If you think creating mind-blowing optical illusions is fashionable modern century, then you are very much mistaken. And now we will prove it to you. Meet the painting “The Ambassadors” by one of the greatest German artists, Hans Holbein the Younger, which was painted in 1533, as much as 5 centuries ago, and is kept in the London National Gallery. You can look at it for a very long time to notice and understand many little details and symbols. But there is one special detail, the meaning of which is not immediately apparent.
Two young men are depicted here: on the left, the French ambassador to London, Jean de Denteville (29 years old), and his friend, the French envoy to Venice, Bishop Georges de Selve (25 years old). The men are richly dressed, they stand on both sides of a bookcase on which lie various objects symbolizing their interests and hobbies. You can look at them for a long time, finding new meanings. For example, you can notice that one string of a lute is broken, which symbolizes a political conflict, or you can see a crucifix hidden behind a curtain. And when the scabbard approaches, you can find out the age of its owner. Second age young man encrypted in the book.
This technique is called anamorphosis, that is, the deliberate distortion of a form so that it takes on the desired shape only if you look at it from a certain angle. When looking “directly” at the picture, the viewer examines the characters and the setting, and death seems only like some vague image that you forget about in ordinary everyday life. But as soon as you look deeper, go around the picture, it comes to the fore, while everything else fades before its inevitability. Creepy?
Peasants in Russian Empire V late XIX century accounted for 85% of the population. This was the “Archipelago of Africa,” even if judged by food and hygiene, and not just by illiteracy (80% of the peasants could not read and write; another 10% could read, but did not understand the meaning of what they read). Doctor of Historical Sciences Vladimir Bezgin writes about the peasant diet and hygiene in the article “Traditions of peasant life of the late 19th - early 20th centuries (food, housing, clothing)” (“Bulletin of the Tambov State technical university", No. 4, 2005).
Meager diet
The composition of peasant food was determined by the natural nature of his economy; purchased food was a rarity. It was distinguished by its simplicity; it was also called rough, as it required a minimum of time for preparation. The huge amount of housework did not leave the cook any time to prepare pickles, and everyday food was monotonous. Only in holidays When the hostess had enough time, other dishes appeared on the table. The rural woman was conservative in the ingredients and methods of cooking.
The lack of culinary experiments was also one of the features of everyday tradition. The villagers were not picky about food, so all recipes for variety were perceived as pampering.
The well-known saying “Soup soup and porridge is our food” correctly reflected the everyday content of the villagers’ food. In the Oryol province, the daily food of both rich and poor peasants was “brew” (cabbage soup) or soup. On fasting days, these dishes were seasoned with lard or “zatoloka” (internal pork fat), and on fasting days – with hemp oil. During Peter's Fast, Oryol peasants ate "mura" or tyuryu from bread, water and butter. Festive food was distinguished by the fact that it was better seasoned, the same “brew” was prepared with meat, porridge with milk, and on the most solemn days potatoes were fried with meat. On major temple holidays, peasants cooked jelly, jellied meat from legs and offal.
Meat was not a constant component of the peasant diet. According to the observations of N. Brzhevsky, the food of the peasants, in quantitative and qualitative terms, did not satisfy the basic needs of the body. “Milk, cow butter, cottage cheese, meat,” he wrote, “all products rich in protein substances appear on the peasant table in exceptional cases - at weddings, on patronal holidays. Chronic malnutrition is a common occurrence in a peasant family.”
Another rarity on the peasant table was wheat bread. In the “Statistical sketch of the economic situation of peasants in the Oryol and Tula provinces” (1902), M. Kashkarov noted that “wheat flour is never found in the everyday life of the peasant, except in gifts brought from the city, in the form of buns. To all questions about wheat culture, I have repeatedly heard the saying in response: “White bread is for a white body.” At the beginning of the twentieth century, in the villages of the Tambov province, the composition of consumed bread was distributed as follows: rye flour - 81.2, wheat flour - 2.3, cereals - 16.3%.
Of the cereals eaten in the Tambov province, millet was the most common. They used it to make kulesh porridge when they added it to the porridge. lard. Lenten cabbage soup was seasoned with vegetable oil, and fast cabbage soup was whitened with milk or sour cream. The main vegetables eaten here were cabbage and potatoes. Before the revolution, little carrots, beets and other root crops were grown in the village. Cucumbers appeared in the gardens of Tambov peasants only in Soviet time. Even later, in the 1930s, tomatoes began to be grown in gardens. Traditionally, legumes were cultivated and eaten in villages: peas, beans, lentils.
