Ministry of Education and Science of the Udmurt Republic
Municipal educational institution
"Secondary school No. 93"
RUSSIAN LANGUAGE NORMS AND THEIR CHANGES IN MODERN SOCIETY
Performed:
11th grade student B
Municipal educational institution secondary school No. 93
Shtina Ekaterina
Andreevna
Teacher:
Kosolapova O. V.
Izhevsk, 2009
Introduction. The meaning of norms for native speakers
Speech culture of modern society
Changes in modern language and the attitude of different population groups towards them
Conclusion. On the need to preserve language norms
Bibliography
Applications
Introduction
The meaning of norms for native speakers
I. The need for this work is caused by the changes in the norms of the Russian language that are occurring in modern times.
The purpose of our work is to identify changes in some language norms and identify the attitudes of different population groups to these changes.
In this work, we relied on the manual of L.L. Vvedenskaya “Russian language and culture of speech”, on the publication in the media of Andrei Arkhangelsky “The Last Coffee”, Mikhail Budaragin “New Russian Language”, Daria Tokareva “Coffee has not changed the gender, but the agreement is a typo”, Maria Sarycheva “The Russian language has endured us too ordered" and on Internet data.
II. Language norm(literary norm) - these are the rules for the use of speech means in a certain period of development of the literary language, i.e. rules of pronunciation, word usage, use of traditional grammatical, stylistic and other linguistic means adopted in social and linguistic practice. This is a uniform, exemplary, generally accepted use of language elements (words, phrases, sentences).
The norm is mandatory both for oral and for writing and covers all aspects of the language. There are standards: orthoepic , spelling , derivational , lexical , morphological , grammatical , syntactic , intonation And punctuation .
Characteristic features of the literary language norm:
Relative stability
Prevalence, common use,
General obligation
Conformity to the use, custom and capabilities of the language system.
Language norms are not invented by scientists. They reflect natural processes and phenomena that have occurred and are occurring in the language and are maintained speech practice native speakers of the literary language. The main sources of language norms include the works of classical writers and some modern writers, the language of Central Television announcers, generally accepted modern usage, data from live and questionnaire surveys, and scientific research by linguists.
Norms help the literary language maintain its integrity and general intelligibility. They protect the literary language from the flow of dialect speech, social and professional jargon, and vernacular. This allows the literary language to fulfill its main function – cultural.
The literary norm depends on the conditions in which speech is carried out. Linguistic means that are appropriate in one situation (everyday communication) may turn out to be absurd in another (official business communication). The norm indicates their communicative expediency.
Speech culture of modern society
The state of the modern Russian language (the loosening of traditional literary norms, the stylistic decline of oral and written speech, the vulgarization of everyday communication) has long been a cause of concern for both philological specialists and representatives of other sciences, all those whose professional activities are related to verbal communication. One of the indicators of the decline in the speech culture of modern society is the widespread violation grammatical , lexical , orthoepic And ethical normal
The most common cases of violation grammatical rules– rules for using morphological forms of different parts of speech and syntactic constructions.
You can hear errors associated with the incorrect use of gender of nouns: railway rail, French shampoo, large callus, registered parcel post ,patent leather shoes .
But nouns rail , shampoo- masculine, and corn , parcel post– female, so you should say: railway rail , french shampoo , big callus , registered parcel post. Word shoes in this form is considered incorrect. You should say: shoe; no one shoes; I bought beautiful ones shoes; winter shoes a lot in the store; glad to see new ones shoes .
Verbs, for example, reflexive and non-reflexive, are not always used correctly in speech. Thus, in the sentences “The Duma must decide on the date of the meeting”, “Deputies need to decide on the proposed bill” reflexive verb decide is conversational in nature. In the examples given, the verb should be used without -xia: “The Duma must determine the date of the meeting,” “Deputies need to determine their attitude to the proposed bill.”
Violation of grammatical norms is often associated with the use of prepositions in speech. So, it is not always taken into account that prepositions thanks to , contrary to , according to , towards according to modern standards of literary language, they are used only with the dative case: “thanks to activity”, “contrary to the rules”, “according to the schedule”, “towards the anniversary”.
also in modern society often violated lexical norms– rules for using words in speech. This leads to a distortion of the meaning of the statement. So, adverb somewhere has one meaning “in some place”, “unknown where” ( music started playing somewhere). However, in Lately this word began to be used in the meaning of “about, approximately, sometime”: “Somewhere in the 70s of the 19th century”, “The classes were planned to be held somewhere in June”, “The plan was fulfilled somewhere around 102 percent” .
An error is also the incorrect use of a verb lay down instead of put. Verbs lay down And put have the same meaning, but put- a commonly used literary word, and lay down- colloquial. The expressions sound unliterary: “I put the book in its place,” “He puts the folder on the table,” etc. In these sentences you should use the verb put: “I put the book back,” “He puts the folder on the table.”
Violations of lexical norms are sometimes due to the fact that speakers confuse words that are similar in sound but different in meaning. For example, verbs are not always used correctly provide And introduce. Sometimes we hear incorrect expressions such as: “The floor is presented to Petrov,” “Let me introduce you to Dr. Petrov.” Verb provide means “to give the opportunity to take advantage of something” ( provide an apartment ,vacation ,job title ,credit ,loan ,rights , independence ,word, etc.), and the verb introduce has the meaning of “to hand over, to give something to someone to show” ( submit a report , certificate , data , proof ; nominate for an award , to the order , to the rank , for a prize etc.). The above sentences with these verbs correctly sound like this: “The floor is given to Petrov,” “Allow me to introduce you to Dr. Petrov.”
