Stairs. Entry group. Materials. Doors. Locks. Design » Siding History of wars at sea. Rome the conqueror of the Mediterranean calendar and thematic planning for history (grade 5) on the topic Why Rome conquered the entire Mediterranean

History of wars at sea. Rome the conqueror of the Mediterranean calendar and thematic planning for history (grade 5) on the topic Why Rome conquered the entire Mediterranean

War with the Illyrian tribes. The Illyrian tribes were the closest neighbors of the Roman Republic on the Western coast of the Balkans. They lived in conditions of military democracy; only the most developed of them (for example, in the region with the center of Skodra) began the process of state formation. The meager soil of their mountainous country encouraged the Illyrians to look for other sources of income in addition to farming. The Illyrians found them in sea robbery, which in the 3rd century. BC e., after the fall of the maritime power of Tarentum and Syracuse in the Ionian and Adriatic seas, it reached such a scale that it disrupted trade relations of both Greek cities and Roman merchants. The capture of Corcyra by the Illyrians, an important island on the sea route from Italy to the east, was the cause of the war with the Illyrians. The formal reason was complaints from Italian merchants and requests for help from several Greek cities. The Romans sent in 229 BC. e. fleet against the Illyrians and quickly defeated the enemy's high-speed but light ships, the Roman landing army occupied the Illyrian coast, destroying fortifications and cities, and pushed the local population inland. The territory of the Skodra state was reduced. The Illyrian tribes turned out to be tributaries of Rome. Having captured the Illyrian coast, the Romans established political influence over many Greek cities in the western Balkan Peninsula. Their harbors became anchorages for the Roman fleet in the Adriatic Sea. Thus, Rome acquired important strongholds for a further offensive in the East. Rome's capture of the Illyrian coast cut off Macedonia's access to the Adriatic Sea. Instead of the weak and scattered Illyrian tribes, powerful Rome became Macedonia's western neighbor.

2. Second Macedonian War. While the Romans were at war with Hannibal, a military-political alliance between Macedonia and the Seleucid kingdom arose in the East. Philip V of Macedon and Antiochus III sought to redistribute the regions of the Eastern Mediterranean. Taking advantage of the weakening of Egypt under the young king Ptolemy V, Philip V and Antiochus III entered into an agreement to seize and divide the Ptolemaic possessions on the islands of the Aegean Sea, Asia Minor and Syria. It was assumed that Antiochus would take possession of Coelesyria, Phenicia and Cyprus, and Philip would take over the Asia Minor territories of Egypt in Caria, the islands of the Aegean Sea and Cyrene. However, this agreement did not envisage joint military actions and mutual assistance of the allies; their mutual distrust and rivalry in the struggle for hegemony in the Eastern Mediterranean affected them. Having concluded an agreement, Antiochus III occupied all of Coelesyria, while Philip captured the Greek cities in the straits, plundered the coast of Pergamum and occupied Caria. Philip's captures and the threat of Macedonia becoming the strongest state in the Aegean Sea caused the kingdom of Pergamon, Rhodes, Byzantium, Athens and other Greek cities to rebel against Philip V. Thus, an anti-Macedonian military alliance emerged in the Aegean basin. In the war with the Pergamum-Rhodes alliance, Philip V was defeated in the naval battle of Chios (201 BC).

Developing military operations against Philip V, the allies turned to Rome for help. The Romans were not interested in strengthening Macedonia. Philip's capture of the islands of the Aegean Sea and the southwestern regions of Asia Minor would complicate political and economic penetration into the Aegean basin, and the capture of Cyrene could threaten Roman navigation throughout the Eastern Mediterranean. In Rome, they took into account that Philip V lost part of his army and navy in the war with Rhodes and Pergamon and had neither the time nor the means to quickly restore his strength. In addition, by entering into a war with Philip, Rome could gain strong allies in Rhodes and Pergamum. The question of war with Macedonia was decided positively in the Senate and was submitted to the popular assembly, which eventually sanctioned the war. At the same time, an embassy was sent to the East, which was supposed to achieve the neutrality of Antiochus III and strengthen the alliance of the Romans with the anti-Macedonian coalition. The Roman ambassadors managed, by agreeing to the capture of Coelesyria by Antiochus, to achieve his neutrality during the war between Philip and the anti-Macedonian coalition led by the Roman Republic. An alliance was concluded with Pergamum and Rhodes that lasted more than a quarter of a century and played a decisive role in the struggle of the Romans with Macedonia.

In the autumn of 200 BC. e. The Roman army landed in Greece and began to advance into Macedonia. The allied fleet, which dominated the Aegean Sea, blocked the Macedonian coast. However, during the first two years of the war the Romans made no significant progress. Philip repelled a Roman-led attack from the Thracian tribes from the north and stubbornly defended himself, sometimes going on the attack, against his opponents. But when the Romans, skillfully using the anti-Macedonian movement in Greece, involved in 199 BC. e. During the war of the Aetolian and then the Achaean alliances (198 BC), Philip found himself in a difficult situation.

In 198 BC. e. The Roman army was led by Titus Quinctius Flamininus, a capable commander and skilled diplomat. The decisive battle between the Romans and Macedonia took place in Thessaly in the hilly terrain at Cynoscephalae ("Dog's Heads") (197 BC). Having been defeated, Philip began negotiations for peace.

In the Senate, when discussing the issue of peace with Philip, demands were made to continue the war with Macedonia, and although the same demands were heard among Rome's allies (for example, the Aetolians), the Senate decided to end the war and dictate peace terms that Philip V could accept. Philip had to renounce all possessions outside Macedonia, pay Rome 1000 talents, give the Romans his navy, with the exception of six ships, return all prisoners of war and reduce the army to 5 thousand people. He did not have the right to start a war without the knowledge of Rome, i.e. he lost his independent foreign policy. In addition, he had to recognize the freedom of the Greek cities.

The last point of the treaty was the most difficult for Philip V: it confined Macedonia to its own narrow borders. At the Isthmian Games in 196 BC. e. It was officially announced that the Roman Senate and the commander Titus Flamininus would grant freedom to the Greek cities. This announcement caused widespread jubilation in Greece.

Peace was made with Macedonia, but the Roman army continued to remain in Greece until 194 BC. e. Roman garrisons were introduced into Corinth, Chalkis, and Demetrias. Titus Flamininus and a commission that arrived from Rome began organizing Greek affairs; the boundaries of individual cities were newly and often arbitrarily determined; The Romans introduced timocratic constitutions in the cities of Thessaly and reorganized the Thessalian League according to the Achaean model. These measures of the Romans soon showed the Greeks that their liberation was only a change of masters: Macedonian rule was replaced by Roman rule, which caused discontent among a certain part of Greek society. However, the aristocratic strata supported the Romans, seeing in them a force capable of keeping the masses calm. The Roman command very soon justified the hopes placed on it by the aristocrats: Titus Flamininus, at the request of the Achaean oligarchs, on behalf of all Hellenes, declared war on the Spartan tyrant Nabis, whose social reforms were radical in nature and spread from Sparta to the neighboring regions of Argos and Mycenae. In 195 BC. e. Nabis was defeated. Sparta lost all its conquests and paid 500 talents in war indemnity. Social reforms were canceled. In addition, a lot of people in Greece were enslaved, many cities in Greece were ravaged and devastated by Roman legionnaires.

The Roman government was prompted by internal and external reasons to end the Second Macedonian War and make peace with Philip. An epidemic disease raged in Rome and Italy, and in the north in the Po Valley in 200 BC. e. The Gallic tribes rebelled, from whom the Romans took away lands, dividing them among veterans of the 2nd Punic War. The Gauls were joined by the Ligurians. The rebels besieged and captured a number of Roman fortresses, destroyed their garrisons and the Roman colonists settled here. For several years the Romans fought the rebels.

3. War with the Celtiberians. An even more serious situation arose in Spain. While fighting on the Iberian Peninsula with the Carthaginians during the 2nd Punic War, Scipio concluded a number of alliance treaties with Iberian tribes, some of them recognized themselves as subjects of Rome and paid him tribute. The Iberians, however, believed that Rome's victory over Carthage did not mean submission to the Romans. The introduction of provincial government caused in 197 BC. e. uprising in both Near and Far Spain. The old Phoenician cities led by Malaka, as well as the Celtiberians1, and somewhat later the Lusitanians2 joined the rebels. The Roman garrisons were defeated.

In 195 BC. e. A Roman army led by consul Marcus Porcius Cato was sent to Spain. At the cost of great sacrifices, Cato managed to defeat the main forces of the rebels, he carried out a number of punitive expeditions, sold the inhabitants of some Iberian communities into slavery, disarmed others, but was unable to end the war.

Until the end of the 180s BC. e. The Romans suffered failures in Spain. Only by concentrating a 45,000-strong army there did Rome finally, by 179 BC. e. crushed this uprising. The diplomacy of praetor Tiberius Sempronius Gracchus played a significant role in its suppression. The Celtiberians recognized the power of Rome, pledged to pay tribute and field auxiliary troops. Roman provincial rule in Spain was restored.

The reasons for the defeat of the Iberian tribes were their relatively low social development, fragmentation and inter-tribal hostility, and, finally, the superiority of military equipment and military art of the Romans. Almost twenty years of war with the Iberian tribes, which absorbed significant military forces and large material resources, made it difficult for Rome to develop aggressive actions in the Eastern Mediterranean.

4. The war of the Roman Republic with the Seleucid power. While the Roman legions were fighting in Spain, the ruler of the huge Seleucid power, King Antiochus III, began military operations in the west of Asia Minor. By this time, the Seleucid monarchy was the strongest state in the Hellenistic world, claiming hegemony over the entire Eastern Mediterranean.

Having captured a number of areas in Southern Syria and Palestine, previously part of the Ptolemaic possessions, Antiochus III dictated peace terms to Egypt. Having secured his rear from the south and put to sea on 200 ships, Antiochus III began to capture the cities of the southern and western coasts of Asia Minor. He entered into military alliances with the Galatians and Cappadocia, thereby surrounding the hostile kingdom of Pergamon with his allies. Then Antiochus moved to Thrace and here he subjugated the Greek cities along the banks of the Propontis and Hellespont, which were previously owned by Philip of Macedon.

The occupation of Thracian Chersonese made Antiochus the master of the straits to the Black Sea, which Pergamum and Rhodes could not reconcile with. The Rhodians announced in 197 BC. e. war against Antiochus and, having begun military operations at sea, turned to Rome for help. But the Romans, not yet finishing the war in Greece, avoided direct intervention in the new war. However, they declared themselves defenders of the Greek cities and demanded that Antiochus liberate them. At the same time, the Romans insisted on returning to Egypt the lands taken from it by Antiochus. Antiochus rejected these demands.

