths were then imbued with deep reverence for the Orthodox faith. What is invested from a young age will grow in an adult: "Behold, this is your childish business, students in school, more so perfect in age." Pupils were obliged to go to church not only on holidays and Sundays, but also on weekdays, after the end of classes at the school.
Evening evangelism signaled the end of the teaching. "ABC book" teaches: "When you are released, wake up all of you and your books to your bookkeeper, with a single pronouncement to everyone, loudly and unanimously sing the prayer of St. go to vespers, the teacher instructed them to behave decently in church, because "everyone knows that you are in school."
However, the requirements for proper behavior were not limited to the school or the temple. The school rules also extended to the street: “When the teacher releases you at such a time, go with all humility to your house: jokes and blasphemy, pang each other, and beating, and frisky running, and stone-throwing, and all sorts of similar childish mockery, let it not dwell in you." Was not encouraged and aimless wandering through the streets, especially near all sorts of "entertainment establishments", then called "disgrace".
Of course, the above rules are better wishes. There are no such children in nature that would refrain from "phanging and frisky running", from "throwing stones" and going to "disgrace" after they spent the whole day at school. Teachers understood this in the old days, and therefore they tried by all means to reduce the time of neglected stay of students on the street, pushing them to temptations and pranks. Not only in weekdays, but on Sundays and holidays, schoolchildren were required to come to the school. True, on holidays they no longer studied, but only answered what they had learned the day before, read the Gospel aloud, listened to the teachings and explanations of their teacher about the essence of the holiday of that day. Then they all went to church together for the liturgy.
The attitude towards those students whose teaching went badly is curious. In this case, "Azbukovnik" does not at all advise them to be strenuously flogged or punished in some other way, but, on the contrary, instructs: "whoever is a" greyhound student" should not rise above his comrade "rude student." The latter were strongly advised to pray, calling for God's help. And the teacher dealt with such students separately, constantly telling them about the benefits of prayer and giving examples "from writing", talking about such ascetics of piety as Sergius of Radonezh and Alexander Svirsky, who at first were not given teaching at all.
From the "ABC book" you can see the details of a teacher's life, the subtleties of relationships with the parents of students who paid the teacher, by agreement and, if possible, for the education of their children - partly in kind, partly in money.
In addition to school rules and regulations, ABC tells how, after completing their primary education, students begin to study the "seven free arts." By which were meant: grammar, dialectics, rhetoric, music (meaning church singing), arithmetic and geometry ("geometry" was then called "any land surveying", which included both geography and cosmogony), finally, "the last in a row, but the first action" in the list of sciences studied at that time was called astronomy (or in Slavonic "star science").
And also in schools they studied poetic art, syllogisms, studied celebry, the knowledge of which was considered necessary for "verse-writing", got acquainted with "rhyme" from the works of Simeon of Polotsk, learned poetic measures - "there is one and ten kinds of verse." They learned to compose couplets and maxims, to write greetings in verse and prose.
Unfortunately, the work of Daniil Lukich Mordovtsev remained unfinished, his monograph was completed with the phrase: “The other day, His Grace Athanasius was transferred to the Astrakhan Diocese, depriving me of the opportunity to finally sort out an interesting manuscript, and therefore, having no “Azbukovnikov” at hand, I was forced to finish my article on what he stopped at. Saratov 1856".
Nevertheless, a year after the work of Mordovtsev was published in the journal, his monograph with the same title was published by Moscow University. The talent of Daniil Lukich Mordovtsev and the multiplicity of topics covered in the sources that served to write the monograph today allow us, with a minimal "thinking of that life", to make an exciting and not without benefit journey "against the flow of time" into the seventeenth century.
V. YARHO, historian.
* Daniil Lukich Mordovtsev (1830-1905), after graduating from a gymnasium in Saratov, studied first at Kazan, then at St. Petersburg University, from which he graduated in 1854 in the Faculty of History and Philology. In Saratov, he began his literary activity. He published several historical monographs, published in the "Russian Word", "Russian Bulletin", "Bulletin of Europe". The monographs attracted attention, and Mordovtsev was even offered to take the chair of history at St. Petersburg University. Daniil Lukich was no less famous as a writer on historical topics.
From the Bishop of Saratov, Athanasius Drozdov, he receives handwritten notebooks of the 17th century, telling about how schools were organized in Russia.