To clarify the lexical norms of the modern literary language, it is recommended to use explanatory dictionaries of the Russian language and special reference literature.
Orthoepic norms- these are pronunciation norms oral speech. They are studied by a special section of linguistics - orthoepy .
One of the largest researchers of pronunciation norms R.I. Avanesov defines orthoepy as a set of rules of oral speech that ensure the unity of its sound design in accordance with the norms of the national language, historically developed and entrenched in the literary language.
One of the main violations of spelling norms is incorrect pronunciation of consonants. For example, you can often hear “Ilyini[chn]a”, “Lukini[chn]a”, while according to the norms modern language in female patronymics –ichna you need to pronounce [shn] instead of [chn]: “Ilyini[shn]a”, “Lukini[shn]a”.
This pronunciation is also preserved in some individual words: bitter[sh]ny, horse[sh]o, per[sh]itsa, laundry[sh]naya, empty[sh]ny, starling[sh]ik, eggs[sh]itsa .
Borrowed words, as a rule, obey the orthoepic norms of the modern Russian literary language and only in some cases differ in pronunciation features.
It is a mistake to pronounce the sound [a] instead of [o] in foreign words: m[a]del, m[a]dern, [a]asis, b[a]a, [a]tel, m[a]dernism. The phoneme [o] should be used here: model, m[o]dern, [o]asis, b[o]a, [o]tel, m[o]dernism.
At the same time, the majority of borrowed vocabulary, which are words firmly adopted by the Russian literary language, is subject to the general rules of pronunciation [o] and [a] in unstressed words: b[a]kal, k[a]suit, k[a] preserves, b[a]xer, r[a]yal, pr[a]gress, etc.
Also, in most borrowed words, the consonants before e are softened: ka[t']et, pa[t']efon, faculty[t']et, [t']theory, [d']emon, [n']nervy, pio [n']er, [s']section, [s']series, mu[z']ey, newspaper [z']eta, [r']ector.
However, in a number of words of foreign language origin, the hardness before e is preserved: sh[te]psel, o[te]l, s[te]nd, ko[de]ks, mo[de]l, ka[re], [de]miurg , [de]mping, kash[ne], e[ne]rgiya, [de]marsh, mor[ze], k[re]do, etc. Therefore, it is a mistake to soften these consonants.
The culture of oral speech is reduced not only by incorrect pronunciation, but also by incorrect stress in words.
IN public speaking, business communication, in everyday speech there is quite often a deviation from the norms of the literary language. Incorrect stress interferes with the perception of meaning. For example, the norm of stress in words such as gross , started , started , got it , got it , accepted , accept , prizes , convocations .
From ancient times to this day ruling power carries out some reforms. There are many of them, and they are carried out in different areas: economics, education, culture, financial and military reforms, etc. Reforms of the Russian language occur constantly, thereby changing the Russian people and their culture.
It should be noted that language is an invaluable asset of the people. The language of the people is nothing more than the collective brain of the backgammon. Language is a historically established system of sound, vocabulary and grammatical means that objectifies the work of thinking and is a tool of communication, exchange of thoughts and mutual understanding of people in society (S. I. Ozhegov).
When you ask people carrying out such reforms: “Why are you changing our language,” they answer: “To simplify it”
One of the first reforms of the Russian language was after the seizure of power in 1917. As a result, our language has simply become stupid.
As a result of these reforms, the following was done in the Russian language:
Firstly, instead of the alphabet, an alphabet appeared. Modern Russians do not distinguish the difference between the alphabet and the alphabet, but there is a difference, and a big one at that. There are 33 meaningless symbols in the alphabet, and in the alphabet each letter has a meaning: Az (I), beeches (letters, Gods), vedi (to know), verb (to speak), etc.
Secondly, some letters were destroyed. Before the reform, the Russian language had 36 letters. Today there are 33. And in the Cyrillic alphabet there were 43 letters, of which 19 were vowels. At the moment there are only 5 vowels in the Russian language. Why remove them, because there cannot be extra letters in the language.
After getting rid of some letters, the words lost their precise meaning. For example, after eliminating the letters “” and i, the differences in words are lost:
“eat” (eat) - “eat” (be);
“li” (ate) - “ate” (trees);
“I’m flying” (flying) - “I’m flying” (I’m curing);
“seeing” (knowledge) - “leading” (seeing off);
“nkogda” (once upon a time) - “no time” (no time);
“prnie” (rotting) - “debate” (dispute);
“vsti” (news) - “to lead” (to see off);
“peace” (universe) - “peace” (absence of war), etc.
“War and Peace” is a completely incorrect title for the novel by L. N. Tolstoy. His novel had a different meaning and was called completely differently: “War and Peace.”
The main purpose of the letter “” was to distinguish words of different meanings, but having the same phonetics.
Many examples can be given, such as the work of N.V. Gogol. The title of this work was originally “Dead Souls”, but not “Dead Souls”.
Fourthly, phoneticization was distorted, for example, “rasskaz” was changed to “story.”
Fifthly, throwing out and persecution of words began. The reduction of words was so great that the Russian language lost many thousands of words. There is a book “Russian Language Expansion Dictionary”, written in 1995. Solzhenitsyn. This dictionary contains thousands of words that have been removed from the Russian language.
Sixthly, human respectful forms of addressing people to each other were prohibited.
Until 1917 in Rus' there were many words for addressing each other: sir, madam, master, madam, dear sir, young lady, your grace, your excellency, your honor, your highness, your majesty
Today, instead of the above words, one single form has been introduced in Russia - the word “comrade”. This word is of foreign origin and is generally not used in our country. Such words were destroyed only in our state, but in other European countries they still exist, and most importantly, they are used.