In an effort to attract the Greeks to his side, he developed active diplomatic activity in Greece, where discontent with Rome was deepening. The masses in the cities opposed Rome for an alliance with Antiochus, while the ruling elite remained loyal to the Romans and with their help suppressed popular movements. This was the case, for example, in Athens. From that time on, the anti-Roman movement in Greece merged with the democratic movement. However, the Syrian king managed to win over to his side in Greece only the Aetolian League and small cities.

The Roman government, preparing for war with Antiochus, strengthened its old alliance with Rhodes and Pergamum. The Achaean League sided with Rome. Roman diplomacy managed, at the cost of silent refusal of some points of the peace treaty, to keep Philip from helping Antiochus.

In 192 BC. e. Antiochus III, summoned by the Aetolians, crossed to the Balkan Peninsula and stopped at Thermopylae.

The allies of the Syrian king, the Aetolians, who were entrusted with guarding the mountain passes, were unable to hold them. The Roman army under the command of Marcus Atilius Glabrion defeated the main army of Antiochus. Under pressure from the Romans, Antiochus III left Greece and withdrew his troops to Ephesus; his Greek allies asked Rome for peace and were, at Rome’s request, to enter the Achaean League. The latter became the main force in Greece and the conductor of Roman influence in it.

The expulsion of Antiochus from Europe did not mean the end of the war. The fighting power of the Seleucid power was not destroyed at the Battle of Thermopylae. Rome, which sought to spread its influence in the East, inevitably had to face it.

The Roman army was commanded by the consul Lucius Cornelius Scipio, and as a legate he was accompanied by his brother, the winner of Hannibal at Zama, Publius Cornelius Scipio, who actually led the military operations. The Roman fleet, with the help of Rhodian and Pergamon ships, defeated the fleet of Antiochus III, having gained dominance in the Aegean Sea, creating the opportunity to transport Roman troops to Asia Minor.

Under Magnesia in 190 BC. e. There was a decisive battle between the Romans and Antiochus. The army of Antiochus III was defeated and almost destroyed.

Peace (Apamean) was concluded with Antiochus III in 188 BC. Antiochus had to pay Rome 15 thousand talents, his fleet was reduced to 10 ships, he pledged not to have elephants in the Western army, and was deprived of all territories in Asia Minor.

The Romans divided the lands they had conquered from Antiochus in Asia Minor among their allies. Most of them went to Pergamum and Rhodes. The lands captured by Antiochus in Europe were also given to Pergamum. As a result, Pergamum turned into a large and strong state. Rome's policy of favoring Pergamum was directed against Macedonia.

Thus, within a short time, Rome, using the rivalry of the Hellenistic powers and relying on the Rhodian-Pergamum alliance, inflicted military defeat on the two largest states of the Hellenistic world - Macedonia and Syria.

The war with Rome accelerated the collapse of the Seleucid power. Some of its regions - Armenia and Sophene - fell away from the Syrian kingdom and acquired independence. Many of the eastern regions were captured by Parthia.

The war with Antiochus's ally, the Aetolian League, continued after the Battle of Magnesia. The Aetolians desperately resisted, and only when Philip, Epirotes and Illyrians moved towards them from the north, and Achaean troops from the south, did Aetolia fall. It was plundered and devastated, its territory was significantly reduced. From that time on, Aetolia lost its political significance.

The reprisal against the Aetolians and the shameless interference of the Romans in the internal affairs of Greek cities, Rome’s patronage of the Achaean League, which arbitrarily ruled in the Peloponnese, strengthened the anti-Roman movement in Greece. In a number of places it resulted in open uprisings, brutally suppressed by the Romans. On the other hand, the Greek elite increasingly linked their destinies with Rome and sacrificed the independence of the country for the sake of their interests.

6. Third Macedonian War. The focus of Roman policy in the East from the mid-170s BC. e. relations with Macedonia began again. During the time that elapsed after the Second Macedonian War, Philip, despite the terms of the treaty limiting his actions, sought to conduct an independent foreign policy and restore his military power.

During 26 years of peace, Philip, bypassing the treaty with Rome, created a strong army: although the Macedonian military forces, according to the terms of the peace, consisted of 5 thousand, Philip annually recruited 4 thousand soldiers, trained them and sent them home, recruiting new ones; By intensively developing gold deposits, Philip created reserves of military materials and food. He took decisive measures to secure his northern borders, pitting Thracian tribes against each other and concluding alliances with the strongest of them. Macedonia experienced economic growth during these years. It exported large quantities of timber, salt, and metals. Philip's treasury was full.

The Romans sought to prevent the strengthening of the Macedonian state. In particular, they tried to create a pro-Roman party among the highest Macedonian nobility and elevate their protege to the Macedonian throne - Philip's son Demetrius, who lived for many years in Rome as a hostage. However, this political intrigue of the Romans failed: Demetrius was executed and after the death of Philip, his other son, Perseus, a staunch opponent of Rome, ascended the Macedonian throne. Perseus pursued an open anti-Roman policy. He began to create an anti-Roman coalition. Illyria and Epirus joined him. The intervention of the Romans in the internal affairs of the Greeks brought Perseus numerous allies. The coalition was directed against Rome and against its ally - the Kingdom of Pergamon. The anti-Roman activities of Perseus became known in Rome. At a closed meeting of the Senate with the participation of the king of Pergamum, the war with Macedonia was decided and declared in 171 BC. e.

At first, the Romans conducted military operations sluggishly and suffered defeats. Roman diplomats sought to disintegrate the anti-Roman coalition created by Perseus. The Greek allies of Macedonia turned out to be unreliable and with the appearance of Roman legions in Greece they again went over to the side of Rome. Perseus, abandoned by his Greek allies, tried to negotiate peace with Rome, but the Senate rejected his proposals.

In 169 BC. e. Legions under the command of the consul Lucius Aemilius Paulus began an attack on Macedonia. Perseus retreated to Pydna, deciding to defend the mountain passes to Macedonia. Here, at Pydna, in 168 BC. e. A decisive battle took place, which Perseus lost. Perseus fled, but was overtaken and captured by the Romans. His life was spared, he was settled in Italy and died as a Roman prisoner two years later. Having defeated the Macedonians, Aemilius Paulus moved with his army against the allies of Perseus - the Illyrians and Epirus. He destroyed the Epirote cities and completely devastated this country; 150 thousand Epirotes were sold into slavery. As a result of the victory over Perseus, the Romans destroyed the Macedonian state. A special Senate commission divided the country into four districts. Each district was completely independent - it minted its own coins and had no right to communicate with other districts. Citizens of this district did not have the right to acquire land in another district. It was forbidden to develop gold mines, export salt and ship timber. This caused enormous damage to the Macedonian population and hampered the normal functioning of its economy. Illyria was also divided into three districts and organized according to the example of Macedonia. In Greece, the Romans punished everyone who was on the side of Perseus. More than 1,000 Achaeans were sent to Rome as hostages, including the later famous historian Polybius. The domination of the Romans in Greece, which met the interests of the ruling circles, was met with dull discontent among the broad masses of the population. Attempts at protest were brutally suppressed.

The destruction of the unified Macedonian state led to a sharp change in the entire foreign policy of Rome in the East. First of all, for Rome there was no longer a need to preserve the Rhodian-Pergamon alliance and further strengthen these states. On the contrary, Rome was now interested in weakening them. Taking advantage of the uprising of the Galatians, who at one time were given over by Rome to the protectorate of Pergamum, the Romans declared the independence of Galatia. They also recognized Paphlagonia as free. Wanting to create difficulties for the Kingdom of Pergamum, the Romans entered into an alliance with Bithynia, which was constantly at enmity with Pergamum, and with Heraclea Pontus, a trade competitor of the Kingdom of Pergamum, thereby creating a reason for constant friction between these states.

Even more severe was Rome's policy towards Rhodes. The Third Macedonian War damaged Rhodian trade, disrupting normal economic ties in the Eastern Mediterranean. Rhodes repeatedly advocated for an end to the war to the Roman command. Finally, the Rhodians announced that if the war did not end, then Rhodes would have to enter the war against the Romans. They even entered into a military alliance with Crete, but clearly overestimated their strength and, after the victory over Perseus, asked the Roman Senate to grant them forgiveness and alliance. The Romans took advantage of this opportunity to weaken Rhodes: at the cost of depriving all their possessions in Asia Minor, the Rhodians avoided war with Rome and received the title of “friends and allies of the Roman people,” which in fact covered direct dependence on Rome. Wanting to infringe on the economic interests of Rhodes, Rome declared the island Delos is a “free” port - a “free port”. All trade and connections with the East now went through him. Delos became the main port center in the Aegean Sea, in particular the center of the slave trade.

In the next decade, there was an intensive penetration of Roman traders and moneylenders into the East. Roman moneylenders pushed aside local creditors, entangled the population of many countries of the Eastern Mediterranean in debt bondage, taking eastern trade and handicraft production into their own hands.

7. The revolt of Andriska and the war between Rome and the Achaean League. The unceremonious rule of the Romans intensified the anti-Roman movement in Greece and Macedonia. It resulted in an open struggle for liberation from Roman rule.

The movement began in Thrace. It was headed by a certain Greek Andrisk. He pretended to be the legitimate heir to the Macedonian throne, Philip, the son of Perseus. Having formed an army, Andrisk entered Macedonia, where he received widespread support from the population. The rebels defeated in 149 BC. e. a Roman legion sent against them. The uprising expanded. The rebel army invaded Thessaly. The Romans were forced to send a strong army against the rebels, led by Quintus Caecilius Metellus, who was assisted by the king of Pergamon. In 148 BC. e. The rebel troops were defeated, Andrisk was captured and executed. The uprising in Macedonia served as the reason for a radical change in the governance of the country. Its division into four regions was destroyed, and the former Macedonian state in 148 BC. e. was declared a Roman province of Macedonia. It included Epirus, the Greek cities of Apollonia and Dyrrachium 1, and the islands of the Ionian Sea. The new province had in the system of the Roman state great importance not only for its natural wealth and large tax-paying population, but also for its strategic position as a springboard for an offensive against the Thracian tribes and for further aggression against the Hellenistic states in the East. The entire province was crossed by the Egnatian military road built by the Romans from Dyrrachium to Byzantium.