The peasants' daily drink was water; in the summer they prepared kvass. At the end of the 19th century, tea drinking was not common in the villages of the black earth region; if tea was consumed, it was during illness, brewing it in a clay pot in the oven.
Typically, the peasants' meal plan was as follows: in the morning, when everyone got up, they refreshed themselves with something: bread and water, baked potatoes, yesterday's leftovers. At 9-10 in the morning we sat down at the table and had breakfast with brew and potatoes. At about 12 o'clock, but no later than 2 pm, everyone had lunch, and at midday they ate bread and salt. We had dinner in the village at about nine in the evening, and in winter even earlier. Field work required significant physical effort and the peasants, to the extent possible, tried to eat more high-calorie food.
In the absence of any significant supply of food in peasant families, each crop failure entailed grave consequences. In times of famine, food consumption by a rural family was reduced to a minimum. For the purpose of physical survival in the village, livestock was slaughtered, seed material was used for food, and equipment was sold. In times of famine, peasants ate bread made from buckwheat, barley or rye flour with chaff. K. Arsenyev, after a trip to the hungry villages of the Morshansky district of the Tambov province (1892), described his impressions in the “Bulletin of Europe”: “During the famine, the families of the peasants Senichkin and Morgunov fed on cabbage soup from unusable leaves of gray cabbage, heavily seasoned with salt. This caused terrible thirst, the children drank a lot of water, became plump and died.”
Periodic famine has developed a tradition of survival in the Russian village. Here are sketches of this hungry everyday life. “In the village of Moskovskoye, Voronezh district, during the famine years (1919-1921), the existing food prohibitions (not eating pigeons, horses, hares) had little meaning. The local population ate more or less suitable plant, plantain, they did not hesitate to cook soup from horse meat, they ate “magpie and varmint.” Hot dishes were made from potatoes, topped with grated beets, toasted rye, and quinoa. In the years of famine they did not eat bread without impurities, for which they used grass, quinoa, chaff, potato and beet tops and other substitutes.
But even in prosperous years, malnutrition and unbalanced nutrition were commonplace. At the beginning of the twentieth century European Russia Among the peasant population, there were 4,500 kcal per eater per day, and 84.7% of them were of plant origin, including 62.9% of grain origin, and only 15.3% of calories were obtained from food of animal origin. For example, rural sugar consumption was less than a pound per month, and vegetable oil- half a pound.
According to a correspondent of the Ethnographic Bureau, meat consumption at the end of the 19th century poor family was 20 pounds, the wealthy - 1.5 pounds per year. During the period 1921-1927 herbal products in the diet of Tambov peasants accounted for 90–95%. Meat consumption was negligible, ranging from 10 to 20 pounds per year.
There is no bathhouse
Russian peasants were unpretentious in their household life. An outsider was struck by asceticism interior decoration. Most of the room in the hut was occupied by a stove, which served both for heating and cooking. In many families it replaced a bathhouse. Most peasant huts were heated “black”. In 1892, in the village of Kobelka, Epiphany volost, Tambov province, out of 533 households, 442 were heated “black” and 91 “white.” Each hut had a table and benches along the walls. There was practically no other furniture. They usually slept on stoves in winter and on sheets in summer. To make it less harsh, they laid straw and covered it with sackcloth.
Straw served as a universal floor covering in a peasant hut. Family members used it for their natural needs, and it was periodically replaced as it became dirty. Russian peasants had a vague idea of hygiene. According to A. Shingarev, at the beginning of the 20th century there were only two bathhouses in the village of Mokhovatka for 36 families, and in neighboring Novo-Zhivotinny - one for 10 families. Most peasants washed themselves once or twice a month in a hut, in trays, or simply on straw.
The tradition of washing in the oven was preserved in the village until the Great Patriotic War. Oryol peasant woman, resident of the village of Ilinskoye M. Semkina (b. 1919), recalled: “We used to bathe at home, from a bucket, there was no bathhouse. And the old people climbed into the stove. The mother will sweep out the stove, lay straw there, the old people will climb in and warm the bones.”