Seventh, the meaning of the words was changed. The forms of inversion are sometimes amazing. Ozhegov’s modern dictionary can now safely be called stupid. Dictionaries have been rewritten so often that the meaning of words is not only different, but simply opposite.
Eighth, many millions of people closely associated with the Russian language were destroyed. Moreover, they destroyed the smartest layer of the population: scientists, teachers, writers, poets, writers, nobles, entrepreneurs, merchants, lawyers, officers, representatives of culture and art, etc.
The second stage of the reform of the Russian language introduced a refusal to use foreign borrowings instead of Russian words that correspond to them. For example, the Russian word “similarity” is no different from the foreign word “analogue”, therefore the foreign word must disappear forever from the Russian language and remain its history.
First of all, foreign borrowings from the second half of the 20th century and the beginning of the 21st century should be excluded from our language. Those borrowings that have corresponding Russian words in the Russian language should be excluded. Only those borrowings that denote objects and phenomena that are not characteristic of the culture of the Russian people, as well as various terms of the scientific style of the Russian language (from the field of chemistry, physics, mathematics, biology, geography, etc.) have reason to remain in the language.
Every Russian person subconsciously and then consciously feels the words non-native language, and therefore he can, even without a dictionary, refuse borrowings that are unnecessary for the language. But in our time it is not always possible to quickly find a Russian correspondence, so the availability and development of a voluminous dictionary of the “non-Russian language” is extremely necessary. There are two words “pension” and “author” that are not translated, since they are quite firmly entrenched in the Russian language and it is difficult for them to find an exact match.
The most important thing is not to get rid of words of non-Russian origin, but to replace them where the word does not lose its meaning after replacement.
Someone may ask, why is all this needed? The answer is quite simple - the more non-Russian words you pronounce and think with, the less Russian, native, native remains in you.
The third and current reform took place in September 2009. The reason was a large number of low-quality dictionaries that should have been checked. Only four dictionaries, from the same publisher, passed the test. Even those that were considered standard - Rosenthal's books, Lopatin's academic reference book - were not included in the list of passed dictionaries. In them, “coffee” is still masculine, but now it would not be wrong to say “hot coffee.” Philologists say that language, like time, does not stand still, and there is nothing terrible in changes.
List of innovations:
Changing the emphasis in catches: agreement-agreement, on Wednesdays - intermediaries, yogurt - yogurt
The word "coffee" is now both masculine and neuter.
The greatest problems when writing are often caused by borrowed words, in particular those starting with re - and ri -. New reference books come to the rescue here too. In them you can find the words “realtor” and “remake”, as well as “offshore”, “digger”, “fax modem” and “file server”.
The word “Internet” should only be written with a capital letter.
The Russian people, their language, and culture after the reform fell to a terrible state. In 1912 The People's Commissariat for Education closed all historical and philological faculties under the pretext of their obsolescence and uselessness.
A great man can die physically, but continue to live in soul. Pushkin said brilliantly: “No, all of me will not die, the soul in the treasured lyre will survive my ashes and escape decay.” And this is true, as long as his works are needed for the Russian nation, he is alive. Yes, specifically for the Russian nation. Translation into other languages loses the “heart” of the work. Russian language is the richest language. In our language there is no such thing as in English, where one word has many meanings. The Russian language, even after many reforms, is a powerful language.
1. How do you find out about news happening in the world?
A) On television. 52%
B) On the Internet. 13%
B) In newspapers and magazines. 13%
D) According to rumors. 0%
AB – 9%, AB – 9%, ABC – 4%
2. How did you know that the Ministry of Education has introduced some innovations in the field of the Russian language?
A) From the Internet. 14%
B) From television news. 50%
B) In newspapers and magazines. 9%
D) I didn’t even know about it. 18%
AB – 4.5%, BV – 4.5%
3. How do you feel about changes in the Russian language?
A) Language norms change, we must adapt to them. 45%
B) I think this is wrong. Recently, these changes were considered the height of illiteracy, but now they claim that this is the norm of the Russian language. 50%
B) But you can say this and that. Very comfortably. 5%
4. What do you think is more correct to say - hot coffee or hot coffee?
A) Hot coffee. 5%
B) Hot coffee. 70%
C) You can say it both ways. 25%
5. Do you use the following dictionaries:
“Spelling Dictionary of the Russian Language” by B. Bukchina, I. Sazonova and L. Cheltsova,
“Grammar Dictionary of the Russian Language” edited by A. Zaliznyak,
“Dictionary of accents of the Russian language” by I. Reznichenko,
“Big phraseological dictionary of the Russian language” with commentary by V. Telia.
A) I use it, but only in the library. 0%
B) Yes, I have these dictionaries at home. thirty%
6. Note how words should have been emphasized before the Ministry of Education made changes to the Russian language.
1. a) agreement – 0% b) agreement – 100%
2. a) cottage cheese – 25% b) cottage cheese – 75%
3. a) yogurt – 90% b) yogurt – 10%
7. Choose the right ones morphological characteristics words coffee.
A) Noun, 2nd declension, im. case, neuter, singular. 15%
B) Noun, 2nd declension, named after. case, masculine, singular. 85%
8. Mark the word in each line that you think is written correctly.
1. a) karate – 15% b) karate – 85%
2. a) getting married – 10% b) getting married – 90%
3. a) Internet – 50% b) Internet – 50%
Application.