After turning Macedonia into a province, the Romans abandoned the system of states dependent on them and moved on to direct territorial conquests in the East. All subsequent victorious wars with the Hellenistic states lead to the formation of new Roman provinces. The formation of the province of Macedonia led to a change in Roman policy towards the Achaean League, which had enjoyed the support of Rome for almost fifty years and on which the Romans relied in Greece.

The uprising in Macedonia could not but affect the internal situation in the cities of Greece: it strengthened the anti-Roman movement. The devastating wars of recent decades, which were fought on its territory, and the dominance of the Achaean oligarchy supported by Rome, brought social struggle in Greek cities to the extreme. The Achaean League, seeking to expand the territories under its control, began in 148 BC. e. war with Sparta, which had separated from it. This time the Romans decisively came to its defense and demanded that the Achaean League refuse to include not only Sparta in the union, but also all the cities of Greece that the Achaean League captured after the Second Macedonian War. The leaders of the Achaean League, overestimating their strength, began a war with Rome. This war was popular among the democratic part of the population of the Achaean cities. She also found support in Central Greece. The Achaean strategists, having announced a deferment of debt payments, accepted into the army everyone who could own weapons. They even armed 12,000 slaves. To cover military expenses, an emergency tax was imposed on wealthy Achaean citizens, but all these measures were in vain; The small armed forces of the Greek cities were opposed by the huge military machine of the Roman state. In the Battle of Isthmus, the Achaeans suffered a complete defeat. Roman consul Lucius Mummius in 146 BC. e. captured and destroyed the largest center of the Achaean League - the rich trading city of Corinth. Its inhabitants were sold into slavery. Thus, a strong competitor of the Roman-Italian merchants in the Eastern Mediterranean was destroyed. The Achaean unions and all other Greek unions were dissolved, the cities were made dependent on the Roman governors of Macedonia. The Romans introduced a uniform political system in Greek cities, placing a pro-Roman oligarchy at their head. Only Athens and Sparta retained nominal independence, but the Areopagus became the center of government in Athens, and the Gerussia in Sparta.

The troops of Mummius subjected Greece to a terrible defeat. Many ancient monuments and valuable works of art were taken to Rome and simply destroyed. Polybius says that Roman soldiers played dice in the paintings of the greatest artists thrown out of the temples at Corinth.

8. 3rd Punic War. Roman Republic in the 2nd century. BC e. pursued the goal of weakening and, if possible, destroying the Carthaginian state. The Romans could never forget the invasion of Hannibal's army into Italy. In addition, numerous Roman merchants, moneylenders and businessmen insisted on the destruction of a rich trading city - a strong rival and competitor. By the middle of the 2nd century. BC e. Carthage recovered from the defeat and again became a populous, rich city. Its trade, sea and land, flourished, agriculture was booming, and its treasury was full. The Roman Senate closely monitored the situation in Carthage; special Senate commissions were sent there several times. The Romans were aware that rich Carthage could very quickly assemble a large mercenary army and again prove to be a formidable opponent. It is not surprising that the Romans were alarmed by the prosperity of Carthage. According to the peace treaty of 201 BC. e., Carthage could not wage any wars without the consent of the Romans. This was constantly used by the neighbors of Carthage, in particular the king of the neighboring Numidian kingdom Masinissa, an old ally of Rome. Relying on the tacit and public support of the Romans, Masinissa took one region after another from the Carthaginians. When Carthage filed a complaint with the Roman Senate, a special Senate commission not only approved this seizure, but even sentenced the Carthaginians to a fine for the unlawful use of this territory in the past. The emboldened Masinissa annexed two other fertile areas. The Roman commission did not dare approve this seizure. However, the Romans did not demand that Masinissa clear the occupied territories, essentially sanctioning this action of Masinissa. The Carthaginians' patience was exhausted. To repel the attacks of Masinissa, an army was formed, representatives of the militant party were placed at the head of the administration, and supporters of the pro-Roman group and Masinissa were expelled from Carthage.

These military preparations did not go unnoticed in Rome. And in the Roman Senate a discussion began on the question: what to do with Carthage? The conflict between the Carthaginians and Masinissa created a favorable opportunity for reprisals against the hated city. Therefore, the point of view of those who stood for the complete destruction of Carthage won in the Senate. This group was led by Marcus Porcius Cato, who always ended his speeches in the Senate on any topic with the words: “However, I believe Carthage must be destroyed.”

While the issue of the conflict between Masinissa and Carthage was being discussed in the Senate, hostilities began between them. The Carthaginian troops were defeated. Masinissa, having captured new territories, received a large indemnity. However, the Romans were no longer interested in this. Under the pretext that the Carthaginians violated the treaty of 201 BC. e., the Roman Senate declared war on the unfortunate city, which was called the 3rd Punic War (149-146 BC).

The Roman army landed in Africa. The Romans assumed that Carthage would not be able to wage war, and the Carthaginian government was indeed willing to accept any peace terms. Initially, the Romans demanded the surrender of hostages, the disarmament of the city, and the transfer of all weapons, military materials and throwing weapons. When all their conditions were met, the Romans additionally put forward one more condition - the city of Carthage must be moved from the seashore to the interior of the country. The last demand caused an explosion of indignation among the Carthaginians. It was decided to fight to the last strength. It was the courage of despair. In order to lull the vigilance of the Roman commanders, who were standing near the unarmed Carthage, the Carthaginians asked for 30 days to think. In deep secrecy, they used this precious time to strengthen the walls, build additional fortifications, prepare new weapons, throwing weapons, carry out general arming of the population, and raise funds for the recruitment of mercenaries.

When the allotted time had expired and the Roman legions approached the walls, they saw in front of them a powerful fortress defended by the entire population. The Romans expected the war with Carthage to be an easy “military walk” and were not prepared for a long siege. The first attempts to take Carthage were easily repulsed. The Romans were forced to begin a long siege of the city. The summer heat and illness decimated the soldiers, and discipline in the army began to decline. The Carthaginians became bolder. They not only began to make successful forays, but, having recruited an army outside of Carthage, began to harass Roman troops throughout the territory. In addition, Masinissa soon died and his help ceased.

The position of the Roman army worsened. The Roman Senate looked with alarm at the unexpected development of hostilities. To improve the situation, he took an extraordinary measure: consul in 147 BC. e. and the young Scipio Aemilian, a promising commander and talented diplomat, who had not yet passed the required ladder of magistracy, was appointed commander-in-chief. Scipio first of all restored the shaky discipline in the army, expelling merchants, women and outsiders. He defeated the Carthaginian troops operating throughout the territory in the rear of the Romans, and concentrated all the troops around Carthage. A system of fortifications was built, with which the besieged city was cut off from the outside world.

A dam was built at the entrance to the Carthaginian harbor, i.e. the sea route was closed. In Carthage, isolated from the outside world, famine and disease began. When the garrison of Carthage weakened, a general assault was launched (146 BC). For six days there were battles on the walls and streets of the city. We had to take every house in battle. The captured city, according to the instructions of the Roman Senate, was burned and destroyed. The place was cursed and a plow was walked through the ruins as a sign that no person should ever settle here.

The territory of Carthage was declared the Roman province of Africa. Most of its lands became the state property of Rome, and a tax was imposed on the population. True, some cities - Utica, Hadrumet and others, which were loyal allies of Rome, retained self-government and received freedom from taxes.

9. Wars on the Iberian Peninsula. In 154 BC. e. The Lusitanians, who lived outside the Roman provinces, opposed Rome. They were supported by the tribes that were under the control of Roman governors and suffered heavily from their tyranny and treachery. The Roman governor who opposed the Lusitanians was completely defeated (153 BC). After this defeat, the Celtiberian tribes, who inhabited the central part of the Iberian Peninsula, also rose up against the Romans. The situation became so dangerous that the Senate sent a consular army to Iberia. Military operations in Iberia were concentrated in two areas: against the Celtiberians in Near Spain and against the Lusitanians in the Far Province. In Near Spain, the consular army was unable to achieve success, while in Further Spain the Lusitanians were driven out of the Roman province. In 151 BC. e. The Romans also managed to suppress the Celtiberian uprising by making peace with them. However, the new Roman consul who arrived in Iberia in 150 BC. e. treacherously violated the peace treaty and resumed hostilities, subjecting the Vaccaei, who maintained friendly relations with the Romans, to brutal plunder. Such treachery caused a general uprising of many Spanish tribes. The Lusitanians took advantage of this and again began military operations against the Romans. The Roman troops found themselves in a difficult situation. In addition, the rebel tribes appeared in 149 BC. e. a talented leader - Viriatus, a brave and resourceful organizer who enjoyed great authority not only among the Lusitanians, but also among other tribes. For 10 whole years, Viriatus fought with regular Roman troops, repeatedly defeating them. He skillfully maintained harmony in his brave but undisciplined army and found a way out of what seemed like a hopeless situation. Viriatus's successes were so great that the Romans recognized him as the Lusitanian king, and his kingdom as independent of Rome.

Viriatus' success was facilitated by the fact that in the first half of the 140s the Romans fought difficult wars in Africa and Greece. The Roman armies sent to Spain were not distinguished by high fighting qualities, their discipline was weak, and their training was low. The soldiers robbed the population. The military leaders did not lag behind them. The mediocrity and treachery, greed and cowardice of the Roman commanders in the Spanish war were so flagrant that even the Roman Senate was forced to bring some of them to justice.

However, by the end of the 140s the situation had changed. Stronger armies led by capable commanders were sent to Spain. In addition, disagreements began in the Viriata camp. The Romans entered into a conspiracy with Viriatus's confidants, who stabbed this brave and talented man to death (139 BC). Deprived of their leader, the Lusitanian army was defeated by the Romans, Lusitania was conquered, and the Roman legions came to the shores of the Atlantic Ocean.

Repeating and generalizing lesson on the topic

"Rome - conqueror of the Mediterranean."

Lesson format: summary lesson on the topic “Rome, the conqueror of the Mediterranean”

Subject: history

Development date: 04/02/2011

The lesson lasts 40 minutes, the topic is studied in 5th grade.

Lesson time is 40 minutes.

Methodological objectives of the lesson:

consolidate and systematize students’ knowledge of history Ancient Rome;

To intensify the cognitive activity of students in the study of history;

Fix concepts, definitions, terms, events, phenomena, facts, chronology;

Contribute to the development of skills in working with maps and documents;

promote the development of attention, reaction to situational situations, ----- development of the ability to formulate and specify answers to questions;

During the classes.

Motivation.

Main part.

Reflection.

MOTIVATION: Teacher's word: guys, for several lessons we have been studying the topic “ROME THE CONQUEROR OF THE MEDITERRANEAN”. And today we will repeat and summarize the material on this topic and do this with the help of a quiz. But first I would like to tell you a little parable.

