John Hurst
Brief history Europe
The most complete and shortest guide
INTRODUCTION
If you like to read books from the end, wanting to know how it all ends, then you will definitely like this book. The end is described here almost immediately after the beginning, because the history of Europe is told as many as six times, each time from a different angle.
Initially these were lectures designed to give university students general idea about the history of Europe. But they did not begin from the very beginning and did not continue in a certain sequence to the end. I would do a short general overview, and then go back and look at a particular topic in more detail.
The first two lectures describe the history of Europe in very general terms. And this is actually the “shortest” story. The next six lectures focus on specific topics. Their purpose is to explore the topic in more depth and explore it in more detail.
Any “story”, in the ordinary sense of the word, has a plot: a beginning, middle and end. Civilization in this sense is not history at all, it has no plot, although, of course, it is much more interesting for us to study it if we believe that a period of development is necessarily followed by a period of decline, and then complete and final destruction.
I set myself the goal of showing how the main components of European civilization interacted and were closely intertwined, how new things arose from the old over time, how the old stubbornly maintained its position and returned.
History textbooks tell of numerous events and historical figures. This is one of the strengths of the story because it brings us closer to real life. But what is the point of all this? What really matters and what doesn't really matter? Many people and events that are mentioned in the pages of other history books are not even mentioned in textbooks.
The more detailed lectures included in the second part of the book end around the year 1800, and only because, when I read them, the students were listening to another course of lectures on the history of Europe after 1800. But this excludes so many interesting things! From time to time I jump over this line, but if my approach is correct, you yourself will easily understand that the basics modern world, in which we live, were laid a long time ago.
After the story about the era of Antiquity, the story is mainly about history Western Europe. Not all regions of Europe made equal contributions to the formation of European civilization. The Renaissance in Italy, the Reformation in Germany, parliamentarism in England, revolutionary democracy in France - all these phenomena had more significant consequences than, say, the partitions of Poland.
In my work, I have drawn heavily on the work of historical sociologists, especially Michael Mann and Patricia Crone. True, Professor Crone specializes not in the history of Europe, but in the history of the Islamic world, but one of the chapters of her small book “Pre-industrial Societies” is called “Oddities of Europe”. In it, on thirty pages, she outlines European history in the most general terms - much like I do here. It was Professor Crone who gave me the idea to analyze the main components of European civilization, which is what I do in the first two lectures. For this reason, I owe her a lot.
I was fortunate to have Professor Eric Johnson as my colleague at La Trobe University in Melbourne for several years. He was a real advocate of a broad approach to history, and I learned a lot from his book The European Miracle.
In my work I do not claim originality, except perhaps the method. I gave these lectures to Australian students; they were taking a detailed course in Australian history, and they knew too little about the history of the civilization of which they were a part.
John Hurst
Brief history
Chapter first
ANCIENT AND MEDIEVAL EUROPE
European civilization is unique in that it is the only civilization that has had a fundamental influence on the world. She managed to achieve this through conquests and migrations; thanks to economic power and the power of ideas; and also because it was able to provide what everyone wanted. Today all countries of the world use scientific achievements and the technologies developed with their help, but science is a European invention.
European civilization is based on the following three elements:
1. Culture Ancient Greece and Ancient Rome.
2. Christianity, which itself is a branch of Judaism, the religion of the Jews.
3. The culture of the Germanic tribes that invaded the Roman Empire.
Thus, European civilization is a mixture of heterogeneous elements. We will learn later why this is so important.
* * *If we think about the origins of our philosophy, our art, our literature, our mathematics, our science, our medicine and our understanding of politics, we have to admit that we owe all these intellectual achievements to ancient Greece.
At its height, Ancient Greece was not a single state; it consisted of small states, or “city-states” as we now call them. Each of these states was a separate city with surrounding lands, which could be walked around in a day. In a sense, the Greeks belonged to this or that state, just as we are members of this or that club. It was in these small states that the concept of democracy first arose. It was not a representative democracy like today - no one was elected as a member of parliament. The entire male population of the city gathered in a certain place and discussed public affairs, adopted laws by voting and decided political issues.