A new beginning school year- it's always an anticipation of something new. It became known about some unexpected innovations in the field of the Russian language. Teachers, students, and everyone else are encouraged to get used to it. The Ministry of Education has updated the list of official dictionaries and reference books. And in them, “coffee” suddenly became neuter, “yogurt” must be pronounced as “yogurt,” and it is even allowed to say “agreement” instead of “agreement.”
On the eve of September 1, there is confusion in bookstores: which dictionaries to buy, which Russian language to teach children? After all, tomorrow many familiar words will have to be erased from the lexicon, and those that were once considered the height of illiteracy are now the norm of the Russian language. Here is a partial list of innovations. The word “getting married” is now a mistake; it is correct to say “getting married.” "Karate" must be written with an "e". You can conclude both an agreement and an agreement. Moreover, both on Wednesdays and on Wednesdays. Well, what’s absolutely surprising is the double emphasis in the word “yogurt”. Or "yogurt".
And now, in order, about what happened to the Russian language. The Ministry of Education decided that there were too many low-quality dictionaries, and it was time to separate the wheat from the chaff. Publishers were asked to undergo a kind of certification - to submit their reference books to a commission for verification in order to compile a list of official publications that can and should be consulted. "The order of the Minister of Education gives reason to believe that these are official dictionaries regulations to the law on the Russian language,” says Konstantin Derevyanko, head of the cultural and educational program “Dictionaries of the 21st Century.” But either the publishers were lazy, or they didn’t tell everyone about it, and only four dictionaries passed the test, and only one of them same publishing house. For unknown reasons, none of the dictionaries that were previously included in the list. today were considered standard - Rosenthal's books, Lopatin's academic reference book. In them, “coffee,” for example, is still only masculine, although now you can also say “hot coffee.” “It says that this is masculine and neuter. In any dictionary, what is necessarily put in first place is what is preferable and is the main norm. In second place is what has entered the language and is acceptable, you can say that,” explains Inna Sazonova , Candidate of Philological Sciences, scientific consultant of the program "Dictionaries of the 21st Century". Philologists say that language norms change over time, and this is normal. The dictionary only records how it is customary to speak in a given era. And if more and more people say “agreement” or “strong coffee”, then this becomes normal. However, despite the fact that both options are possible, many still believe that which option a person chooses speaks about his upbringing. “In exemplary speech, this word should be used only in the masculine gender. This is a kind of litmus test. Anyone who uses the word coffee in the neuter gender may not be a very cultured person,” notes Mikhail Studiner, associate professor of the Faculty of Journalism of Moscow State University. M. V. Lomonosov. Meanwhile, the language continues to change. And if “agreements” have already become possible, shouldn’t we expect more entries in the dictionary on the topic of “documents” and “portfolios”? In the near future, dictionary entries in reference books on the Internet will also change. This word, by the way, now needs to be written only with a capital letter.
This order is viewed as a mistake by many media outlets. They grossly distort all the facts and demonstrate an absolute lack of understanding of the essence of the problem.
Then please explain both the facts and the problems. - There is such an organization - the Interdepartmental Council for the Russian Language. This council is headed by the Minister of Education Andrei Aleksandrovich Fursenko. And there is a law on the Russian language, which was adopted back in 2005. Accepted and accepted, but no one reads it, and most importantly, no one uses it. And no one checks how it works or doesn’t work. This happens because there are no dictionaries, reference books, teaching aids, recommended to officials who should monitor compliance with this law. As, for example, this is done in France. There, every year the relevant minister reports to the president of the country on how the language law is being implemented. And clearly defined fines are applied to violators of the law. Of course, in Russia many things will be different. But there will be a group of people who will monitor the implementation of the law. They are now preparing for them reference materials. For this reason, authors of Russian language dictionaries were invited to submit their dictionaries to the Interdepartmental Council. Of all that were submitted, four were chosen. All of them were published in 2008. It doesn’t matter what publishing house. All of them received excellent reviews from experts of the Interdepartmental Council, Moscow State University and the Institute of Russian Language. Pushkin RAS. In my opinion, in all these dictionaries there is a clear understanding that language is a living organism, that it is constantly developing, that pronunciation norms and stress norms change. These dictionaries, of course, reflect the actual variation in pronunciation. Any pronunciation norm is the result of the system. In some languages, for example, in Czech or Polish, accents are fixed once and for all. And in the Russian language, the system allows you to put stress on different syllables of a word. In the Russian language, stress is varied and movable. Therefore, the stress rate changes constantly. About forty years ago, if you had said “he’s calling me,” you would have been reprimanded, because then the norm was “he’s calling.” But in the time since then, she has changed.
It can be assumed that this was known long before this order, that many scientific works have been written on this topic
Certainly. The famous scientist Kirill Sergeevich Gorbachevich, for example, has an excellent book “Difficulties of Word Usage and Variants of Norms of the Russian Literary Language.” It says everything about it. And Ivan Andreevich Krylov has the following lines: “Crows are not fried, they are not boiled.” But for a long time now everyone has been saying “boiled”, not “cooked”. This change is completely natural process. So in the dictionaries that caused so much noise, they are given real options accents that exist today. That's all.
The fact of the matter is that these are not recommendations. The press presents them with recommendations, either mistakenly or intentionally, because it is more interesting and easier to attract the reader. In fact, these are just acceptable pronunciation options. The problem is that in our society today there is no elementary linguistic culture in order to choose one correct one from two options. But there is no language culture for many reasons, including, for example, because TV shows very dubious programs from morning to night (just like “Dom-2”!), and there is no time left for programs about the Russian language.