They say that on the day that Alexander the Great became ruler of the world, he locked himself in a room and cried.

His commanders were worried. What's happened? They had never seen him cry. He was not that kind of person. They were with him in different situations: when life was in great danger, when death was very close, but no one noticed traces of despair and hopelessness on his face. He was an example of courage. What happened to him now, now that he has won, now that the world has been conquered?

They knocked, entered and asked:

What happened, why are you crying?

He replied:

Now that I had won, I realized that I had lost. Now I am in the same place where I was when I started this senseless conquest of the world. This only became clear to me now, because before I was on a journey, I had a goal. Now I have nowhere to move, no one to conquer. I feel a terrible emptiness inside me. I lost.

Rome also had a goal - to conquer power and power in the Mediterranean. Submitting to this goal, he collided with the interests of Carthage, which for many years became the main enemy of Rome. Carthage was called a thorn in the side of Ancient Rome. When Rome finally managed to raze the fortress to the ground, it found peace, but became lifeless and fell into decay.

But that’s a completely different story, but for now Rome is strong and seeks to demonstrate its strength to the whole world. Today we must remember how he did this.

MAIN PART OF THE LESSON. Conducting a quiz.

DIE IS CAST

So. There is handout material on your desk. Words are printed on sheet No. 1. (SLIDE 2) Your task now is to group these words according to their meaning and highlight among them the key word for each group.

First, we check the keywords that we highlighted (Carthage, Legion, Province). Then the one who correctly named the keyword names the words included in this group. (SLIDES 4,5,6)

Conclusion: please tell me how all these words are related to our topic today?

The teacher's word: having conquered the tribes of Italy, Rome entered the international arena and began the conquest of the Mediterranean. Here its interests collided with other states and Carthage became its main rival in the Western Mediterranean. The map will help us remember how this happened. The following task is offered to your attention.

2. CARTOGRAPHY.

Look at the presented map (diagram). What events are reflected here and when did they take place? (SLIDE 7)

1st Punic War (SLIDE 8)

Battle of Cannes (SLIDE 9)

2nd Punic War (SLIDE 10)

Battle of Zama (SLIDE 11)

Conclusion: what territories were conquered by the Romans outside of Italy?

The teacher’s word: as you understand, the development of any state, its policies, both internal and external, are always determined by those people who are in power. It is in their hands that the full power that determines the fate of states lies. Of course, there were such individuals in the period we are considering. Now I suggest you, based on an excerpt from the document, determine who we are talking about and what made him famous in this era of conquest? Take handout No. 2

3. HISTORY IN PERSONS.

While this man was alive, the Romans knew no peace. They considered him a fire that could always be fanned. This great commander suffered only one defeat, after which he had to leave his homeland. After many years of wandering, he became an adviser to the king of a small state. The Romans demanded that the king hand over the commander. Fearing the Romans, the king agreed. Not wanting to become a prisoner, this courageous man took poison, saying: “Let us remove the heavy burden from the shoulders of the Romans, who cannot wait for the death of the old man they hate.” Who is this man and why were the Romans so afraid of him? (Hannibal)

“It was at the call of this Roman senator that Carthage was destroyed. He ended every speech in the Senate with the words: “Still, I believe that Carthage must be destroyed.” (Cato).

Lethargy and slowness affected him already in childhood; learning was difficult for him. His first major military success was the victory over the Ligurians, for which he received a triumph. When the Second Punic War began a few years later, after the first defeats of the Romans, even before the Battle of Trasimene, he advised avoiding battles with Hannibal, guarding the cities and waiting for Hannibal’s army to melt away by itself. After the Battle of Trasimene he received a dictatorship. He began with religious ceremonies, turned to the Sibylline books, and made vows to the gods, since, in his opinion, the reason for the previous defeat was primarily the commander’s disrespect for religion. He did not enter into battle with Hannibal, but, occupying the heights, followed him at such a distance so as not to be drawn into battle against his will and at the same time not to lose sight of the enemy, keep him on alert and prevent him from obtaining provisions.( Fabius Maxim)

In the spring of 204, this commander departed for the shores of Africa with two legions of veterans (about 30 thousand people), with 40 military and 400 transport ships and, without meeting the slightest resistance, safely landed on Cape Beautiful near Utica.. In 203 The battle of Bagradis (now Sug al-Khamis in Tunisia) was fought, where the army of this talented Roman commander crushed the Carthaginians with double coverage from the flanks. In response to the cessation of hostilities, he demanded Spanish possessions and the Mediterranean islands, the release of the entire military fleet except 20 ships and the payment of a military indemnity of 4 thousand talents. The Carthaginians accepted the terms. In 202, a turning point came in the war - Hannibal was defeated at Zama, a year later 7 ultimatum demands were presented to Carthage. Upon returning to Rome, this commander celebrated a grand triumph, which marked the actual end of the Second Punic War. For this he received the honorary name “African” (SCIPIO).

The teacher’s word: we have decided on the personalities, now our task is to restore historical justice. On the handout sheets under No. 3 there is a text containing historical errors. Your task is to find them and give the correct answer.

4. WE ARE NOT FRIENDS WITH MISTAKES

(the Romans enslaved the inhabitants of the provinces; the governors plundered the provinces, raised taxes and took best lands)

(Carthage opposed Rome’s attempts to conquer the Mediterranean; the Macedonian kingdom by that time no longer owned the Eastern Mediterranean; the Macedonian kingdom never owned part of Spain and the islands in the Western Mediterranean)

(Hannibal is a Carthaginian commander who, as a nine-year-old boy, swore an oath that he would always be an enemy of the Romans. Hannibal decided to attack first, without waiting for the Romans to strike. Coming out of Spain, five months later he approached the Alps. Having crossed the Alps, he found himself in the valley of the Po River Hannibal never visited Sicily or Rome.)

REFLECTION.

So, what conclusion can be drawn about the outcome of the Punic Wars for Rome and its rivals?

Now I invite each of you to express your attitude to the events we were talking about today in the form of a syncwine.

HANDOUT #2

READ THE PASSAGE AND NAME THE PERSON IT IS ABOUT

1. While this man was alive, the Romans knew no peace. They considered him a fire that could always be fanned. This great commander suffered only one defeat, after which he had to leave his homeland. After many years of wandering, he became an adviser to the king of a small state. The Romans demanded that the king hand over the commander. Fearing the Romans, the king agreed. Not wanting to become a prisoner, this courageous man took poison, saying: “Let us remove the heavy burden from the shoulders of the Romans, who cannot wait for the death of the old man they hate.” Who is this man and why were the Romans so afraid of him?

2. It was at the call of this Roman senator that Carthage was destroyed. He ended every speech in the Senate with the words: “Still, I believe that Carthage must be destroyed.”

3. Lethargy and slowness affected him already in childhood; learning was difficult for him. His first major military success was the victory over the Ligurians, for which he received a triumph. When the Second Punic War began a few years later, after the first defeats of the Romans, even before the Battle of Trasimene, he advised avoiding battles with Hannibal, guarding the cities and waiting for Hannibal’s army to melt away by itself. After the Battle of Trasimene he received a dictatorship. He began with religious ceremonies, turned to the Sibylline books, and made vows to the gods, since, in his opinion, the reason for the previous defeat was primarily the commander’s disrespect for religion. He did not enter into battle with Hannibal, but, occupying the heights, followed him at such a distance so as not to be drawn into battle against his will and at the same time not to lose sight of the enemy, keep him on alert and prevent him from obtaining provisions.

4. In the spring of 204, this commander departed for the shores of Africa with two legions of veterans (about 30 thousand people), with 40 military and 400 transport ships and, without meeting the slightest resistance, safely landed on Cape Beautiful near Utica.. In 203, the battle of Bagradis (now Sug al-Khamis in Tunisia) was fought, where the army of this talented Roman commander crushed the Carthaginians with double coverage from the flanks. In response to the cessation of hostilities, he demanded Spanish possessions and the Mediterranean islands, the release of the entire military fleet except 20 ships and the payment of a military indemnity of 4 thousand talents. The Carthaginians accepted the terms. In 202, a turning point came in the war - Hannibal was defeated at Zama, a year later 7 ultimatum demands were presented to Carthage. Upon returning to Rome, this commander celebrated a grand triumph, which marked the actual end of the Second Punic War. For this he received the honorary name "African".

Handout #3

WE ARE NOT FRIENDS WITH MISTAKES

Every task contains errors. We need to find them and give the correct answer.

Having conquered this or that country, the Romans declared it a province, and its inhabitants were endowed with the rights of Roman citizens. The governors who ruled the provinces did everything to make life easier for the local population: they reduced taxes and distributed land. Slavery was abolished in the territory conquered by Rome.

Having subjugated Italy, the Romans began to strive to conquer the entire Mediterranean. Their attempts were opposed by the Macedonian kingdom, which by that time controlled the Eastern Mediterranean, as well as part of Spain and islands in the Western Mediterranean. The Roman Senate developed the following plan: one consular army was sent to Spain, and the other to Africa.

in 218 BC The Carthaginian commander Hannibal decided to pay a friendly visit to Rome at the invitation of the then reigning king. Having crossed the Mediterranean Sea, he visited Sicily, and then arrived in Rome.

Handout No. 1

Carthage governor

Province cavalry

Hannibal dictator

africa trade center

Proconsul military camp

Pune Legion

Infantry addiction

Handout No. 1

Carthage governor

Province cavalry

Hannibal dictator

africa trade center

Proconsul military camp

Pune Legion

Infantry addiction

____________________________________________________

Handout No. 1

Carthage governor

Province cavalry

Hannibal dictator

africa trade center

Proconsul military camp

Pune Legion

Infantry addiction

Repeating and generalizing lesson on the topic

"Rome - conqueror of the Mediterranean."

Lesson form : summary lesson on the topic “Rome, the conqueror of the Mediterranean”

Academic subject : story

Methodological objectives of the lesson:

consolidate and systematize students’ knowledge of the history of Ancient Rome;

To intensify the cognitive activity of students in the study of history;

Fix concepts, definitions, terms, events, phenomena, facts, chronology;

Contribute to the development of skills in working with maps and documents;

promote the development of attention, reaction to situational situations, ----- development of the ability to formulate and specify answers to questions;

During the classes.

Plan:

Motivation.

Main part.

Reflection.

They say that on the day that Alexander the Great became ruler of the world, he locked himself in a room and cried.

They knocked, entered and asked:

- What happened, why are you crying?