Here is how Mordovtsev describes the manuscript that came to him: “The collection consisted of several sections. The first contains several ABCs, with a special account of notebooks; the second half consists of two sections: in the first - 26 notebooks, or 208 sheets; in the second, 171 sheets The second half of the manuscript, both of its sections, were written by the same hand... The entire section, consisting of "ABCs", "Letters", "School Deaneries" and other things, up to 208 sheets, was written out with the same hand. in handwriting, but in different ink, it is written up to page 171, and on that sheet, in "four-pointed" cunning cryptography, it is written "Started in the Solovetsky Desert, also in Kostroma, near Moscow in the Ipatskaya honest monastery, by the same first-farmer in the summer of world life 7191 (1683 .)".
In the 18th century, in Russian society, there was a large number of transformations. The sphere of education in Russia also underwent reforms in the 18th century. In the education of the 18th century, a secular school first appeared in Russia. Theories and methods of secular education in Russia were developed, and an attempt was made to create a state education system. The development of education reforms in Russia in the 18th century can be divided into 4 periods.
In the first quarter of the 18th century, the first secular educational schools. These schools provided elementary and practical knowledge. Many schools combined educational and professional foundations. The Pushkar School, Medical School was established. A number of mathematical, navigational and craft educational institutions were also created.
In 1730-1755, noble educational institutions appeared. Land Corps, Naval, Engineering Corps. The Smolny Institute for Noble Maidens was also created. Along with this, the foundations of public education began to form, the zealot of which was Mikhail Vasilyevich. Diocesan and admiralty schools developed in the provinces. The first general education gymnasiums appeared in Moscow and St. Petersburg.
In 1755 - 1782, enlightenment ideas began to spread in Russian society. The writings of John Locke were translated and published. In his writings, Locke says that the child should not be brought up by intimidation and suppression of the personality, but by looking for more progressive teaching methods. The state made an attempt to create a system of educational institutions, which would make it possible to obtain new qualified doctors, artists, artisans and scientists. New schools were opened.
In 1782 - 1786, finally, a state system of public education was created. worked on this issue for a long time, and decided to build a Russian public education according to the Austrian model. In 1782, a Commission on the establishment of schools was created. According to the plans of the commission, schools of two types were created: the main ones with 4 classes in the provinces, and small two-class schools in the counties. Such schools were supposed to provide the people with primary education.
The school reform created the problem of teacher training, which was sorely lacking. Soon the Teacher's Seminary and the Main Public School were opened to train teachers. In the 18th century in Russia, education acquired a certain structure, which affected the quality of education.
Understanding the importance of education, the Russian government devoted a lot of time to this issue. Education in Russia in the 18th century was placed under strict control.
History of Pedagogy in Russia in the 18th century. divided into two periods: the first and second half of the century. The first period is characterized by reforms in the field of education and upbringing, there is a tendency for the development of the education system according to the pan-European type. Class society is being replaced by civil society, which made education more accessible to the general population. Political and economic system undergo significant changes, in connection with which there is an urgent need for educated people. Man is increasingly perceived as a separate person.
Between the end of the 17th and the beginning of the 18th centuries. there is a turn to the school and pedagogy of the New Age. Public Schools provide knowledge on modern sciences, while they differ in their own specialization. One of the schools created by Peter I was called the school of mathematical and navigational sciences. Her curriculum included arithmetic, geometry, trigonometry, navigation, astronomy, and mathematical geography. The discipline was strict, for example. There was a death penalty for running away from school. In 1715, on the basis of the senior classes of the navigation school in St. Petersburg, the Naval Academy was organized, which is a military educational institution. In Moscow in 1712, an engineering and artillery school was opened, and in 1707 a surgical school, in 1721 mining schools were created at Siberian factories. An advanced school with intensive study of foreign languages (Greek, Latin, Italian, French, German, Swedish) was opened in 1705, led by pastor Ernst Gluck. However, by 1716 the Slavic-Greek-Latin Academy was the only school with higher education.
In 1714, a decree was issued obliging the children of the nobility, clerks and clerks to elementary education. To fulfill these obligations, elementary mathematical schools were created - digital schools. Schools of this type met with active resistance from the parents of potential students, who preferred bishops' schools. By 1744, the digital schools had ceased to exist. Bishop's schools were distinguished by a combination of religious and secular education. The activities of such schools were determined by the "Spiritual Regulations". In addition, the Regulations prescribe the opening of various educational institutions for the clergy, such as academies with seminaries. In them, the students had to live permanently and at first without a way out.