Which option do you prefer: “yogurt” or “yogurt?”
Why is everyone up in arms about this “YogUrt”?! Ruben Ivanovich Avanesov, a prominent scientist, has a book “Russian Literary Pronunciation”. This is a fundamental work published in the early 50s. So the word “YogUrt” is indicated there. Avanesov believed that in words borrowed from other languages, it is necessary to preserve the accents adopted in these languages. IN in this case- "yogurt". But then changes happened, I repeat, language is a living organism, and we began to pronounce “yogurt”. Nothing wrong with that. If you now say “yogurt” in private practice, say so - this does not mean that they won’t sell it to you in the store.
But in another, no less important place than a store, they may be mistaken for an illiterate, with all the ensuing consequences.
To prevent this from happening, it is necessary to demonstrate the leading norm of the language in communication. A little-known but very interesting linguist Isaac Iosifovich Tsukerman spent many years studying the norms of many languages at the Institute of Oriental Studies. Including Russian. So, he wrote that the Russian language allows variations in pronunciation. But this variation is not unlimited. As a rule, there are two options. And over time, they are rearranged. Or, as the scientist said, the “neotype” is constantly fighting with the “archetype”. We must understand: variation in Russian literary pronunciation is real. And you need to have an elementary culture in order to understand that today the leading variant of the word “coffee” is a masculine variant. In general, no tragedy occurred.
The other day, one newspaper asked: Ozhegov and Rosenthal to the dump?
Why to the landfill? Let the experts use it. But life develops. Why should we follow the norms of 1952 and not 2008?
What can they offer today? scientists special people who will monitor the implementation of the law on the Russian language?
This year, St. Petersburg State University published a large publication - “Commentary on Federal law“About the state language Russian Federation" Norms of modern Russian literary language as the state language. (Comprehensive normative dictionary of the modern Russian language, St. Petersburg).” This commentary contains a list of all our 29 dictionaries that we recommend using in practice. This is the work of a large team of specialists from St. Petersburg State University who worked under the guidance of Doctor of Philology, Dean of the Faculty of Philology and Arts Sergei Igorevich Bogdanov, Doctor of Law, Rector of St. Petersburg State University Nikolai Mikhailovich Kropachev (since the topic is legislation) and mine.
Go to libraries more often, read classics and books by good modern authors, study dictionaries and encyclopedias. Television, radio, newspapers, magazines - everything should improve language culture. Courses in the culture of Russian speech are required at all faculties of all universities. It is necessary to improve the culture of speech and school teachers. Among them are many brilliant experts in the Russian language. But there are also many who are remembered from the film “We’ll Live Until Monday.” They are still putting something somewhere. And the fact that the media today made a fuss about the problems of the Russian language is wonderful. But distortion real facts- unworthy.
SOUND WRITING - write (depict) using sounds.
Creating sound images by using certain sounds in a certain order.
Breathing freely in every vowel,
The consonants are interrupted for a moment.
And only that one achieved harmony,
Who can alter them?
Silver and copper sound in consonants.
And the vowels were given to you for singing.
And be happy if you can sing
Or even breathe a poem.
S.Ya.Marshak
The concept of “sound writing” includes assonance, alliteration, and onomatopoeia.
Assonance– repetition of the same or similar vowels in the text, which serves to create a sound image and enhances the expressiveness of poetic speech.
Oh, spring - without end and without edge -
An endless and endless dream!
I recognize you, life, I accept...
The repetition of the vowel A creates the impression of the poet's open soul.
Alliteration– repetition in a literary text, often a poetic one, of consonants that create a sound image and enhance the expressiveness of poetic speech.
I love the thunderstorm early May,
When spring, the first thunder,
As if frolicking and playing,
Rumbling in the blue sky.
(F.I. Tyutchev)
Repetition of G and Z and GR - sensation of thunder.
The wind whistles, the silver wind,
In the silky rustle of snow noise...
(S.A. Yesenin)
Text as an object of linguistic research. Definitions of the concept “text”.
Text (from Latin textus - “fabric; plexus, connection, combination”) - in in general terms a coherent and complete sequence of characters.
Text is sentences interconnected by meaning and sequence.
The correct text has a beginning, an end, a meaning, and you can choose a title for such a text.
Halperin's definition -cit. according to the article by EC Kubryakova “On the text and the criteria for its definition”: “a text is a work of the speech-creative process that has completeness, a work objectified in the form of a written document, consisting of a name (heading) and a number of special units (supraphrasal units), united by different types of lexical , grammatical, logical, stylistic connection, having a certain purposefulness and pragmatic attitude" (Galperin, 1981, 18)
Important: understanding the text as informational self-sufficient speech message with a clearly formatted goal setting and oriented in its design towards its addressee.
The unity of the subject of speech is the theme of the utterance. Subject- this is the semantic core of the text, the condensed and generalized content of the text.
Text- this is a statement about a certain topic;
The text implements the speaker’s intention, the main idea;
Text any size is relative autonomous(finished) statement;
Offers logically connected.
You can match the text title;
Correctly formatted text is usually has a beginning and an end.
By type: narration, description and reasoning
By style: scientific, conversational, official business, artistic, journalistic (see functional.Styles).
19. The concept of literary language norms and its codification.
Literary norm And norm of the language of fiction- these are different things: LN is everything except colloquialism, jargon, dialectisms, abscene vocabulary. The language of fiction is broader.
A norm is a set of the most stable traditional implementations of the language system enshrined in social and linguistic practice.