He replied:

- Now that I had won, I realized that I had lost. Now I am in the same place where I was when I started this senseless conquest of the world. This only became clear to me now, because before I was on a journey, I had a goal. Now I have nowhere to move, no one to conquer. I feel a terrible emptiness inside me. I lost.

But that’s a completely different story, but for now Rome is strong and seeks to demonstrate its strength to the whole world. Today we must remember how he did this.

MAIN PART OF THE LESSON. Conducting a quiz.

DIE IS CAST

First, we check the keywords that we highlighted (Carthage, Legion, Province). Then the one who correctly named the keyword names the words included in this group. (SLIDES 4,5,6)

Conclusion: please tell me how all these words are related to our topic today?

3. HISTORY IN PERSONS.

– It was at the call of this Roman senator that Carthage was destroyed. He ended every speech in the Senate with the words: “Still, I believe that Carthage must be destroyed.” (Cato).

He made vows to the gods, since, in his opinion, the reason for the previous defeat was primarily the commander’s disrespect for religion. He did not enter into battle with Hannibal, but, occupying the heights, followed him at such a distance so as not to be drawn into battle against his will and at the same time not to lose sight of the enemy, keep him on alert and prevent him from obtaining provisions.( Fabius Maxim)

In the spring of 204, this commander departed for the shores(now Sugh al-Khamis in. For this he received the honorary name “African” (SCIPIO).

4. WE ARE NOT FRIENDS WITH MISTAKES

(the Romans enslaved the inhabitants of the provinces; the governors plundered the provinces, raised taxes and took the best lands)

REFLECTION.

So, what conclusion can be drawn about the outcome of the Punic Wars for Rome and its rivals?

Now I invite each of you to express your attitude to the events we were talking about today in the form of a syncwine.

HANDOUT #2

READ THE PASSAGE AND NAME THE PERSON IT IS ABOUT

2. It was at the call of this Roman senator that Carthage was destroyed. He ended every speech in the Senate with the words: “Still, I believe that Carthage must be destroyed.”

3. Lethargy and slowness affected him already in childhood; learning was difficult for him. His first major military success was the victory over the Ligurians, for which he received a triumph. When it started a few years later, after the first defeats of the Romans, even before the Battle of Trasimene, he advised avoiding battles with, guard the cities and wait for Hannibal's army to melt away by itself. After the Battle of Trasimene he received a dictatorship. He began with religious ceremonies, addressed, made vows to the gods, since, in his opinion, the reason for the previous defeat was primarily the commander’s disrespect for religion. He did not enter into battle with Hannibal, but, occupying the heights, followed him at such a distance so as not to be drawn into battle against his will and at the same time not to lose sight of the enemy, keep him on alert and prevent him from obtaining provisions.

4. In the spring of 204, this commander departed for the shoreswith two legions of veterans (about 30 thousand people), with 40 military and 400 transport ships and, without meeting the slightest resistance, safely landed on Cape Beautiful near.. In 203 the battle was fought at(now Sugh al-Khamis in), where the army of this talented Roman commander crushed the Carthaginians with double coverage from the flanks. In response to the cessation of hostilities, he demanded Spanish possessions and the Mediterranean islands, the release of the entire military fleet except 20 ships and the payment of a military indemnity of 4 thousand talents. The Carthaginians accepted the terms. In 202, a turning point came in the war - Hannibal was defeated at, a year later, 7 ultimatum demands were presented to Carthage. Upon returning to Rome, this commander celebrated a grandiose triumph, which marked the actual completion of. For this he received the honorary name "African".

Handout #3

WE ARE NOT FRIENDS WITH MISTAKES

Every task contains errors. We need to find them and give the correct answer.

Handout No. 1

Carthage governor

Province cavalry

Hannibal dictator

africa trade center

Proconsul military camp

Pune Legion

Infantry addiction

Slavery

Handout No. 1

Carthage governor

Province cavalry

Hannibal dictator

africa trade center

Proconsul military camp

Pune Legion

Infantry addiction

Slavery

____________________________________________________

Handout No. 1

Carthage governor

Province cavalry

Hannibal dictator

africa trade center

Proconsul military camp

Pune Legion

Infantry addiction

History of wars at sea

(from the book of the same name by A. Shtenzel)

Chapter IV.
Rome's dominance of the Mediterranean

Wars against pirates

Carthage, the strongest maritime power in the western part Mediterranean Sea, was finally overthrown, but the time had not yet come for the Roman fleet to indulge in rest, despite the fact that it had become the unconditional master of all the seas. Now Rome had to wage wars in distant countries, where its troops could only reach by sea; the importance of the fleet began to constantly increase, since it had to energetically assist all operations of the ground army; at the same time, he also had to perform the functions of maritime police here and there, since maritime robbery began to assume dangerous proportions.

Thanks to this circumstance, the Roman fleet, which required tireless care, at times reached a very high degree of development, which placed it on the same level as the land army. Along with large warships, light ships were built, intended for sending orders and for intelligence service.

Throwing machines were installed on the upper deck of large warships; some ships were equipped with two- and three-story towers in which archers were placed to fire at the decks of enemy ships. Other combat vehicles were also installed on the ships, there were incendiary shells, and there were also special fire ships (An effective incendiary device was invented by the Rhodian admiral Pausistratus in 191 BC. An iron container with a flammable substance was attached to a long beam mounted on the bow of the ship, probably , some kind of mixture of resins and oils. Upon contact with an enemy ship, the container turned over, the incendiary mixture was poured onto the deck. The position of the container was regulated by a chain stretched from the bow). Simultaneously with the improvement of ships, harbors were built, some of which were fortified and could be locked with chains.

About 500 Roman ships took part in the war with Mithridates, king of Pontus, but the fleet acquired particular importance in the war against sea robbers. As the fleet increasingly had to take part in hostilities, it began to develop more specific statutory tactics; so, for example, on a voyage, ships sailed mostly in two columns, which, when approaching the enemy, leaned to the right or left and then, making a 90-degree turn, went towards the enemy with a deployed battle front, in one or two lines, and in the first case the ships the second line entered the gaps of the first line and thus formed one common front.

A system for transmitting orders was gradually developed; As in ground forces, the signal to attack was given mostly by a red flag. Simultaneously with the raising of this flag on the ship of the commander-in-chief, all the trumpeters on this ship began to blow the trumpets; at the same time, the rowers uttered a battle cry or sometimes sang a battle hymn.

When attacking, each ship identified an enemy, whom it tried to capture; later they tried to break off the enemy’s oars first; Thus, the usual type of combat was general combat (melee). When breaking through the enemy line, the opponents, if they did not immediately proceed to boarding combat, fired at each other, and then the ships tried to attack each other from the stern. To better strike, the distance was often increased by ramming. Advantages of tactics " wolf pack", when several light high-speed ships simultaneously attack the clumsy "dreadnought", became obvious by the end of III a. BC e. The proliferation of incendiary shells gave light ships additional advantages. Single combat tactics had to be used in maritime police service.

Ships that received holes and leaked did not always go to the bottom; There was little ballast, inventory, equipment, weapons and supplies on board, so the ships mostly remained on the water. After the battle, damaged ships were usually taken into tow and taken home.

Transport ships, loaded mostly with water and provisions, sailed mainly under sail; There were few oarsmen on them, so warships often had to take them in tow.

While in the western part of the Mediterranean the Romans were at war with Carthage, in the east there were constant wars between the descendants of the military leaders of Alexander the Great, each of whom carved out for himself a special kingdom from the vast possessions of the great conqueror, which for the most part did not even have definite borders. These wars gave rise to all kinds of unrest, which led to an increase in maritime robbery, since piracy was practiced in ancient times by all seafaring peoples, and only later was suppressed by the organized fleets of sea powers. Cilicia, located between Syria and Asia Minor, on the border of two kingdoms, became the center of maritime robbery.

The widespread development of maritime robbery was facilitated by the fact that the two main maritime powers of that time, Carthage and Corinth, were in the same year 146 BC. e. destroyed by the Romans; many people driven from their places, among them people of noble birth, experienced and skilled in maritime affairs and naval warfare, took up sea robbery. A well-organized pirate state was formed in Cilicia, which maintained a large army and navy, and gradually gained more and more strength.

The state that destroyed the maritime powers mentioned above and conquered all the lands adjacent to the Mediterranean Sea inherited from these powers only dominance on land, but not on the sea. Maritime affairs were abandoned, which gave sea robbers the opportunity to act with almost unlimited freedom; they not only captured merchant ships, but plundered the coast and islands, imposed indemnities on cities, captured respected citizens, for whom they then demanded ransom. The Romans had to come into direct contact with them during the conquest of Asia Minor during the time of Sulla; at the same time, the large fleet of Mithridates of Pontus disintegrated, and many officers and sailors of this fleet entered the service of the pirates.

The situation in which the Roman fleet was at that time can be judged by the fact that in 87-76. BC e. Sulla sent one of his most energetic officers, Lucullus, east to assemble a fleet; Lucullus traveled all over the world, on his way to Egypt he almost fell into the hands of pirates, and only in the harbors of Syria, Cyprus and Rhodes did he manage to assemble a fairly strong squadron, with which he took part in the war.

The sea robbers continued to act with increasing insolence and plundered even the shores of Sicily and Italy: they, for example, approached Syracuse, fortified themselves near the bay and from there began to raid deeper into the island. They took cities that did not want to surrender or pay indemnity by storm; from the island of Lipara they took a constant tribute as a ransom, which ensured this island from plunder. The supply of supplies to Rome (the granaries of Rome were Sicily, Sardinia and Africa) was so difficult due to robberies that prices in the city rose terribly and famine began to threaten it. The pirates reached Ostia itself and destroyed the Roman naval fleet stationed in the harbor, which was being equipped against them.

This was the end of my patience. It was not just an insult to Rome; The Roman mob, which by that time had already become almost omnipotent, felt the influence of sea robbery as a result of the rise in the price of bread, and then they had to take decisive measures.

The Romans had already repeatedly sent a fleet and army to destroy sea robbers, but no noticeable success was achieved. Only the proconsul Servilius, an energetic man, for three years (from 78 to 76) led a stubborn and bloody war and for the first time achieved some significant results; he defeated them at sea, stormed a number of harbors, cities and fortresses that belonged to them in Lycia, Pamphylia, Cilicia and Isauria, destroyed many of their ships, for which he was awarded a triumph and the nickname “Isaurian”. However, robberies were not eradicated, since there was still no permanent maritime police.