As populations grew, city-states established colonies in other parts of the Mediterranean. Greek settlements arose in what is now Turkey, along the coast of North Africa, and even along the coasts of what is now Spain, southern France, and southern Italy. And it was in Italy that the Romans, who were a rather backward people during the period of history and lived in a city-state, the center of which was Rome, first encountered the Greeks and borrowed a lot from them.
Ancient Greek cities and colonies. Ancient Greek civilization consisted of cities and colonies engaged in trade and agriculture and located on the coast of the Mediterranean and Black Seas.
Over time, the Romans created a huge empire that included themselves and Greece and the Greek colonies. In the north, the borders of the empire ran along two big rivers, Rhine and Danube, although sometimes these boundaries were expanded. In the west, the natural border was Atlantic Ocean. England was part of the Roman Empire, but Scotland and Ireland were already outside its borders. To the south lay the deserts of North Africa. The most uncertain was the eastern border, because there were empires rivaling Rome. In general, the Roman Empire surrounded the Mediterranean Sea and included not only part of what is now Europe, but also territories beyond Europe: Turkey (Asia Minor), the Middle East and North Africa.
The Romans fought more skillfully than the Greeks. They were better at drawing up the laws by which they governed their empire. They were superior to the Greeks in construction and engineering structures, useful both for war and for peaceful life. But in all other respects they recognized the authority of the Greeks and slavishly copied their achievements. A typical representative of the Roman elite spoke two languages: Greek and Latin (the language of the ancient Romans); he sent his sons to the Athenian school or hired a Greek slave to teach his children at home. Therefore, when we talk about “Greco-Roman” culture, we do so following the Romans themselves.
Territory of the Roman Empire in the 1st century.
The most clear demonstration of the keen mind of the Greeks is geometry. Many people have probably forgotten what it is, so let's start with the basics. Geometry is structured in exactly the same way - it begins with the simplest definitions, which serve as the basis for further reasoning and conclusions.
A starting point is a point that the Greeks defined as having a position in space but no magnitude. Of course, on this page it has a certain value, but we're talking about about the ideal case belonging to the realm of pure ideas. Second definition: a line has length but no width. Further, a straight line is the shortest distance between two points.
Based on these three definitions, we can give a definition of a circle: first of all, it is a closed line that forms a certain figure. But how do we define “roundness”? With common sense, this is quite difficult to do, although it is possible. In order not to torment you, I will immediately say that a circle is a figure inside which there is a point that has a certain property: straight line segments drawn from this point to any point on the circle will be of equal length.
They lived in poverty and ignorance. The idea that the Earth is a ball, that the world is large and diverse, was forgotten. There were many robbers on the roads, neighbors often fought with each other. Europeans, with the exception of the Vikings, or Normans - northern people (Nord - north), traveled little.
Significant changes occurred in the 13th century. in Southern Italy.
Holy Roman Emperor Frederick I Barbarossa(1152-1190) in 1186 married his son to the only heiress of the Kingdom of Sicily, created by the Normans in the 11th century. and which included, in addition to the island of Sicily, also the south of Italy.
In 1265, Pope Clement IV granted the Kingdom of Sicily to the brother of the French king Louis IX, Charles of Anjou, who in 1266 established himself on the Sicilian throne. The harsh policy of Charles of Anjou led in 1285 to an uprising in Sicily, called the “Sicilian Vespers,” after which the island of Sicily passed into the possession of the kingdom of Aragon. However, the possessions of Charles of Anjou in southern Italy, from that time called the Kingdom of Naples, were assigned to his descendants, who ruled in southern Italy until 1435.
At the end of XIII - early XIV V. Venice And Genoa, the largest and richest trading ports Northern Italy, became independent oligarchic republics.