A literary norm is distinguished by a number of properties: it is uniform and universally binding for all speakers of a given language; it is conservative and aimed at preserving the means and rules for their use accumulated in a given society by previous generations. At the same time, it is not static, but, firstly, it is variable in time and, secondly, it provides for the dynamic interaction of different methods of linguistic expression depending on the conditions of communication (the last property of the norm is called its communicative expediency).
Types of norm: imperative(strictly mandatory - briefcase) and dispositive(variants are allowed - barge, barge; simultaneous, simultaneous).
The norm is also divided into general language(all Russian language) and functional-style(colloquial, journalistic, scientific, etc.): compass-compass.
Codification- fixation of the norm, conscious activity to organize the language.
Codification tools: dictionaries, reference books, textbooks.
lexical-semantic (in explanatory dictionaries; using marks)
grammatical (in textbooks; in dictionaries - briefly)
pronunciation (spelling dictionary)
orthographic (spelling dictionaries).
The norm is conservative, but at the same time it changes.
Chekhov said into the phone(he reports this in one of his letters), and we - by phone. A.N. Tolstoy, almost our contemporary, in one of his stories describes the actions of a hero who “ began to watch the flight of kites over the forest" Now they would say: began to watch the flight of kites.
Reasons for changes in the literary norm, variability of the norm.
A literary norm is the rules of pronunciation, word usage, and use of grammatical and stylistic linguistic means accepted in social and linguistic practice. The norm is historically mobile, but at the same time stable and traditional, it has such qualities as familiarity and universal obligatory nature. The stability and traditionality of the norm explain a certain degree of retrospectiveness of the norm. Despite its fundamental mobility and variability, the norm extremely carefully opens its borders to innovation, leaving them for the time being on the periphery of the language.
“Word Variation and Linguistic Norms” is Gorbachevich’s work, in which he identifies three main features: 1) stability of the norm, conservatism (stability); 2) the prevalence of a linguistic phenomenon (functionality); 3) authority of the source (aestheticism). Each of the features individually may be present in one or another linguistic phenomenon, but this is not enough. In order for a linguistic device to be recognized as normative, a combination of features is necessary.
The main reason for the change in norms is the evolution of the language itself, the presence of variation, which ensures the choice of the most appropriate variants of linguistic expression. The concept of exemplaryness and standardization of a normative language means increasingly includes the meaning of expediency and convenience.
Other important reasons for changes in literary norms:
Changing society; basic ideas and, as a consequence, a way of thinking.
Pressure on the norm from a more developed country.
Previously, there was a strong influence of church norms, then the time of Peter the Great (secularization, borrowings from Holland - language reform), then many borrowings from French.
In modern Russian language The norms of written and oral speech are moving closer together, and their active interaction is observed. One can say even more: oral speech in its generally spoken stylistic version literally invades written speech. This process occurs especially clearly in the language of the mass press. For example, colloquial syntax, born on the basis of oral speech, has significantly displaced the grammatically “correct”, classical syntactic constructions, which are presented as normative in textbooks, manuals, and reference books.
Main trends: 1) convergence of norms of written and oral speech, as well as book and conversational styles while maintaining their fundamental differentiation. 2) an increase in the variability of linguistic means within normal limits. 3) differentiation of the norm in relation to different speech situations. 4) weakening of the norm towards its democratization.
Variability- the assumption of two correct options.
There are several types:
1) Free: in the brain - in the brain; Coal-coal.
2) Semantically conditioned: tea-tea; sugar-sugar. In the snow - in the snow; Torosa (mechanism) - brakes (in studies); sons (in the family) - sons (of the Fatherland).
3) Stylistically determined: tractors, inspectors, spotlights (book) - tractors, inspectors, spotlights (neutral or colloquial) 20, on vacation (book or neutral) - on vacation (colloquial), on the trail (obsolete. ) – path;
4) professionally determined: compass - compass (in the speech of sailors), flap - flap (residues in some types of production, for example, weaving), seiners - seiners, breakdown - partition (the second - in scientific speech; with a common meaning for both words 'distribution of something into groups, classes');
5) Socially conditioned: cottage cheese - cottage cheese; on Wednesdays - on Wednesdays.
6) territorially determined. This type of variation in the literary norm is not recognized by all researchers. Moscow and St. Petersburg "dialect".
But A. B. Shapiro rightly noted half a century ago: “Even if ninety percent speak the document, this cannot become a literary norm.”
“The language system, being in constant use, is created and modified by the collective efforts of those who use it... New things in speech experience that do not fit into the framework of the language system, but that work and are functionally appropriate, lead to a restructuring in it, and each successive state of the language system serves as a basis for comparison during the subsequent processing of speech experience. Thus, language develops and changes in the process of speech functioning, and at each stage of this development the language system inevitably contains elements that have not completed the process of change. Therefore, various fluctuations and variations are inevitable. any language" (Sokolova V.V. Culture of speech and culture of communication. M.: Education, 1995, P. 47).
The constant development of language leads to changes in literary norms. What was the norm in the last century and even 15-20 years ago today can become a deviation from it. So, for example, in accordance with the Explanatory Dictionary of the Russian Language (1935-1940) the words z snack shop, toy, bakery, everyday, on purpose, decently, creamy, apple, scrambled eggs pronounced with the sounds [shn]. According to the 1983 Orthoepic Dictionary of the Russian Language, such pronunciation as the only (strictly obligatory) norm was preserved only in the words on purpose, scrambled eggs. In the words bakery, along with the traditional pronunciation [shn], the new pronunciation [chn] is recognized as acceptable. In words everyday, apple the new pronunciation is recommended as the main option, and the old one is allowed as possible option. In a word creamy the pronunciation [shn] is recognized, although acceptable, as an outdated option, and in words snack bar, toy the new pronunciation [chn] became the only possible normative option.