As a result, the very next year a new expedition was sent against the pirates, and its chief, Mark Antony (Mark Antony’s father), was given powers that had not been given to any Roman before: “power over all the sea shores under the Roman dominion"; By these powers one can best judge the importance that the sea robbers acquired. However, Mark Antony thought more about his enrichment than about completing the task entrusted to him: he waged war for five years, but achieved no results and even himself was defeated at sea by the Cretans, with whom he made peace.

This was the moment of greatest development of the forces of sea robbers. In 70 BC. e. they had more than 1000 beautifully built and armed ships, they ruled about 400 cities, and their main harbor was Coracesium, located on the border of Cilicia and Pamphylia, and in the Taurus mountains, stretching behind this city, they had many fortified mountain locks

The interruption in the delivery of provisions created such a serious situation in Rome that in 67, the people's tribune Gabinius, despite the energetic opposition of the Senate, passed a law in the people's assembly that bore his name ( Lex Gabinia), according to which, to suppress maritime robbery, a special person was appointed, vested with the broadest powers, surpassing even those given to Mark Antony: he was given unlimited power over the entire Mediterranean Sea, including Pontus, and over all its shores at a distance of 75 kilometers inland; at his disposal was given a fleet of 500 ships, an army of 120,000 infantry and 5,000 horsemen, and the right to dispose at his own discretion of the state treasury, all capital and other funds in the province. These powers were given for three years, and he was given the right to choose all his subordinates himself.

Such power was contrary to all traditions, and the vesting of one person with it can be considered as a transition to monarchy; a republic in which such a law could pass had to be considered prepared for autocracy. The end of the Roman Republic was, in a sense, caused by naval warfare.

Activities of Pompey

The person who was supposed to be given such powers was not named, but it could not be anyone other than Gnaeus Pompeius, whose star at that time was in full brilliance and rising higher and higher; he was appointed by the Senate to this position and brilliantly justified the choice that fell on him.

The war against sea robbers is not of interest in a tactical sense, but in a strategic sense it is of significant importance. Pompey's plan was to completely destroy robbery throughout the Mediterranean, and not just fight it, as had been done until then, in its main nest - on the southern coast of Asia Minor and Crete. It was impossible to achieve this by concentrating all one’s forces in one place, since the enemy’s power was not limited to one or a few points, but extended to the entire Mediterranean Sea.

The defeat of the enemy at any one point would matter only for a short time and only for this one point, since the robbers would quickly disperse into different sides and would have taken up their business again in another place or would have returned to the old place as soon as the winner left there. Therefore, Pompey had to abandon the generally accepted basic rule of strategy "keep forces together" and do the opposite of what his predecessors had done; this was absolutely correct, since in this case it was not a matter of war at sea. Pompey decided to attack the sea robbers in all their dens, if possible simultaneously, but at the same time not only defeat them, but also surround them so as not to give them the opportunity to escape. To carry out this plan he had at his disposal sufficient forces for at least one half of the Mediterranean, since he apparently did not even make use of all the forces placed at his disposal. In addition, the sea robbers could not be considered an equivalent opponent for the well-armed Roman fleet, and their organization did not have sufficient flexibility to withstand a world power in a serious struggle for a long time. However, the manner in which Pompey disposed of his forces, and the extraordinary speed with which he radically solved the task entrusted to him, deserve full attention, as a result of which a brief description of his actions is given below.

Pompey divided the Mediterranean into thirteen regions and assigned a sufficiently strong squadron with an appropriate number of troops to each of them; These detachments were supposed to search and clear the entire coast and islands of pirates. He himself left himself a squadron of 60 of the best ships under his direct command, with which he began to cruise on the high seas in order to be able to come to the rescue in the most dangerous places.

It began its activities in the western half of the Mediterranean; one squadron was entrusted with the eastern coast of Spain, another with the southern coast of France, etc.; he himself remained in the Tyrrhenian Sea and cruised between Italy, Sicily and Sardinia. All the squadrons so quickly and persistently took on the task entrusted to them that within 40 days this huge space was completely cleared of robbers. Sea trade resumed as usual, food was brought to Rome in abundance, and grain prices fell to normal levels. This made, of course, a huge impression.

Then Pompey moved to the eastern part of the Mediterranean; he again distributed squadrons along all the shores and islands, and he himself headed against the main robber nest - Coracesium. Until then, the robbers did not dare to resist the strong Roman squadrons, but then they took up arms and, after a stubborn battle, were defeated. Then Pompey landed his troops without resistance and began to destroy the fortified robber castles. The significant forces that Pompey had at his disposal and his persistence made a strong impression on the robbers. They were also prompted to surrender promptly by the fact that Pompey promised those who surrendered life and freedom, whereas before the Romans had crucified all the robbers they captured. Having such a choice, most of them chose to surrender, and many were betrayed by their own comrades. Thus, the eastern part of the Mediterranean Sea was cleared of sea robbery in seven weeks.

About 400 ships, including 90 warships, were partly taken from the robbers, and partly they gave them back; in addition, probably up to 900 ships were destroyed; the harbors belonging to the robbers were captured, the shipyards were destroyed, 120 fortified castles were destroyed; Apparently up to 10,000 robbers were killed and about 20,000 captured; in addition, enormous booty was captured and many captives were freed, including many noble Romans who had long been considered dead. Pompey resettled the captured prisoners throughout the devastated cities of Asia Minor.

Thus, Pompey completed the task assigned to him in less than three months. Enormous forces were placed at his disposal, significantly superior to those of the enemy, and therefore it may seem that the task was very easy to complete; This is how they usually look at any, even the greatest military success - the story with Columbus's egg is repeated; everyone in hindsight believes that the need for the measures taken was obvious by itself, but in reality, out of many thousands of people, there are usually only a few who have that correct view that suggests the right decision. No matter how simple and obvious the measures taken by Pompey may seem, none of his predecessors, one of whom was also given emergency powers, thought of applying them.

Similar cases were repeated more than once in later times. Buccaneers (filibusters) at one time formed the same pirate state in the West Indies; the closest example is the Barbary states on the northern coast of Africa; They practiced their pirate craft for centuries, expeditions were taken against them from time to time by Charles V and Louis XIV. In the 19th century, Algeria was bombarded by the British and North Americans, but maritime robbery was eradicated only when France conquered Algeria in 1830. It took Pompey less than three months to cleanse the entire Mediterranean Sea.

Regardless of successful drafting general plan war, Pompey's strategic talent was especially expressed in his ability to keep the intended plan of action and his preparations secret, and then in the speed of action, which ensured the surprise of his attack. Particularly noteworthy is the simultaneous decisive attack of the enemy at all points, due to which he was deprived of the opportunity to take cover or gather his widely scattered forces for decisive resistance; Finally, we must do justice to the speed and confidence with which he conducted all operations.

During his eventful life, Pompey had to accomplish many significant deeds: he commanded armies and won more than one victory on land, but the most brilliant page of his history is undoubtedly his leadership of the fleet during this naval war, which he carried out with unexpected speed. completed it with complete success.

Meanwhile, as mentioned above, shipbuilding made further progress. The ships began to be built larger and taller, and they were equipped with throwing machines, for the protection of which, as well as the combatants, they began to make high sides and even install towers: in addition to heavy shells for destroying the sides, incendiary shells began to be used; improvements were made for more convenient action in boarding combat. For special purposes, they began to build special vessels, for example, small fast ships. The battle usually began from a long distance and only then turned into a boarding battle; The ram lost most of its meaning, and they began to ram only when an exceptionally favorable opportunity presented itself. Rome's use of its fleet to support the land army brought forward many special tasks that the fleet had to perform.

The development of shipbuilding was reflected in another area, for example, in the construction of luxury ships. The parade ship of Ptolemy Fplopator was more than 400 feet long, and its height from keel to deck was 80 feet. The animal figures attached as decoration were 18 feet high; the ship had seven towers, the longest oars were 55 feet long and were filled with lead for counterweight. The ship had 4,000 oarsmen and more than 3,000 other crew, totaling more than 7,000 people.

Other large royal ships Special attention attention was paid to luxurious decoration: the rooms for feasts had mosaic floors, pavilions, extensive gardens, and luxurious living quarters were built; it was everywhere cedar tree, ivory, gilding, marble columns.

In Syracuse, Hiero II had such a ship, built for him by Archimedes; its mast consisted of one piece, for which the tallest tree in Brutium was cut down. The ship had many halls for celebrations, prayer halls and luxurious living quarters; in addition, it had baths, even a steam bath, a dozen horse stalls, large water tanks; There were eight towers around the deck. The main catapult, built by Archimedes, could throw stones weighing up to 150 pounds over a distance of 400 feet: an iron fence protected against boarding; the ship had 4 large wooden and 4 iron anchors. Hiero subsequently presented this ship to the Egyptian king, since it had difficulty entering the harbors of Sicily.

At the bottom of Lake Nemi in the Albani mountains (in the vicinity of Rome) the remains of one such luxurious ship were found; Most of these remains are currently in the Museum of the Diacletian Baths in Rome, where you can admire the unusually strong construction of the hull and see individual parts of the weapons. This ship also had gardens arranged in the form of terraces with temples and pavilions, and huge halls. This ship, apparently, was constantly anchored on a small lake, while the two huge ships mentioned above could move, and even crossed the sea.

Such colossal buildings could be important for defense, but for the offensive they, of course, were completely unsuitable.

Smaller luxury ships were much more common; Even sea robbers had such ships and were distinguished by their lightness and speed. The special demands that the predatory trade placed on ships also brought their share of benefits to shipbuilding. For example, Agrippa first became acquainted with ships called “liburn” ( libnrnae) and who subsequently provided him with significant benefit, from one robber tribe on the Illyrian coast.

If in the 5th and even in the 4th century. BC e. The Western Mediterranean knot of contradictions was determined, first of all, by the ongoing struggle between Carthage and the Western Hellenes, then in the 3rd century. performs in the Mediterranean arena new power- the growing Roman state. The course of events and the general trend of historical development led to the fact that in the 3rd century. The basic prerequisites are already taking shape for the transformation of Rome into the largest Mediterranean power.

Great cities of Magna Graecia. Power of Agatholk

By the time Rome appeared on the international stage, the flourishing time of the Italian cities of Magna Graecia had long since passed. They were weakened by a long internecine struggle, which resulted in increasing pressure on these cities from local southern Italian tribes. Back in 421 BC. e. Kuma fell under the onslaught of the Campanians, and at the beginning of the 4th century. Posidonia, Pina and Laus passed into the hands of the Lucanians. By the 3rd century. on the west coast only Velia (Elea) and Rhegium retained their independence. On the eastern coast of Italy, the large trading city of Tarentum retained its independent position, but even since the collapse of the Syracusan state, it could barely restrain the pressure of its neighbors - the Lucanians and Messapians.