In Russia at the beginning of the 18th century training was in Russian. The Russian alphabet was improved, comparative analysis Slavic, Greek and Latin languages. New textbooks were created on various school subjects in Russian. A feature of the pedagogical development of this period are the reforms of Peter I in the field of education, associated with an increase in the role of the state not only in education, but also in education. The dissatisfaction of the people with these reforms was brutally suppressed. In the course of Peter's reforms, educational institutions of a new type were created. One of them was the Academy of Sciences, which became an important scientific and educational center of the state. The academy included a university and a gymnasium. School was opened closed type- Corps of Cadets. In 1759, under Empress Elizabeth, an elite educational institution was created - the Corps of Pages in St. Petersburg. The state sought to increase the level of education of the nobility, which ultimately led to the realization by the bulk of the upper class of the need for education. Active figures in this direction were Fyodor Saltykov, who developed a plan for the creation of academies in each province, Vasily Nikitich Tatishchev, who opened several mining schools, Feofan Prokopovich, an ardent supporter of secular education according to the European model, Ivan Tikhonovich Pososhkov, a supporter of classical education and at the same time Peter's reforms. The figures of the Russian Enlightenment can also be attributed to the German scientist and philosopher G. W. Leibniz, who developed his own project school reform, characterized by a practical orientation of training. Of particular importance in the development of Russian education and pedagogy in general is the Russian scientist and encyclopedist Mikhail Vasilyevich Lomonosov (1711–1765). He was the first to give lectures to students in Russian, insisted on the scientific nature of teaching. Adhered to the positions of conscious, visual, consistent and systematic learning. M. V. Lomonosov was one of the initiators of the creation of Moscow University and determined its intellectual basis, as well as the direction of development. The second half of the 18th century is characterized by an increased interest in education. In many ways, this was determined by the reign of Catherine II - a European-educated person. During this period there are heated debates and discussions on pedagogical topics, there are many essays with reasoning on the topics of education and training. In general, there is a predominance of a tendency towards the importance of public education, embarking on the path of European education while preserving Russian traditions.
The Slavic-Greek-Latin Academy is losing prestige, offering a classical education, and therefore irrelevant in the conditions of the period under review. Moscow University in its activities largely relied on the needs of the nobility in Western European education and familiarization with the cultural achievements of Europe. The craving of the elite of society for culture and art undermines the mechanism of systematic scientific education of Moscow and St. Petersburg universities. The number of students was sharply reduced, professors lost interest in teaching. For the revival of the university and the establishment of the pedagogical process, foreign and domestic scientists were invited in it. They created and translated into Russian teaching aids, textbooks in many subjects. During this period, the harmonious development of the individual, which includes physical, intellectual and moral education and improvement, becomes important. civil rank; useful or artistic sciences; sciences "leading to the knowledge of other arts."
Many noble families sent their children to study in private schools, the higher nobility preferred to raise their children at home with the involvement of tutors. At the beginning of her reign, Catherine was keenly interested in the pedagogical achievements of various states, pursued an active policy of developing and expanding education in Russia. In 1763, Ivan Ivanovich Betsky (1704–1795) became her chief educational adviser. Betsky created many works on pedagogical topics and contributed to the opening of many educational institutions for boys and girls, including the first women's educational institution of secondary education - the Smolny Institute. The program of the institute differed from the program for boys in additional courses in home economics and politeness. There were numerous attempts to develop education for the lower classes in rural and urban areas. However, due to lack of funds, they were unsuccessful. Created by Catherine in 1782, the "Commission for the Establishment of Public Schools", designed to work to increase general level education in Russia, published in 1786 "The Charter of the Public Schools of the Russian Empire." According to this document, small and main public schools began to open in the cities. Small schools were schools of elementary basic education, the main ones offered the study of sciences, including pedagogy. By the end of her life, Catherine began to care more about state political issues, the outstanding Russian educators Nikolai Ivanovich Novikov (1744–1818) and Alexander Nikolayevich Radishchev (1749–1802) became victims of such priorities. For the same reason, many educational institutions have lost their positions.