In the history of a language, not only orthoepic norms change, but also all other norms.
An example of a change in lexical norm is the words graduate And enrollee.
In the 30-40s of the 20th century the word graduate denoted a student completing a thesis, and the word diplomanik was a colloquial (stylistic) version of the word diplomant. In the literary norm of the 50-60s, a distinction was made in the use of these words: the word graduate began to be called a student during the preparation and defense of his thesis (it lost the stylistic connotation of a colloquial word), and the word graduate began to be used to name the winners of competitions, shows, competitions, marked with a winner’s diploma.
Word enrollee
in the 30-40s of the 20th century it was used to designate those who graduated high school, and those who entered university, since both of these concepts in many cases refer to the same person. In the 50s of the 20th century, the word graduate was assigned to those graduating from high school, and the word enrollee in this meaning has fallen out of use.
Grammar norms also change in the language. In the literature of the 19th century and colloquial speech of that time, the words were used dahlia, hall, piano- these were feminine words. In modern Russian, the norm is to use these words as masculine words - dahlia, hall, piano.
Example of change stylistic norms is the entry into the literary language of dialect and colloquial words, for example, bully, whiner, background, pandemonium, hype. As Prof. writes. Yu.A. Belchikov, “the Russian literary language is characterized by intensive interaction with the vernacular (constant replenishment mainly of vocabulary and phraseology, expressive, synonymous means)… Known part borrowings from the colloquial language are organically included in the lexical and phraseological composition literary speech, into its stylistic structure, becoming the property of not only colloquial, but also book speech" (Belchikov Yu.A. Stylistics and culture of speech. M.: Publishing house URAO, 2000, pp. 104-105).
Each new generation relies on existing texts, stable figures of speech, and ways of forming thoughts. From the language of these texts, it selects the most appropriate words and figures of speech, takes what is relevant for itself from what was developed by previous generations, bringing in its own to express new ideas, ideas, a new vision of the world. Naturally, new generations are abandoning what seems archaic, not in tune with the new manner of formulating thoughts, conveying their feelings, attitudes towards people and events. Sometimes they return to archaic forms, giving them new content, new angles of understanding. (Belchikov Yu.A. ibid., p. 106).
Every historical era the norm is a complex phenomenon and exists in rather difficult conditions. V.I. Chernyshev wrote about this back in 1909: “In the language of any particular era there is much that is unclear for its contemporaries: emerging, but not established, dying out, but not extinct, re-entering, but not established” (V.I. Chernyshev Purity and correctness of Russian speech // Selected works. vol. 1. M.: 1970, p. 41).
According to their functions and purpose of creation, dictionaries are divided into descriptive and normative.
Descriptive dictionaries are designed to fully describe the vocabulary of a certain area and record all uses there.
The purpose of a normative dictionary is to provide a standard for the use of a word, excluding not only incorrect uses of words associated with an erroneous understanding of their meanings, but also those uses that do not correspond to the communicative situation (for example, the situations of using a literary language, dialect and jargon are different, and their confusion is perceived as a violation of the norm, cf. open instead of open, arrow instead of meeting, etc.). In other words, normative dictionaries recommend, prescribe a standard for the use of a word, set literary norm. In this sense, they are an effective instrument of language policy and language construction.
Normative dictionaries (orthological) - dictionaries that serve the tasks of improving language and speech, strengthening the current norms of the literary language.
The term “normative dictionaries” combines cycles of dictionaries of irregularities from the 19th to the beginning. 20th centuries and dictionaries of correct speech 2nd gender. 20th century These dictionaries are characterized by the concept of a normalizing character based on a historically established system of norms, which predetermines general type each dictionary, its volume, macro- and microstructure and the target nature of the information provided.
The first is considered to be A. N. Grech’s “Reference Place for the Russian Word” (1839). The same type includes the dictionaries of K. P. Zelenetsky (“On the Russian language in the Novorossiysk region,” 1855), V. A. Dolopchev (“An experience of a dictionary of irregularities in Russian colloquial speech,” 1886), I. I. Ogienko (“ Russian literary stress (rules and dictionary of Russian stress, 1911), “Dictionary of irregular, difficult and dubious words, synonyms and expressions in Russian speech. A manual on the stylistics of Russian speech for students and self-education,” 1911), V. I. Chernysheva ( “Correctness and purity of Russian speech. Experience of Russian stylistic grammar”, 1911), etc.
In the 50s 20th century A special stage in the development of normative dictionaries began, when their orientation was determined towards difficult cases of written and oral use of language units, towards correcting errors related to two levels of language - orthoepic and grammatical, as well as to norms of word usage. The theoretical idea of creating a system of dictionaries of correct speech, in their totality capable of reflecting the main features of the variant norms of the Russian language in its modern state, was substantiated. Standard dictionaries differ significantly in the selection of material, the object of lexicographic description, and the method of describing vocabulary units.
There are three types of normative dictionaries:
· dictionaries reflecting the norms of oral speech - primarily pronunciation and stress: “Russian literary stress and pronunciation. Experience of a reference dictionary”, ed. R.I. Avanesova and S.I. Ozhegova, 1955; " Pronouncing dictionary Russian language. Pronunciation, stress, grammatical forms" by S. N. Borunova, V. L. Vorontsova, 1983 (and subsequent editions); “A brief dictionary of difficulties of the Russian language. Grammatical forms. Accent” by N. A. Eskova, 1994, etc.