In Sicily at the end of the 4th century. Syracuse once again attempted to unite the cities of Magna Graecia under its rule and create a power capable of rivaling Carthage in dominance over the Western Mediterranean. This happened during the period of Agathocles' tyranny.

The career of Agathocles, who from a simple potter became the “king of the Sicilians,” indicates that he was a far from ordinary person. Having established himself as a capable military leader, he subsequently gained wide popularity among the poor citizens of Syracuse, promising to satisfy their long-standing demands for the redistribution of land and the cancellation of debt obligations. Obviously, Agathocles' main support was mercenaries and the poorest, proletarianized sections of the population. His growing influence and extreme activity made him dangerous in the eyes of the oligarchic government of Syracuse, as a result of which he was forced into exile.

However, Agathocles soon managed not only to recruit a mercenary detachment, but also to rely on a significant number of his followers in Sicily itself. In 316, Agathocles' detachment broke into Syracuse. With the support of broad sections of the population, the oligarchic government was overthrown, and many representatives of oligarchic circles paid with their lives and property. After this, a popular assembly was convened, at which Agathocles swore an oath to observe the existing state structure and was elected strategist-autocrat.

Agathocles managed not only to restore, but also to expand territorially the great power of Dionysius. Most of the cities of Hellenic Sicily recognized the supremacy of Syracuse; the remaining Hellenic cities, such as Akragant, Gela, Messana, first fought against Agathocles in alliance with Syracusan emigrants, but by 313 they were forced to submit to his authority.

The fight against Carthage, which had already become a traditional feature of the foreign policy of the Syracusan tyrants, was initially unsuccessful for Agathocles: in the Battle of Eknome, the Carthaginians won a decisive victory over the troops of Agathocles. Syracuse was under siege. But Agathocles, with a bold military maneuver, prevented the enemy from using the success achieved and paralyzed his forces in Sipilia: in 310, he landed on the African coast with 14 thousand mercenaries, took Hadrumet, and in 307, one of the largest cities on the African coast - Utica . The capital of the Carthaginians, in turn, was under threat. However, these successful actions of Agathocles in Africa were interrupted by unexpected events.

In Sicily, an uprising broke out in a number of cities subject to Agathocles, led by Akragant. Agathocles found himself in a very difficult position, because he was unable to conduct military operations simultaneously both in Africa and against the rebels in Sicily. Leaving the army in Africa to its fate (it soon surrendered to the Carthaginians), Agathocles returned to Sicily. Here he managed, after a rather long struggle, which went on with varying success, to suppress the uprising, and according to the peace treaty of 305, Syracuse again became the hegemon of the entire part of Sicily that did not belong to Carthage. Apparently, at this time Agathocles took the title of "King of the Sicilians." This political gesture is undoubtedly connected with events in the Eastern Mediterranean, where around the same time the diadochi, who divided Alexander's empire among themselves, assumed royal titles.

Having not brought the war against Carthage to a victorious end, around 300 Agathocles, under the pretext of helping Tarentum, begins to fight the Italian tribes, conducting military operations in the southwest of the Apennine Peninsula against the Bruttians. After the death of Agathocles (289), his vast but internally fragile state quickly collapsed, and this time forever.

Another Western state, which had greater capabilities than the Sicilian power and its rival Carthage, namely Rome, succeeded in creating an empire of world significance.

War of the Romans with Pyrrhus

After the Samnite Wars and the conquest of Central Italy, the Romans came into direct contact with the Greek cities of Southern Italy. Weakened by the fierce struggle between various factions of citizens, Greek cities were not able to overcome acute contradictions in their relationships with each other.

In the 80s, the Lucanians attacked the Greek city of Thurii. Unwilling to turn to their rival Tarentum for help, the Furies asked the Romans for support.

Rome was well aware that the support of the Furies would make it possible to extend Roman influence to other cities in Southern Italy. Therefore, an army was sent to help the Furies, which defeated the Lucans and drove them away from the city. After this, a Roman garrison was left in Thurii. However, this turn of events caused great anxiety and discontent in Tarentum. The Tarentines attacked the Roman warships that entered their harbor, and then moved to the Furies and, relying on a group of citizens friendly to them, expelled the Roman garrison from there. As a result of these events, war broke out between Rome and Tarentum.

Although Tarentum had fairly large military forces and the Lucans and Messapians joined it as allies, the very first battles showed the unconditional superiority of the Romans. The Tarentines turned for help to the Epirus king Pyrrhus, who very willingly responded to their call.

In the person of Pyrrhus, the Romans had to face one of the most brilliant commanders of the Hellenistic era. Even in his youth, he showed such aptitude for military affairs that when one of the associates of Alexander the Great was asked who was now the most outstanding commander, he answered: “Pyrrhus, when his mature age comes.” Subsequently, the great commander of antiquity Hannibal assigned Pyrrhus second place after Alexander the Great, and himself only third.

But if Pyrrhus was an outstanding commander, then as a political figure he should not be rated too highly. His extensive plans bore the stamp of insufficient thought and adventurism, his military talents were not complemented by the foresight of a cautious and mature politician. That's what happened this time too. Pyrrhus seized on the offer of the Tarentines, but his ambitious calculations extended further - the idea of creating a great monarchy in the West arose before him, to replace the collapsed eastern power of Alexander.

In the spring of 280, Pyrrhus landed in Italy. His army consisted of 22 thousand well-trained infantry, 3 thousand Thessalian horsemen and 20 war elephants, the use of which was borrowed by the Greeks from the East. Pyrrhus's first clash with the Romans took place near the city of Heraclea. The battle was extremely stubborn. The outcome of the battle was decided by the elephants and the Thessalian cavalry of Pyrrhus; as a result of the defeat, the Romans lost Lucania, and the Bruttians, Lucans, Samnites and almost all southern Greek cities (with the exception of Capua and Naples) went over to the side of their enemies.

In the spring of 279, Pyrrhus launched a new attack on Apulia, where the Romans concentrated an army of up to 70 thousand people. The second major battle of this war took place near the city of Auskula. The Romans were again defeated, but Pyrrhus' victory came at a high price ("Pyrrhic victory"). His losses were so great that, accepting congratulations, he, according to legend, replied: “Another such victory, and I will have no one to return to Epirus with.” And indeed, despite the victories won in two major battles, the position of Pyrrhus in Italy became extremely complicated. Roman manpower was far from exhausted. The Latin allies remained loyal to Rome. In Tarentum and other southern Italian cities, discontent grew against Pyrrhus. At this time, an embassy from Sicily arrived at Pyrrhus: Syracuse, pressed by the Carthaginians, turned to him with a request for help. The war in Italy was clearly dragging on and requiring new efforts and resources.

Under the influence of all these circumstances, Pyrrhus began peace negotiations with Rome. The peace terms were apparently quite favorable for the Romans, however, the Senate rejected them, since the Carthaginians, interested in keeping Pyrrhus in Italy and preventing him from crossing into Sicily, offered Rome an alliance and military assistance. Based on this alliance, the Roman government could decide to continue the war.

However, Pyrrhus, hoping to achieve success in Sicily with less effort, left Italy in 278 and went with troops to help the Syracusans, leaving only garrisons in Tarentum and Locri. In Sicily, Pyrrhus first achieved great success. Pressing and defeating the Carthaginians everywhere, he advanced to the southwestern tip of Sicily; The Carthaginians held only Lilybaeum. Pyrrhus had already begun to prepare a fleet to transport troops to Africa, but then serious complications began in his relations with the Greek cities. Disregarding local democratic traditions, Pyrrhus rudely interfered in the internal life of Greek cities, arbitrarily imposed all kinds of taxes, etc. As a result of this, some of the cities took up arms against him, others even went over to the side of the Carthaginians. They did not fail to take advantage of these complications behind enemy lines; A large Carthaginian army reappeared in Sicily. The successes achieved by Pyrrhus were nullified: only Syracuse remained in his hands.

Thus, Pyrrhus faced the fact of the complete collapse of all his plans in Sicily. Meanwhile, alarming news came to him from Italy that the Romans, not meeting the previous resistance, had gone on the offensive. With the help of Romanophile-minded oligarchic groups in Croton and Locri, they managed to take possession of these two cities. At the same time, not without success, they began to act against the Samnites and Lucans. All this forced the Greeks and Italians who were still on Pyrrhus’ side to turn to him with an urgent call for help. Then Pyrrhus left Sicily, where everything was already lost for him, and returned to Italy. On the way back in the strait, he was attacked by the Carthaginian fleet and destroyed more than half of the ships. Nevertheless, in the spring of 275, Pyrrhus landed in Italy and began to prepare for new offensive actions against the Romans.

The decisive battle took place in the same year near the city of Beneventa, in the center of Samnium. Pyrrhus suffered a complete defeat, his camp was captured, and he himself fled to Tarentum. Soon after this battle he left Italy, and three years later he died in Argos during a street fight.

The victory of Rome over Pyrrhus was the victory of a peasant country with its citizen militia over an army of mercenaries, well armed and led by a talented commander, but involved in a hopeless military adventure. This victory made it easier for Rome to conquer southern Italy. In 272, the Romans besieged and took Tarentum. About five years later, Rome broke the resistance of the remaining tribes that still retained their independence. Thus, all of Italy, from the Strait of Messa to the Rubicon River on the border with Cisalpine Gaul, came under Roman rule. Rome became one of the largest states in the Western Mediterranean.

Rome after the conquest of Italy. Economy

Available sources, unfortunately, do not make it possible to form a sufficiently clear idea of the development of productive forces in Italy in the 5th-3rd centuries. The evolution of agricultural technology is also extremely difficult to establish, but it is unlikely to have been significant in the early centuries of the republic. We know from the Roman writer and agronomist Varro that from about the middle of the 5th century. The Romans begin to cultivate new crops: wheat and spelt. Obviously, by this time they already had a compound plow. Cattle breeding (with the exception of Southern Italy) was slightly developed; Cattle were mainly used for draft purposes. The fields of large landowners were cultivated using the labor of clients and slaves, although the number of the latter on individual farms was still very small.

There is also no doubt about the further growth of the craft. The restoration of Rome after the Gallic invasion in itself presupposed the development of construction activities. The city is gradually losing its rustic appearance: streets are being paved, central squares are decorated with statues, and the market area is surrounded by stone galleries. From the end of the 4th century. intensive construction is underway public buildings, mainly temples. Roman architecture brings to full development the arched ceiling system borrowed by the Romans from the Etruscans. In buildings of the 4th century. we already meet the stone vault.