Introduction
Chapter 2. Folklore and Literature
Chapter 3. Scientific knowledge
Chapter 4. The influence of Western European powers on education in Russia
Conclusion
Bibliography
Introduction
From the period from the adoption of Christianity to the XII century. a new ideology of the Russian state was established, respectively - Russian upbringing and education. The "Sermon on Law and Grace" laid the spiritual foundations for the development of Russian statehood and education. Thanks to the activities of state and Orthodox figures, in a short time in Russia a "holistic system" of education was created from elementary school to "academy", which existed in the form of state and church-monastic schools.
Relevance of the topic:
In Russia, in a short time, an educational system with a rather complex content was formed, which is explained by both political and religious reasons: the state and the church needed not only educated, but also highly educated people. Education served primarily the purposes spiritual education, which included Orthodoxy, "secular" arts - grammar, rhetoric, elements of folk, domestic culture, especially literature. The foundations of the content of education, developed at the beginning of the 11th century, existed in the Russian school almost until the end of the 17th century.
The purpose of my work is to find out what level of education the Russian society was at by the end of the 17th century, to trace how the Western European powers influenced the education of the Russian people.
The goal is achieved through the following tasks:
1. Find out what knowledge the inhabitants of Russia had in the 17th century.
2. To analyze whether the influence of the West on the level of education in Russia in the XVII century.
3. Follow and find out whether it is possible to consider this process as a dialogue between Western European and Russian culture.
In my work, I used several sources: Krizhanich Yu. Politika, Monuments of literature of Ancient Russia: XVII century, Detailed description travels of the Holstein embassy to Muscovy and Persia in 1633, 1636 and 1638, compiled by the secretary of the embassy Adam Olearius // Readings in the Imperial Society of Russian History and Antiquities and others.
Some studies have also been used:
1. Klyuchevsky V.O. He believed that "Western influence, penetrating into Russia, met here with another influence that had hitherto been dominant in it - Eastern, Greek."
2. Ulanova V.Ya., which thus defined the main "conductors of Western influence": trade, military and diplomatic relations with the West, the development of colonies of foreigners in Moscow and other Russian centers, educational activities South Russian immigrants, distribution of foreign and translated literature. At the same time, he emphasized that some “of these ways of spreading Western culture to Russia have their origin on the other side of the Time of Troubles and thus attract attention as long-term conductors of Western culture”
A lively discussion arose among pre-revolutionary researchers on the question of the schools of this period. Some scientists, in particular L. N. Maikov (in his study on Simeon Polotsky) and G. Sokolov (in an article on Sylvester Medvedev), elevated the Chudovskaya, Spasskaya and Andreevskaya schools to the rank of higher education. G. Sokolov, for example, argues that at the Spassk School they taught not only "poetics and rhetoric, but also theology, history, philosophy and dialectics." On the other hand, N. Kapterev, explaining the paucity of materials in the field of education in Russia in the pre-Petrine era, argues that “information about what, how and whom. taught in Moscow Greek-Latin schools, which supposedly existed since half of XVII century, they did not reach us solely because these very schools did not exist in Moscow at that time.
It seems to us that both sides are right and wrong on this issue. There is no reason to deny the fact of the existence of the Chudovskaya, Spasskaya and Andreevskaya schools, if we consider them as a continuation and development of the traditional form of education in Russia that previously existed in our monasteries, where the learning process did not have a strict system, was closely connected with liturgical practice, translation work and correction of books and devoted much space to the individual study of the works of the Fathers of the Church. Therefore, these schools can hardly be considered the prototype of the "correct" higher school, which arose in Russia only with the establishment of the Slavic-Greek-Latin Academy.
Interest in pedagogy, teaching methods, and issues of home education is noticeably increasing in Russia. Pedagogical ideas are now emerging from the former syncretism of theological and moral writings, special tracts are being developed, and entire collections of pedagogical writings are being compiled. The paths on home education of children are gaining special popularity.
My work consists of 4 chapters:
1. Formation and basic principles of education in Russia in the XVII century. (this chapter talks about how, who and what could learn)
2. Folklore and Literature (state of literature at 17th century)
3. Scientific knowledge (the level of development of scientific knowledge to 17c)
4. The influence of Western European powers on education in Russia (did the West have an influence on Russian education)
Introductions and conclusions.
Chapter 1. Formation and basic principles of education in Russia in the 17th century.