Constant work around the house and in the field left peasant women practically no time to keep their houses clean. At best, once a day the rubbish was swept out of the hut. The floors in houses were washed no more than 2-3 times a year, usually on the patronal holiday, Easter and Christmas. Easter in the village was traditionally a holiday for which villagers put their homes in order.
From here
Peasants were the main and most numerous class of Russia. It was on them that everything rested economic life state, since the peasants were not only the guarantor of the country’s survival (they supplied it with everything necessary), but were also the main taxable, that is, taxable class. On a peasant farm, all responsibilities were clearly distributed. Men were engaged in field work, crafts, hunting, and fishing. Women led household, looked after livestock, a garden, and did handicrafts. IN summer time peasant women also helped in the fields. Children were also taught to work from childhood. From about the age of 9, the boy began to be taught to ride a horse, drive cattle into the yard, guard horses at night, and at the age of 13 he was taught to harrow a field, plow, and was taken to haymaking. Gradually they were also taught to wield a scythe, an ax, and a plow. By the age of 16, the boy was already becoming a worker. He knew crafts and could weave good bast shoes. The girl began doing needlework at the age of 7. At the age of 11 she already knew how to spin, at 13 she could embroider, at 14 she could sew shirts, and at 16 she could weave. Those who did not master the skill at a certain age were ridiculed. Boys who did not know how to weave bast shoes were teased as “shoeless”, and girls. Those who have not learned to spin are “non-spinners.” Peasants also made all their clothes at home, hence its name – homespun. Sometimes, when a peasant was working, parts of his clothing were drawn into the loom, e.g. screw up - a machine for twisting ropes. The man found himself in an awkward position. Hence the saying “get into trouble” – i.e. in an awkward position. Russian shirts were wide and long. Almost to the knees. To make it comfortable to work in a shirt, they cut out under the arms gussets – special replaceable parts that do not interfere with the movements of the arms in the sleeves, collect sweat and can be replaced. The shirts were sewn on the shoulders, chest and back the background - a lining that could also be replaced. Main view outerwear there was a caftan made of cloth. It was lined and fastened at the front with hooks or copper buttons. In addition to caftans, peasants wore jackets, zipuns, and in winter - sheepskin sheepskin coats up to the toes and felted hats.
Peasant women dressed in shirts and sundresses , ponevs - skirts made of cloth, which were tied at the waist. The girls wore a bandage on their heads in the form of a wide ribbon. Married women carefully combed hair under kitties And kokoshniks : “to make a fool of yourself” meant to disgrace yourself. They threw it over their shoulders Soul Greys – wide and short sleeveless sweaters, similar to a flared skirt. All peasant women's clothes were decorated with embroidery.
In the peasant house, everything was thought out to the smallest detail. The peasant's home was adapted to his lifestyle. It consisted of cold rooms - cages And entryway and warm – huts . The canopy connected the cold cage and the warm hut, the farm yard and the house. The peasants kept their goods in them. And in warm time slept for years. The house necessarily had a basement or underground - a cold room for storing food supplies. The central place in the house was occupied by the stove. Most often the stove was heated “black”, i.e. there were no ceilings, and the smoke came out of the window right under the roof. Such peasant huts were called smoking . A stove with a chimney and a hut with a ceiling are an attribute of boyars, nobles and generally wealthy people. However, this also had its advantages. In the smoking hut, all the walls were smoked, such walls do not rot longer, the hut could last a hundred years, and a stove without a chimney “ate” much less wood. Everyone loved the stove in the peasant hut: it provided delicious, steamed, incomparable food. The stove heated the house, and the old people slept on the stove. But the mistress of the house spent most of her time near the stove. The corner near the mouth of the furnace was called - woman's cut - women's corner. Here the housewife prepared food, there was a cabinet for storing kitchen utensils - crockery . The other corner opposite the window and near the door was masculine. There was a bench where the owner worked and sometimes slept. Peasant property was stored under the bench. Between the stove and the side wall under the ceiling they laid pay – a place where children slept, dried onions and peas. A special iron ring was inserted into the central beam of the hut ceiling, and a baby cradle was attached to it. A peasant woman, sitting on a bench at work, inserted her foot into the loop of the cradle and rocked it. To prevent a fire, where the torch burned, they had to place a box of earth on the floor where the sparks would fly.