The growth of trade and commodity-money relations among the Romans is evidenced by the minting of coins. First, the Roman coin (as), which appeared in the middle of the 4th century. BC e., was copper, but then, after the victory over Pyrrhus, silver coinage (drachma, denarius) began in Rome itself, and from the end of the 3rd century. and a gold coin. The penetration of the Romans into Southern Italy led to increased exchange and strengthening of trade ties between Rome and wealthy Greek cities. From the 3rd century In Rome, commercial and usurious capital begins to take shape.

However, agriculture continued to be the basis of the Roman economy. Rome's subjugation of Southern Italy led to the spread of Roman agrarian relations to most of the peninsula. This was facilitated by the intensive colonization policy of the Romans, through which they sought, on the one hand, to solve the agrarian problem, that is, to satisfy the peasants' need for land, and on the other hand, to strengthen the rule of Rome in the most remote areas of the country. Therefore, some colonies were predominantly military in nature and were withdrawn to coastal or border areas (for example, Antium, Tarracina, Minturni, Sinuessa, etc.), and the colonists, as a rule, received relatively small amounts here. land plots. Colonies of a slightly different type (Fregella, Luceria, Arimin, etc.) were established mainly in the interior regions of the peninsula. They were much more densely populated and had a more pronounced agricultural character. The colonists received relatively large plots land. Thanks to colonies of this type, stable middle and small peasant land ownership is spreading in Italy.

In the sphere of the Roman economy, and above all land relations, new processes are developing. Their meaning is that private property land is increasingly being replaced by communal (state) ownership. The seizure of the public field took place in more early times, but then he still retained to some extent the nature of leasing these lands from the state; in the IV and especially in the III century. over time, most of these lands, once “leased” from the state, became the inalienable property of their owners, and representatives of patrician and noble plebeian families now became the hereditary owners of these lands equally. This practice not only favored the concentration of land ownership, but also led to a sharp intensification of the struggle between large and small landowners.

Class structure of Roman society

Slavery in the IV-III centuries. begins to be increasingly introduced into the Roman economy. The number of slaves grew rapidly as a result of almost continuous warfare. The capture and destruction of Veii also gave the Romans a massive supply of slaves; The number of slaves in Rome began to grow especially rapidly since the Samnite wars. The tax on manumission of slaves established in 357 indicates quite high level development of slavery.

Class structure of Roman society IV-III centuries. appears with sufficient clarity. The division of society into free and slaves becomes decisive. The situation of the slaves was extremely difficult; from the point of view of Roman law, a slave was not a person, but a thing, and therefore the master was free over his life and death. All slaves had absolutely no rights, they were all equally excluded from civil and political life.

The free people were not united either in their composition or in their position. The class of large landowners and slave owners was represented in Rome in the 4th-3rd centuries. a privileged group of nobility - the new nobility, formed as a result of the merger of the patrician-plebeian elite. This was the highest class (ordo), which filled the highest magistracy and the ranks of the Senate with its representatives. Of course, it would be wrong to assume that the slave-owning class consisted only of large landowners. There was a significant layer of small and medium-sized slave owners - wealthy peasants, owners of craft workshops, and traders. But they were not included in the privileged class.

Class of free producers in the IV-III centuries. consisted mainly of the mass of rural and urban plebs, i.e. Roman peasants and urban artisans. Formally in the 3rd century. all plebeians in their legal capacity were no different from nobles, but in fact they had no real opportunity to participate in the government of the state and could not play a leading role in its life.

The structure of Roman society in the 3rd century. was also determined by the fact that among the free population there was a significant category of incomplete citizens. These should include libertines, i.e. freedmen who could not be elected magistrates and had limited voting rights (only in tribunal cominia). The so-called Latin citizens, who had property rights, but were deprived of political rights, also belonged to those without full rights. This rather complex structure of Roman slave society was further complicated by the emergence of new classes and new full and partial groups of the population.

State structure

The state structure of the Roman Republic by the 3rd century. also has already taken shape quite clearly. Officially, the Roman people (populus Romanus), i.e., the totality of Roman full-fledged citizens, was considered the bearer of religious power in the republic. The people exercised their rights in the assembly-comitia. In Rome, as already indicated, there were three types of committees: a) curiat (meetings of patricians), which lost all political significance at the beginning of the republic (they were left with the formal delegation of the highest power - the empire - to elected magistrates and the solution of some issues of family law); b) centuriate (meetings of patricians and plebers according to property categories and centuries), which until the end of the republic resolved issues of peace and war and in which elections of senior officials were carried out, and c) tribute (built on a territorial principle), which, after the law of Hortensius, were carried out by the main way of legislative activity. This was the most democratic type of popular assembly in Rome.

However, ordinary participants in the comitia were actually deprived of almost any political initiative. Only magistrates had the right to convene comitia, preside over them and raise issues to be decided. As a rule, there was no discussion of these issues at the comitia, and citizens began voting by centuries or tribes immediately after the lists of candidates were announced or the bill was read out.

The stronghold of the ruling Roman aristocracy (nobility) - the Senate actually turned into the highest state authority. The number of its members ranged from 300 to 600 people, and at the end of the republic it reached 900 people. Senators were appointed by censors from among the former magistrates in order of official hierarchy: first of all, former consuls, then praetors, etc. The right to convene the Senate for meetings and preside over them belonged to the highest magistrates: consuls, dictator, praetors, and subsequently the tribunes of the people. The competence of the Senate was very extensive: approval of elected magistrates, management of state property and finances, issues of peace and war, leadership foreign policy, supreme supervision of religious affairs, declaration of emergency powers, etc. In the Senate, there was a thorough discussion of the issues under consideration and then voting on proposals.

The bearers of executive power were the magistrates. Performing the duties of a magistrate was considered the highest honor and was carried out not only free of charge, but in a number of cases was associated with significant expenses from the personal funds of the chosen one. The magistrate is an inviolable person: while he performs his office, he can neither be removed nor brought to justice. Roman magistrates received their powers by election and exercised them collegiately. Election was also associated with very significant expenses for candidates, since long before the elections they, according to custom, were obliged to arrange feasts and treats for their fellow citizens, give them gifts, etc. Thus, although any Roman citizen could apply for election , in fact, it was available only to the wealthiest, belonging to the nobility environment. Magistrates were divided into higher (consul, dictator, praetor, censor, tribune of the people) and lower (all others). In addition, master's programs were divided into ordinary ones, i.e. ordinary or permanent (consuls, tribunes of the people, praetors, censors, aediles, quaestors), and extraordinary, i.e. extraordinary (dictator, his assistant - chief of cavalry, triumvirs, decemvirs). The only non-collegiate magistracy was the dictatorship; the only magistrates elected for a term longer than a year were the censors. The priestly colleges - pontiffs, flamines, salii, Arval brothers, etc. - also enjoyed a certain influence in the political life of Rome. The high priests - pontiffs - were elected in the comitia, the rest were elected by their colleges or were appointed pontiffs.

This was the state structure of the Roman Republic in its main features. Later writers (Polybius, Cicero) believed that the Roman Republic embodied the ideal of mixed government system, i.e., a structure in which the elements of monarchy (the power of consuls), aristocracy (Senate) and democracy (Comitia) are harmoniously combined. But they, of course, idealized this system: the Roman state was a typical aristocratic slave-owning republic, which is confirmed by the dominant role of the nobility body - the Senate, the unpaid magistracy and the secondary importance of the comitia.

Administration of conquered Italy

The conquest of Italy by Rome - a long process of gradual growth of the Roman state territory proper, the subjugation of other Italian communities - was imprinted in unique forms. The most characteristic feature in the organization of administration of conquered Italy was the historically established heterogeneity of relations between Rome and the population dependent on it.

First of all, the lands taken by the Romans from their defeated opponents and provided for the use or ownership of their citizens did not form a continuous territory directly adjacent to the original Roman possessions. On the contrary, as mentioned above, it was widely practiced to evict Roman citizens to foreign lands, in some cases distant considerable distance from Rome itself. The so-called “colonies of Roman citizens” were created on these lands. Legally, the inhabitants of such colonies were considered part of the full civilian population of Rome itself. Therefore, these colonies did not have special self-government, but were governed by all-Roman city authorities, in the election of which citizens living in the colonies had to take part. Subsequently, the practical inconveniences of this order, especially noticeable in cases where the colonies were located far from Rome, entailed the provision of internal self-government to some colonies of Roman citizens.

The so-called municipalities were in a slightly different position. These were communities that had long been accepted into the Roman state. Such communities retained the right of internal self-government (their own city magistrates, autonomous courts, etc.), and later their citizens were fully equal in rights to Roman citizens, up to the right to hold a consular position in elections in Rome. Most of the communities of Latium, old Roman allies, who were also included in the Roman tribes, had the rights of municipalities.

A special category was made up of “communities without voting rights.” The free population of these communities, on an equal basis with Roman citizens, enjoyed full legal capacity in the field of property, marriage and other relations, but did not have political rights and could not participate in Roman public assemblies. In the area of internal life, such communities had the right of self-government, but often it was placed under the control of commissioners specially sent from Rome.

The most numerous group was represented by the Roman “allies”. These were the names of communities that formally retained political independence, but were connected with Rome by special contractual relations, which in each individual case determined their position. In some cases, in accordance with the content of the treaty, the allies were obliged to help the Romans only when attacked by enemies, in others they were obliged to participate in all wars waged by Rome, and this second form of relations was, of course, the predominant one. The allies were deprived of the right to conduct independent foreign policy. Their military duties consisted of providing a number of foot and horse soldiers determined by agreement or, if the allied city was coastal, in supplying ships, which, like ground forces, were maintained at the expense of the allies. This was, in essence, the main and only duty of the union communities, which was considered as a “tax in blood.” From the troops of each allied community, special allied detachments were formed, which were placed at the disposal of the Roman command and obliged to it full obedience.

The “Latin colonies” were in a position close to the allies, that is, colonies founded by Rome together with the cities of the Latin Union in the territories conquered by Rome. Like the Allies, they enjoyed complete internal autonomy. Residents of these colonies also served during the war not in the legions, but in special allied detachments, but in the event of resettlement to Rome - this was their difference from the allies - they received full rights Roman citizens.

Communities conquered by Rome, surrendering without any conditions to the mercy of the winner, lost all autonomy and were governed by commissioners sent from Rome. The population of these communities had a very limited range of rights. Finally, in more rare cases, when a community hostile to Rome was completely defeated, all the land of the local residents became part of the Roman public field, and they themselves were turned into slaves.