In the time of Vasily III, Ivan the Terrible, Fyodor Ivanovich, literate people could be found mainly among persons of the clergy or orderly class; in the 17th century there are already a lot of them among the nobles and townspeople. Even among the peasants of the black-haired, partly among the serfs and even among the serfs, there were literate people - elders and kissers, clerks and scribes. But, of course, the vast majority of peasants are illiterate people.
In general, the percentage of literates in the country, although slowly, increased. Even in the first half of the century, many city governors, due to illiteracy or low literacy, could not take a step without clerks and clerks, their subordinates in the voivodship hut - the center of county government. The same can be said about many noblemen who were sent from Moscow to describe and survey the lands, to “look for” the fugitives, someone’s omissions, crimes, etc. In the second half of the century, people, as a rule, were literate in the voivodeships; these are primarily representatives of the Duma and Moscow officials. There were few literate people among the county nobles.
There were many literate people in the settlements. Crafts and trade, traveling on business required knowledge of writing and counting. Literate people came from both the rich and the poor. Quite often, just a small income stimulated the desire for knowledge, literacy. “In our country,” said, for example, the inhabitants of the Pomeranian Yarensk, “who are the best and subsistence people, and they do not know how to read and write. And those people who are able to read and write, and those people are hammering. In Vologda, for many impoverished people, the ability to write is planted - a way to get their daily bread: "And in Vologda, in the writing hut, poor poor people feed on the square writing." In Veliky Ustyug, 53 local clerks from the local townspeople obtained the means of subsistence in this way. Dozens and hundreds of the same literate people worked on the squares of other cities.
Townspeople and peasants learned to read and write from "masters" of priests and deacons, deacons and clerks, and other literate people. Often, literacy training was built on the basis of ordinary craft apprenticeship, according to the "student record", combined with training in trade, some kind of craft. For example, K. Burkov, a boy from the settlements of Ustyug Veliky, was given by his mother (at the end of the century) to D. Shulgin, a taxpayer of the capital's Semenovskaya Sloboda, for literacy and lace making.
The men were trained. There were very few literate women; they are from the royal house and the upper class, like Princess Sophia and some others. First of all, they taught the elementary alphabet from alphabet books, printed and handwritten. In 1634, V. Burtsev's primer was published and repeatedly republished over the course of a century. In the book warehouse of the Moscow Printing House in the middle of the century there were about 11 thousand copies of the Burtsev primer. It cost one kopeck, or two money, very cheap at the then prices. At the same time, the grammar of Meletiy Smotrytsky, a Ukrainian scientist, was published (Mikhail Lomonosov later studied it). At the end of the century, the primer of Karion Istomin, a monk of the Chudov Monastery of the Moscow Kremlin, was printed, as well as practical guide for the account - the multiplication table - "The counting is convenient, by which any person who buys or sells can easily find the number of any thing." During the second half of the century, the Printing Yard printed 300,000 primers, 150,000 educational psalters and books of hours. It happened that thousands of copies of such benefits were sold out in a few days.
Many people learned from handwritten alphabets, spellings and arithmetic; the latter sometimes had very exotic titles: “This book, spoken in Hellenic or Greek, is arithmetic, and in German is algorism, and in Russian is numerical counting wisdom” (algorism is a name coming from the name of Al-Khwarizmi, the great scientist of medieval Central Asia, originally from Khorezm).
The range of reading has expanded significantly. From the 17th century a lot of books, printed and especially handwritten, have been preserved. Among them, along with the church, there are more and more secular ones: chronicles and chronographs, stories and legends, all kinds of collections of liturgical, historical, literary, geographical, astronomical, medical and other content. Many had various manuals on measuring land, making paint, building all sorts of structures, etc. The tsars and noble boyars had libraries with hundreds of books in different languages.
Education is one of the most important factors cultural development of the nation. By the second half of the XVII century. Muscovy had some conditions for primary education, but there were no secondary schools or higher educational institutions.
The two most educated groups were the clergy and employees of the administration - clerks and clerks. As for the boyars and nobles, in the first half of the XVII century. not all of them even knew how to read and write, but by the end of the century the percentage of literacy increased significantly. Due to the townspeople. According to the signatures in the protocols of several Moscow township communities, it is calculated that in 1677 there were 36 percent of those who signed, and in 1690 between 36 and 52 cents.) Among the peasants, literacy was minimal throughout the entire 17th century. (slightly higher among the state peasants in northern Russia).