The main corner of the peasant house was the red corner: here hung a special shelf with icons - goddess , stood under her dinner table. This place of honor in a peasant hut was always located diagonally from the stove. When a person entered the hut, he always directed his gaze to this corner, took off his hat, crossed himself and bowed to the icons. And only then did he say hello.
In general, peasants were deeply religious people, however, like all other classes in the Russian state. The word “peasant” itself is modified from “Christian”. Great importance Peasant families devoted church life to prayers: morning, evening, before and after meals, before and after any task. The peasants attended church regularly, especially diligently in winter and autumn, when they were free from economic burdens. Fasting was strictly observed in families. They showed special love for icons: they were carefully preserved and passed on from generation to generation. The goddess was decorated with embroidered towels - towels . Russian peasants who sincerely believed in God could not work poorly on the land, which they considered God’s creation. In the Russian hut, almost everything was made by the hands of the peasants themselves. The furniture was homemade, wooden, of a simple design: a table in the red corner according to the number of eaters, benches nailed to the walls, portable benches, chests in which goods were stored. For this reason, they were often lined with iron strips and locked with locks. The more chests there were in the house, the richer the peasant family was considered. The peasant hut was distinguished by its cleanliness: cleaning was done thoroughly and regularly, curtains and towels were changed frequently. Next to the stove in the hut there was always a washstand - a clay jug with two spouts: water was poured on one side, and poured out on the other. Dirty water was going to tub – a special wooden bucket. All the dishes in the peasant house were wooden, and only the pots and some bowls were clay. Clay dishes were covered with simple glaze, wooden ones were decorated with paintings and carvings. Many of the ladles, cups, bowls, and spoons are today in Russian museums.
Russian peasants were sensitive to the misfortune of others. Living in community - peace , they knew very well what mutual assistance and mutual assistance were. Russian peasants were merciful: they tried to help the weak and beggar who suffered. Not giving a crust of bread and not allowing a suffering person to spend the night was considered great sin. Often the world directed the heating of stoves, cooking, and caring for livestock to families where everyone was sick. If a family's house burned down, the world helped them cut down the trees, remove the logs and build a house. Helping out and not leaving in trouble was in the order of things.
The peasants believed that labor was blessed by God. IN Everyday life this was manifested in wishes to the employee: “God help!”, “God help!”. The peasants valued hard workers very much. And, on the contrary, laziness was condemned in the peasant value system, because work was often the meaning of their whole life. They used to say about lazy people that they were “throwing their money away.” At that time, backwoods were called wooden blocks from which spoons and other things were made. wooden dishes. Preparing baklush was considered a simple, easy, frivolous matter. That is, laziness in the modern understanding as a form of complete idleness could not even be imagined at that time. The universal, centuries-honed form of peasant life, finally formed precisely in this cultural era, became the most stable in Russian culture, survived various periods and finally disappeared (was destroyed) only in the twenties and thirties of the last century.
Modern people have the vaguest idea of how peasants lived in the Middle Ages. This is not surprising, because life and customs in the villages have changed a lot over these centuries.
The term “Middle Ages” is most applicable to because it was here that all those phenomena that are strongly associated with ideas about the Middle Ages took place. These are castles, knights and much more. The peasants had their own place in this society, which remained virtually unchanged for several centuries.
At the turn of the 8th and 9th centuries. in the Frankish state (it united France, Germany and most of Italy) there was a revolution in relations around land ownership. A feudal system emerged, which was the basis of medieval society.
Kings (holders of supreme power) relied on the support of the army. For their service, those close to the monarch received large amounts of land. Over time, a whole class of wealthy feudal lords appeared who had vast territories within the state. The peasants who lived on these lands became their property.
Another major owner of the land was the church. Monastic plots could cover many square kilometers. How did peasants live in the Middle Ages on such lands? They received a small personal allotment, and in exchange for it they had to work certain number days on the owner's premises. It was economic coercion. It affected almost all European countries except Scandinavia.
The church played a big role in the enslavement and dispossession of village residents. The life of peasants was easily regulated by spiritual authorities. Commoners were instilled with the idea that resigned work for the church or the transfer of land to it would later affect what would happen to a person after death in heaven.
The existing feudal land tenure ruined the peasants, almost all of them lived in noticeable poverty. This was due to several phenomena. Due to regular military service and work for the feudal lord, the peasants were cut off from their own land and had practically no time to work on it. In addition, a variety of taxes from the state fell on their shoulders. Medieval society was based on unfair prejudices. For example, peasants were subject to the highest court fines for misdemeanors and violations of laws.