· dictionaries recording the difficulties of modern word usage: “Correctness of Russian speech” (authors L.P. Krysin, L.I. Skvortsov); " Difficult cases modern word usage. Experience of a reference dictionary”, ed. S.I. Ozhegova, 1962; 2nd ed., 1965; “Difficult cases of using cognate words in the Russian language. Dictionary-reference book" 1968; 2nd ed., 1969 (authors Yu. A. Belchikov, M. S. Panyusheva); republished in expanded form under the title “Dictionary of paronyms of the modern Russian language”, 1994); “Difficulties of word usage and variants of the norms of the Russian literary language. Dictionary-reference book" (authors K. S. Gorbachevich, G. A. Kachevskaya, A. M. Nevzhinskaya, 1973; 5th ed., 1986); “Dictionary of difficulties of the Russian language” 1976; ed., 1987 (authors D. E. Rosenthal, M. A. Telenkova); “Lexical difficulties of the Russian language. Dictionary-reference book" (authors A. A. Semenyuk, I. L. Gorodetskaya, M. A. Matyushina, 1994), etc.
· A special group consists of dictionaries of the grammatical type. The unit that determines the nature of the lexicographic description and the composition of the dictionary is the grammatical form, which presents a certain difficulty (in choosing a grammatical option, in forming a form or determining its meaning): “Grammatical correctness of Russian speech. Experience of a frequency-stylistic dictionary of variants" (authors L.K. Graudina, V.A. Itskovich, L.P. Katlinskaya, 1976); “Dictionary of grammatical difficulties of the Russian language” by T. F. Efremova and V. G. Kostomarova, 1986; reprint in 1994, etc.
Professionally oriented normative dictionaries are being created, designed for workers of a certain profession: “Dictionary of accents for radio and television workers” by F. L. Ageenko and M. V. Zarva, ed. D. E. Rosenthal, I960; ed., 1985; “Difficulties of the Russian language. Dictionary-reference book for journalists,” ed. L. I. Rakhmanova, 1974; 3rd ed., parts 1-2, 1993-94; “Handbook of Deputy (difficulties of the Russian language)”, ed. L.K. Graudina, E.N. Shiryaeva in the book: “Culture of Parliamentary Speech”, 1994, etc.
The ability to work clearly and quickly with a dictionary is one of important elements. In order to master the corresponding skill, it is necessary, firstly, to have a good knowledge of the features of constructing a dictionary, and secondly, to acquire the necessary practical experience in finding the desired meaning of a word.
Each dictionary consists of a number of components that provide the reader with access to the information it contains.
The first critical component is the vocabulary list. The dictionary includes all units that form the description area of the dictionary and are inputs to dictionary entries. A vocabulary can consist of morphemes (for morpheme dictionaries and grammar dictionaries), lexemes (for example, for explanatory dictionaries), word forms (for grammar dictionaries) and phrases (for example, for phraseological dictionaries, idiom dictionaries).
The basic unit of the dictionary - the dictionary entry - consists of several description zones. Each zone contains a special type of vocabulary information. The first zone is the lexical entry of a dictionary entry, vocable or lemma. Vocables often indicate stress. Lexical input is most often followed by a zone of grammatical information and a zone of stylistic marks. As grammatical information about a word, it is indicated that it belongs to a part of speech, characteristic grammatical forms (for example, for nouns - the form genitive case singular and indication of gender).
Each type of linguistic dictionary is characterized by its own dictionary entry structure. Thus, normative dictionaries consist of: lexical entry (vocabula), stylistic notes, grammatical information, interpretation, examples of use, idiomatic zone (stable combinations, phraseological units).
An important structural part of a linguistic dictionary is the list of sources. A special part can be considered an introductory article, which explains the principles of using the dictionary and contains information about the structure of the dictionary entry. In addition, linguistic dictionaries, as a rule, include a list of conventional abbreviations and an alphabet.
So, the task of a normative dictionary is to preserve the established, exemplary, to protect it from various kinds of irregularities and distortions and at the same time to contribute to the consolidation of the victorious new, progressive, to eliminate the outdated, which does not correspond to the national norm. speech practice. It is important to show the extremely rich variety of modern Russian vocabulary so that the reader of the dictionary can know when and what is applicable and when and what should be avoided.
The actual variety of dictionary types is much greater than what we analyzed. Almost all of them are presented in the Russian lexicographical tradition and are accessible to the Russian reader. Because the fast pace modern life correspond to constant changes in the language, dictionaries are updated in accordance with the requirements of the time. The diversity of both the relationships organizing the language system and the practical needs of its description leave great scope for lexicographic creativity.
The criteria for choosing a dictionary depend on the age of the user and the situations in which he intends to work with the dictionary. For example, the complex structure of dictionaries for adults can disappoint and scare away younger schoolchildren, and therefore special dictionaries are compiled for elementary schools, which we will consider in Chapter II.
1. The norms of the modern Russian literary language are not created by philologists on purpose; they reflect certain stages in the development of the literary language of the entire people. The norm is understood as a set of the most stable traditional implementations of the language system, selected and consolidated in the process of public communication. Traditionally, types of norms are distinguished (in accordance with forms of speech and levels of the language system): norms of oral speech, norms of written speech, norms of oral and written speech.
2. Compliance with norms is recognized as a necessary condition for the qualities of speech (correctness, accuracy, richness, etc.).
3. The norms of the Russian language are reflected in normative dictionaries, which are an effective tool for language policy and language construction. Normative dictionaries are dictionaries that serve the tasks of improving language and speech, strengthening the current norms of the literary language.