In 1479, the unification of the two largest Christian states of the Iberian Peninsula - Castile and Aragon - led to the emergence Spanish Kingdom.
At the very end of the 14th century. important changes took place on the political map of Scandinavia.
Ancient Greece (Hellas), the general name for the territory of the ancient Greek states in the south of the Balkan Peninsula, the islands of the Aegean Sea, the coast of Thrace, along the western coastline of the Asian mainland. The history of Ancient Greece falls into five periods: Achaean (XX–XII centuries BC), Homeric, or “Dark Ages” (XI–IX centuries BC), Archaic (VIII–VI centuries BC) AD), classical (V–IV centuries BC) and Hellenistic (III–II centuries BC)...
Ancient Rome - Ancient Rome- one of the leading civilizations Ancient world and antiquity, got its name from the main city (Roma), in turn named after the legendary founder - Romulus. The center of Rome developed within a marshy plain bounded by the Capitol, Palatine and Quirinal. The culture of the Etruscans and ancient Greeks had a certain influence on the formation of ancient Roman civilization. Ancient Rome reached the peak of its power in the 2nd century AD. e., when under his control came the space from modern Scotland in the north to Ethiopia in the south and from Armenia in the east to Portugal in the west.
Byzantium - Byzantine Empire, Byzantium is the name of the Roman Empire after the collapse of the empire in 480. Located on three continents - at the junction of Europe, Asia and Africa - Byzantium occupied an area of up to 1 mln sq. It included the Balkan Peninsula, Asia Minor, Syria, Palestine, Egypt, Cyrenaica, part of Mesopotamia and Armenia, the Mediterranean islands, primarily Crete and Cyprus, strongholds in the Crimea (Chersonese), in the Caucasus (in Georgia), some areas of Arabia, islands of the Eastern Mediterranean. Its borders extended from the Danube to the Euphrates.
Crusades- campaigns to the East lasted almost two hundred years - from the end of the 11th century to last third XIII century These were wars mainly of chivalry. They got their name because their participants, preparing to fight against Muslims (Turks and Arabs), attached to their clothes - on the chest or shoulders - a red cloth sign of the cross, symbolizing the religious motives, goals and intentions of the warriors: to liberate Palestine from the power of infidels, in the ideas of Christians - the Holy Land, for there, according to the gospel stories, Jesus Christ, the founder of the Christian religion, was born, lived and was crucified on the cross.
Hundred Years' War- the war between England and France, the longest military-political conflict in the history of the past. The term “war” in relation to this event, as well as its chronological framework, is quite arbitrary, since military operations were not constantly carried out over a period of more than a hundred years.
Renaissance- Renaissance, or Renaissance (French Renaissance, Italian Rinascimento) is an era in the history of European culture that replaced the culture of the Middle Ages and preceded the culture of modern times. The approximate chronological framework of the era is XIV-XVI centuries.
Napoleon's Empire- Napoleon's Empire arose as a result of France's successful conduct of the "Napoleonic Wars". Under this name, mainly the wars waged by Napoleon I with various European states are known when he was first consul and emperor (1800-1815). The victorious Napoleonic wars, especially the 2nd Austrian campaign of 1805, the Prussian campaign of 1806, and the Polish campaign of 1807, contributed to the transformation of France into the main power on the continent.
World War I(July 28, 1914 – November 11, 1918) - the first military conflict on a global scale, in which 38 of the 59 independent states that existed at that time were involved. About 73.5 million people were mobilized; of these, 9.5 million were killed or died from wounds, more than 20 million were wounded, 3.5 million were left crippled. As a result of the First World War, the map of Europe was completely redrawn. New states emerged: Austria, Hungary, Yugoslavia, Poland, Czechoslovakia, Lithuania, Latvia, Estonia and Finland. The contradictions between the new states, the preserved industrial potential of Germany and its disadvantaged position made the new world war inevitable.