Concerning higher education, the Orthodox Church objected to the appeal to the help of Europeans, as they feared the influence of Catholic and Protestant teachers. Two other potential sources were Greek and Western Russian Orthodox scholars. As early as 1632, Patriarch Filaret approached an educated Greek priest with a request to organize a religious school in Moscow, but the project was abandoned after Filaret's death (see Chapter 3).
In 1640, Metropolitan of Kyiv Peter Mogila suggested to Tsar Michael that Kiev scientists be sent to Moscow to organize a school for teaching Latin and Greek. Nothing came of this plan, but a few years later, at the beginning of the reign of Tsar Alexei, F.M. Rtishchev opened a similar school on his own initiative.
In 1665, an ambassador was created in Moscow to teach Latin and Russian grammar, for which a special building was built in the Spassky Monastery “behind the icon row” (Zaikon-Spassky School). It was headed by the outstanding scientist and poet Simeon Polotsky. The purpose of the school was to train clerks and clerks, administrative bodies. Simeon Polotsky himself taught there for at least two years.)
Grecophile circles in Moscow suspected Polotsky, a graduate Kiev Academy, in a penchant for Roman Catholicism, and in general were against learning Latin. In 1680 a school based on learning Greek, organized in the Moscow Printing House, mainly to train their own employees.
The Moscow elite so badly needed a knowledge of Latin - at that time an important means of mastering Western science - that in 1682 a charter was developed educational institution uniting the teaching of Greek and Latin - the Slavic-Greek-Latin Academy.)
IN syllabus Academy included the study of grammar, poetics, rhetoric, dialectics, philosophy, jurisprudence and theology. The rector and faculty had to be "pious and from a devout family, brought up in the Eastern Orthodox faith of Russians or Greeks." The school "should be open to people [of the Orthodox faith] of any rank, position and age without distinction." The main goal of the academy was to strengthen and protect Orthodox faith. The rector and teachers became the curators of the National Library. Heretical books found in the possession of private individuals were subject to confiscation or transfer to the custodians.
It was proposed that all foreign scientists before entering the Russian service would be tested by the leadership of the academy: in case of disapproval, they would be expelled from Russia. People accused of heretical teaching or blasphemy against Orthodox Church, are interrogated by the rector and, in case of guilt, are subject to burning at the stake. An Orthodox convert to Catholicism, Lutheranism, or Calvinism is subject to the same punishment. This was an attempt to establish strict ecclesiastical oversight of the education of all Russians and to suppress by force any opposition to such control.
Tsar Fyodor and Patriarch Joachim approved the charter of the academy, however, it was only during the regency of Princess Sophia that suitable Greek scholars, the brothers Ioaniky and Sophrony Likhud, were invited and brought to Moscow. The academy was officially opened in 1687. Two years later, the young Tsar Peter overthrew and imprisoned Princess Sophia, and in 1700, after the death of Patriarch Adrian (Joachim's successor), Peter began his reforms aimed at breaking the church monopoly on education and enlightenment . The Slavic-Greek-Latin Academy became the core of the Moscow Theological Academy, and secular education and science developed independently of it.
In the second half of the XVII century. two important institutions through which Western ideas and ways of life penetrated the upper stratum of Muscovite society were the Tsar's Palace and the Posolsky Prikaz.)
Western Russian scientists (Ukrainian and Belarusian), pupils of the Kiev Academy, were the conductors of the Western humanities. Kiev scholars invited to Russia in the late 1640s and 1650s were specialists in the Greek language. Education at the Kiev Academy, however, was based on Latin.
The most influential Western Russian scholar in the last part of the reign of Alexei and the first four years of the reign of Fedor was the versatile Simeon of Polotsk (1629-1680). Latin was the language of his scientific research. He also knew Polish well, but was not familiar with Greek. Polotsky was summoned to Moscow by Tsar Alexei in 1663. Three years later, he took part in the Church Councils of 1666 and 1667, which branded the Old Believers. Polotsky translated into Latin some materials for Paisius Ligarides and wrote a treatise against the teachings of the Old Believers.
Simeon of Polotsk was an active preacher (two volumes of her sermons were published after his death) and a poet (he composed in Russian, Polish and Latin). He introduced the Poles' syllabic system of versification into Russian literature, which would dominate Russian poetry for the next eighty years. Polotsky also played a role in the development of the Russian theater. He piqued Tsar Alexei's interest in theatrical performances by telling him about Ukrainian and Polish dramas. Polotsky wrote two works in this genre - "The Comedy of the Parable of the Prodigal Son" and "Three Young Men in the Fiery Crucible".)