The villagers were deprived of their own land, but were never driven from it. Subsistence farming was then the only way to survive and earn money. Therefore, the feudal lords offered landless peasants to take land from them in exchange for numerous obligations, which are described above.
The main mechanism of the emergence of the European was precarity. This was the name of the agreement that was concluded between the feudal lord and the poor landless peasant. In exchange for owning an allotment, the plowman was obliged to either pay quitrents or perform regular corvée work. and its inhabitants were often entirely bound to the feudal lord by a contract of precaria (literally, "transferred by request"). Use could be given for several years or even for life.
If at first the peasant found himself only in land dependence on the feudal lord or the church, then over time, due to impoverishment, he also lost his personal freedom. This process of enslavement was the result of severe economic situation, which the medieval village and its inhabitants experienced.
A poor man who was unable to pay the entire debt to the feudal lord fell into bondage to the creditor and actually turned into a slave. In general, this led to large land holdings absorbing small ones. This process was also facilitated by the growth of the political influence of the feudal lords. Thanks to the large concentration of resources, they became independent from the king and could do whatever they wanted on their land, regardless of the laws. The more the middle peasants became dependent on the feudal lords, the more the power of the latter grew.
The way peasants lived in the Middle Ages often also depended on justice. This type of power also ended up in the hands of feudal lords (on their land). The king could declare the immunity of a particularly influential duke, so as not to enter into conflict with him. Privileged feudal lords could judge their peasants (in other words, their property) without regard to the central government.
Immunity also gave the right to a major owner personally collect all monetary receipts going to the crown treasury (court fines, taxes and other levies). The feudal lord also became the leader of the militia of peasants and soldiers, which gathered during the war.
The immunity granted by the king was only a formalization of the system of which feudal land tenure was a part. Large property owners held their privileges long before receiving permission from the king. Immunity only gave legitimacy to the order under which the peasants lived.
Before the revolution in land relations took place, the main economic unit of Western Europe was the rural community. They were also called stamps. The communities lived freely, but at the turn of the 8th and 9th centuries they became a thing of the past. In their place came the estates of large feudal lords, to whom serf communities were subordinate.
They could be very different in their structure, depending on the region. For example, in the north of France large fiefdoms were common, which included several villages. In the southern provinces of the common Frankish state, medieval society in the village lived in small fiefdoms, which could be limited to a dozen households. This division into European regions was preserved and lasted until the abandonment of the feudal system.
The classic estate was divided into two parts. The first of these was the master's domain, where peasants worked on strictly defined days, serving their service. The second part included the households of rural residents, because of which they became dependent on the feudal lord.
The labor of peasants was also necessarily used in the manor's estate, which, as a rule, was the center of the estate and the master's allotment. It included a house and a yard, on which there were various outbuildings, vegetable gardens, orchards, and vineyards (if the climate permitted). The master's artisans also worked here, without whom the landowner also could not do. The estate also often had mills and a church. All this was considered the property of the feudal lord. What peasants owned in the Middle Ages was located on their plots, which could be located interspersed with the landowner's plots.
Dependent rural workers had to work on the feudal lord's plots using their own equipment, and also bring their livestock here. Real slaves were used less often (this social stratum was much smaller in number).
The arable plots of the peasants were adjacent to each other. They had to use a common area for grazing livestock (this tradition remained with the time of the free community). The life of such a collective was regulated with the help of a village gathering. It was presided over by the headman, who was elected by the feudal lord.
This was due to the low development of production forces in the village. In addition, in the village there was no division of labor between artisans and peasants, which could have increased its productivity. That is, craft and household work appeared as a by-product of agriculture.
Dependent peasants and artisans provided the feudal lord with various clothes, shoes, and necessary equipment. What was produced on the estate was mostly used at the owner's court and rarely became the personal property of the serfs.
The lack of circulation of goods slowed down trade. Nevertheless, it is incorrect to say that it did not exist at all, and the peasants did not participate in it. There were markets, fairs, and money circulation. However, all this did not in any way affect the life of the village and estate. The peasants had no means of independent subsistence, and feeble trade could not help them pay off the feudal lords.