The Second World War(September 1, 1939 – September 2, 1945) - a war of the anti-fascist coalition led by the USSR, USA and Great Britain against the bloc of fascist powers led by Germany, Italy and Japan.
Beginning of the 19th century was a dramatic period in European history. For almost 15 years in a row, battles raged in Europe, blood was shed, states collapsed and borders were redrawn. Napoleonic France was at the center of the events. She won a number of victories over other powers, but was ultimately defeated and lost all her conquests.
The victory of the Allied powers over Napoleonic France ended a turbulent period in European history that began with french revolution XVIII century Peace has come. The winners had to resolve many issues regarding the political structure of post-war Europe.
England, small in size and population, ranked first in the world in terms of volume. industrial production and financial resources. Political system in England was one of the most democratic. But despite this, there were many disadvantaged people here too.
By the beginning of the 20th century. England lost first place in terms of industrial production, but remained the strongest maritime, colonial power and financial center in the world. In political life, the restriction of monarchical power and the strengthening of the role of parliament continued.
During this period, France experienced a change of three political regimes: two monarchical and one republican. The then established empire of Napoleon III also turned out to be fragile, despite serious economic achievements and some foreign policy successes.
At the beginning of 1848, all of Europe was shocked by bourgeois-democratic revolutions, which affected all countries and essentially merged into one powerful movement. Their most important tasks were the elimination of feudal orders, the destruction of absolutism and the establishment of a constitutional system. In Germany, Italy, and the Austrian Empire, the issue of relations between different peoples had to be resolved. The struggle for these goals was carried out by the bourgeoisie, intelligentsia, workers, artisans, and peasants. They were the main ones driving force revolutions.
Second in German history half of the 19th century V. two important events occurred: political unification and the transformation of Germany into the strongest industrial country in Europe. At the same time powerful German Empire considered herself deprived in the colonial sphere.
In the middle of the 19th century. There were about 20 million wage workers in Western countries. At this time, in the labor movement, along with economic demands, political demands began to play an increasingly important role. Arose international organizations who aimed to change political system and the conquest of power by the working class.
What is culture? This question was raised by Europeans in the second half of the 19th century. Currently, there are more than five hundred definitions of culture. But scientists obviously won’t stop there. The word "culture" comes from Lat. cultura, which has several similar meanings: cultivation, upbringing, education, development, veneration.
In the 19th century Great strides have been made in the fields of education, science and technology. Scientific discoveries, which poured out as if from a cornucopia, contributed to the development modern industry. Under their influence, people's ideas about the world around them and the centuries-old way of their life changed. Over the course of one century, a person moved from a carriage to a train, from a train to a car, in 1903.
The progressive people of Europe enthusiastically embraced the slogan of the French Revolution, “Liberty, Equality and Fraternity.” Many heard the music of the revolution in it and were filled with radiant hopes. But soon bitter disappointment set in. Beautiful slogans were distorted and replaced by revolutionary tyranny. Violent bloodshed first flooded France, then Europe.
The formation of industrial civilization had a huge impact on European art. As never before, it was in close connection with social life, the spiritual and material needs of people. In the context of the growing interdependence of peoples, artistic movements and cultural achievements quickly spread throughout the world.
The USA was a new type of country. It did not have a past like European and Asian countries. But there was a democratic constitution, parliament and great opportunities for the development of the bourgeoisie. The Americans wisely took advantage of the favorable geographical location: mild climate, fertile lands, abundance of forests and minerals.
The most important and at the same time the most tragic event American history became Civil War, which broke out in 1861. It took four years of brutal fighting to keep the United States united. After bloody war The Americans, forgetting their differences, set to work together and turned their country into a power of global importance.
XIX century - time big changes in the spiritual life of the United States. The industrial revolution and economic success destroyed the strict Puritan injunctions, which condemned art created not by reason, but by feeling. Everything inspired optimistic confidence in the great destiny of America. People naively believed in their unlimited capabilities.