However, Tsar Alexei turned for help in organizing the first theater in Moscow not to the Western Russians and not to the Poles, but to the Germans. In June 1672, on the advice of Artamon Matveev, the tsar instructed pastor Johann Gottfried Gregory from Nemetskaya Sloboda to stage plays on biblical subjects in a new building specially built for this purpose in the royal village of Preobrazhenskoye. The first performance (Esther) took place on October 17. Later they presented an arrangement of the last acts of Tamerlane the Great by Marlowe and a comedy about Bacchus and Venus.
At first, performances were played on German, but soon the plays were translated into Russian, and Gregory trained Russian actors. In some productions, a special place belonged to instrumental music and singing. After the death of Tsar Alexei and the resignation of Matveyev, the performances ceased.)
In 1667, Tsar Alexei appointed Simeon of Polotsk as the mentor of his eldest son, Tsarevich Alexei, and when he died, as the mentor of Fedor, the next prince in seniority. Polotsky also supervised the education of Princess Sophia. Fedor mastered the Polish language, was fond of Polish books, loved Polish dress and music.
At the royal court and among the boyars, polonophilia spread. Vasily Golitsyn and other boyars knew the Polish language and had Polish books in their libraries. Golitsyn's house was built and furnished in Western style.
Polish cultural influence was rivaled by German culture, which came from the countries of central and northern Europe (the German states, Holland, Denmark and Sweden) either directly or through the German Sloboda. Its influence was felt both in the theater and in fine arts both in music and technology. The last aspect turned out to be the most important for the near future.
The accumulation of technical knowledge, facilitated by German craftsmen and industrialists who settled in Muscovy, continued throughout the 17th century. By 1682 the Russian elite was developing different kinds crafts of high quality.
In order to develop and release potential creative abilities, it was necessary to give Muscovites the opportunity to master the basics of science and technology, either by opening appropriate schools in Russia, or by sending Russians abroad to study in Western schools. Tsar Boris Godunov understood this at the beginning of the 17th century, but his untimely death disrupted his plans.
Only in the second half of the 17th century, with the help of Kiev scientists, schools appeared in Moscow where they taught the humanities, but no schools teaching natural and technical sciences were ever opened.
Russia needed technical modernization. This process could go faster or slower, take on a wider or narrower scale. The decisive impetus was given by Peter the Great.
Agriculture in Russia in the 17th century
In the disagreements and internal contradictions of that period of Russian history, the creative forces of the national economy worked hard, leading to a steady accumulation of technical and, at a slower pace, humanitarian knowledge.)
Russian Productivity Agriculture in the 17th century, with the exception of Western Siberia, was low. It is calculated that for every quarter of rye sown, only 2-5 quarters of grain were obtained. In western Siberia the proportion was higher - 8-10 quarters.) On the other hand, there was a constant increase in the gross product, as the area of arable land increased along with the spread of agriculture to the fertile lands of the south and west. A favorable factor was the change in the taxation system, in which the yard became the main unit. This served as an incentive for the farmer, since the cultivation of additional land no longer implied an increase in tax.
In addition to agriculture, the owners of large estates were engaged in crafts and trade. Many, including Tsar Alexei, organized iron, salt, potash, distilleries and other industries in their estates. Surplus goods, as well as grain, they usually sold in the markets, sometimes delivering them to the most remote areas, for example, to Arkhangelsk.)
In the second half of the XVII century. in Muscovy, larger industrial enterprises, called manufactories by modern scientists, became widespread. Some of them, such as the Cannon Yard, which produced cannons, and the Armory, which produced handguns, were run by the state. Licenses were issued for other manufactories, mainly to Europeans. However, some manufactories were also owned by Russian merchants and industrialists, for example, the Stroganovs, Sveteshnikovs, Nikitins and others. Some of the masters were foreigners, some were Russians. The former received significantly higher salaries. Unskilled work was done by the Russians: either hired workers or peasants "assigned" to the manufactories.)
Taking into account the increase in agricultural and industrial production, as well as the development of trade, one could partially believe the memoirs of Prince Boris Ivanovich Kurakin (born in 1676). He says that by the end of the regency of Princess Sophia, in 1689, Russia had become a country of abundance.