With the proceeds from trade, the villagers bought what they could not produce on their own. The feudal lords acquired salt, weapons, and also rare luxury items that merchants from overseas countries could bring. Villagers did not participate in such transactions. That is, trade satisfied only the interests and needs of the narrow elite of society who had extra money.
The way peasants lived in the Middle Ages depended on the size of the quitrent that was paid to the feudal lord. Most often it was given in kind. It could be grain, flour, beer, wine, Domestic bird, eggs or craft products.
The deprivation of the remaining property caused protest from the peasantry. It could be expressed in various forms. For example, villagers fled from their oppressors or even staged mass riots. Peasant revolts Each time they suffered defeats due to spontaneity, fragmentation and disorganization. At the same time, even they led to the fact that the feudal lords tried to fix the size of duties in order to stop their growth, as well as increase discontent among the serfs.
The history of peasants in the Middle Ages is a constant confrontation with large landowners with varying success. These relations appeared in Europe on the ruins of ancient society, where classical slavery generally reigned, especially pronounced in the Roman Empire.
The abandonment of the feudal system and the enslavement of peasants occurred in modern times. It was facilitated by the development of the economy (primarily light industry), the industrial revolution and the outflow of population to the cities. Also, at the turn of the Middle Ages and the Modern Age, humanistic sentiments prevailed in Europe, which put individual freedom at the forefront of everything else.
Medieval Europe was very different from modern civilization: its territory was covered with forests and swamps, and people settled in spaces where they could cut down trees, drain swamps and engage in farming. How did peasants live in the Middle Ages, what did they eat and do?
The history of the Middle Ages covers the period from V to beginning of XVI century, until the advent of the modern era, and refers mainly to the countries of Western Europe. This period is characterized by specific features of life: the feudal system of relationships between landowners and peasants, the existence of lords and vassals, the dominant role of the church in the life of the entire population.
One of the main features of the history of the Middle Ages in Europe is the existence of feudalism, a special socio-economic structure and method of production.
As a result of internecine wars, crusades and other military actions, kings gave their vassals lands on which they built estates or castles for themselves. As a rule, the entire land was donated along with the people living on it.
The rich lord received ownership of all the lands surrounding the castle, on which villages with peasants were located. Almost everything that peasants did in the Middle Ages was taxed. Poor people, cultivating their land and his, paid the lord not only tribute, but also for the use various devices for harvest processing: ovens, mills, grape presses. They paid the tax natural products: grain, honey, wine.
All peasants were highly dependent on their feudal lord; they practically worked for him as slave labor, eating what was left after growing the crop, most of which was given to their master and the church.
Wars periodically occurred between the vassals, during which the peasants asked for the protection of their master, for which they were forced to give him their allotment, and in the future they became completely dependent on him.
To understand how peasants lived in the Middle Ages, you need to understand the relationship between the feudal lord and the poor residents who lived in villages in the areas adjacent to the castle and cultivated plots of land.
The tools of peasant labor in the fields in the Middle Ages were primitive. The poorest harrowed the ground with a log, others with a harrow. Later, scythes and pitchforks made of iron appeared, as well as shovels, axes and rakes. From the 9th century, heavy wheeled plows began to be used in the fields, and plows were used on light soils. Sickles and threshing chains were used for harvesting.
All tools of labor in the Middle Ages remained unchanged for many centuries, because the peasants did not have money to purchase new ones, and their feudal lords were not interested in improving working conditions, they were only concerned about getting big harvest with minimal costs.
The history of the Middle Ages is characterized by constant confrontation between large landowners, as well as feudal relations between rich lords and the impoverished peasantry. This situation was formed on the ruins of ancient society, in which slavery existed, which clearly manifested itself during the era of the Roman Empire.
The rather difficult conditions of how peasants lived in the Middle Ages, the deprivation of their land plots and property, often caused protests, which were expressed in different forms. Some desperate people fled from their masters, others staged massive riots. The rebellious peasants almost always suffered defeat due to disorganization and spontaneity. After such riots, the feudal lords sought to fix the size of duties in order to stop their endless growth and reduce the discontent of the poor people.
As the economy grew and manufacturing emerged towards the end of the Middle Ages, the industrial revolution occurred, and many village residents began to move to cities. Among the poor population and representatives of other classes, humanistic views began to prevail, which considered personal freedom for each person an important goal.
As the feudal system was abandoned, an era called the New Time came, in which there was no longer any place for outdated relationships between peasants and their lords.