In history Latin America XIX century The most important event was the formation of independent Latin American states. Spain and Portugal were the first European countries to lose their richest colonies. However, the collapse colonial system, created by Europeans, occurred only in the second half of the 20th century.
Autocracy and serfdom were an obstacle to the modernization of Russian society in the 19th century. Most feudal landowners did not realize this. Only the advanced part of the nobility, disillusioned with the inactivity of the tsar and the government, tried to change the situation themselves by force.
The second period (1815-1825) of the reign of Alexander I was characterized by most historians as conservative in relation to the first period (1802-1814) - liberal, aimed at implementing large-scale reforms in Russia. The strengthening of the conservative trend and the establishment of a strict police regime in the country are associated with the name of the all-powerful A.
60-70s - this is a time of radical transformations in Russia, which affected almost all the most important aspects of the life of society and the state. For relatively short term reforms were carried out in the country in the fields of economics, management, military affairs, education and culture.
The accession to the throne of Alexander II, the weakening of censorship, some liberalization of the government policy in comparison with Nicholas's time, rumors about upcoming transformations and, first of all, the preparation for the abolition of serfdom - all this had an exciting effect on Russian society, especially for young people.
The socio-economic processes that took place in Russia at the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries were extremely contradictory. Success in the economy was combined with a backward system of public administration, restrictions on freedom of enterprise, and the reluctance of tsarism to carry out consistent reforms aimed at modernizing the country.
Russian Revolution 1905-1907 is one of the late bourgeois revolutions. 250 years separated it from the English revolution of the 17th century, more than a century from the Great French Revolution, and more than half a century from the European revolutions of 1848-1849. First Russian bourgeois revolution differed from its predecessors in European countries.
Less than 10 years separate Russia from the end of the first bourgeois-democratic revolution of 1905-1907. before the start of the second - in February 1917, which radically changed the whole course historical development Russia. During this period, the autocracy tried to resolve the most important socio-economic and political issues raised by the revolution through gradual reforms.
Characteristic features of the culture of the first half of the 19th century. were: its democratization; an increase in the number of cultural figures from unprivileged classes; close interaction of Russian culture with world culture, primarily with European culture; the beginning of world recognition of the best achievements of Russian culture.
Abolition of serfdom, reforms of the 60-70s, rise social movement, the establishment of capitalism - all this contributed to the growth of enlightenment, further development culture. The leading role in art in the post-reform period belonged to the advanced common intelligentsia.
In 1868, an event occurred in Japan that dramatically changed the course of the historical development of this country. For the first time after the 12th century. Imperial power was restored. It was not just the Tokugawa shogunate, which began in 1603, that ended. The entire system of the shogunate, which had existed in Japan for almost seven hundred years, collapsed.
Of all the Asian countries, only Japan developed as an independent state. She strove for power and prosperity in order to take a prominent place among the European powers. To this end, the imperial government borrowed its scientific, technical, economic and political achievements from the West. At the beginning of the 20th century.
The Unified State Exam now includes tasks on knowledge of the main dates of foreign history. This means that if:
- political history Europe and America are a dark spot for you
- the chronology of world events is confused
- calendar historical events blurred, and comparison of the history of Russia and the West is impossible
Human history is divided into centuries BC (BC) and centuries AD. Our era begins with the birth of Jesus Christ. Up until 1917, people in Russia did not say the words “our era,” but they said “Nativity” when they wanted to clarify the time of an event.It is from this date that we will begin to present our brief chronology.
In the I - V centuries. AD the great Ancient Rome is gradually losing its power. The empire is weakening, the barbarian tribes threaten to destroy it, which they manage to do in 476. This year is considered the end of the era of the Ancient World and the beginning of the Middle Ages. Rome fell. On its ruins, Byzantium and new barbarian states arose.
Dates I - V centuries. from the Unified State Exam assignments:
476 - capture of Rome by barbarians, fall of the Western Roman Empire
Byzantium is ruled by Emperor Justinian. He builds the famous Hagia Sophia in Constantinople (now Istanbul). The Great Migration continues in Europe: the Lombards conquered Italy, Germanic tribes The Angles, Saxons and Jutes invaded Britain, where the legendary King Arthur began to rule.The monk Dionysius the Small proposed to calculate time from the Nativity of Christ.
By the 6th century refers to the first mention of the Slavs. From sources we learn that withSlavic tribes moved to the Balkans.
In this century, the prophet Muhammad lives and dies, with whose name the emergence of Islam is associated. A new state is born - the Arab Caliphate. Christianity is spreading in Britain.
Slavic tribes continue to move eastward across Europe.
The most powerful state in Europe in this century is the kingdom of the Franks. Bright rulers rule here - Charles Martel, Pepin the Short and, finally, Charlemagne. The latter conquers many lands, is crowned king from the hands of the Pope and creates a new, almost within the Roman Empire, state of the Franks (including the territories of modern France, Germany and Italy).The iconoclastic era begins in Byzantium.
Dates of the 8th century from the Unified State Exam assignments:
732 - Battle of Poitiers
The Kingdom of the Franks split into Italy, the West Frankish State (France) and the East Frankish State (Germany).
In this century, Rurik was invited to reign in Rus'. The formation of the Old Russian state is associated with his name.
Dates of the 9th century from the Unified State Exam assignments:
843 - collapse of the Frankish Empire (Treaty of Verdun)
The reign of the German king Otto I (936 - 973) began. He created a state called the "Holy Roman Empire" (after the conquest of Northern Italy).
In Rus' they adopted Christianity.
Dates of the 10th century from the Unified State Exam assignments:
962 - formation of the Holy Roman Empire (during the reign of Otto I the Great)
In the 11th century, the first split within Christianity occurred - the united church was divided into the Catholic and Orthodox churches. The Arabs conquered Palestine (the Holy Land for Christian Europeans), which became the reason for the start of the first crusade in history (1096)
In Rus' - the reign of Yaroslav the Wise.
Dates of the 11th century from the Unified State Exam assignments:
1066 - Battle of Hastings (victory for William the Conqueror, which gave him the English crown)
In the 12th century the second (1147 - 1149) and third (1189 - 1192) happened. crusades hiking. Such legendary figures as the English King Richard took part in the third campaign Lion Heart and the German king Frederick I Barbarossa.
In Rus' there was a period of feudal fragmentation.
Dates of the 12th century from the Unified State Exam assignments:
1147 - 1149 - second crusade
1189 - 1192 - third crusade
1199 - 1204 - fourth crusade
The fourth crusade ended (1999 - 1204). The campaign, like the previous ones, was aimed at liberating the Holy Land from the Arabs, but the knights did not reach the Holy Land. They settled in Constantinople, the capital of Christian Byzantium, and subjected it to a terrible defeat. In England, the Magna Carta was proclaimed, the articles of which were designed to protect free people from the arbitrariness of the authorities. In the same century, parliament appeared in England (1295).The Renaissance (or Renaissance) begins in European art.
The Mongols captured Rus' and established a yoke.
Dates of the 13th century from the Unified State Exam assignments:
1204 - defeat of Constantinople by the crusaders
1215 - adoption of the Magna Carta in England during the reign of King John the Landless
1295 - the beginning of the work of the “model” parliament in England
In France, an analogue of the English parliament appears - the Estates General. In 1337, the Hundred Years' War began between England and France.Tamerlane (Timur) makes his famous campaign of conquest across Asia.
At this time, on Russian soil, Dmitry Donskoy defeated the Mongols in the Battle of Kulikovo.
Dates of the 14th century from the Unified State Exam assignments:
1302 - convening of the states general (prototype of parliament) in France
1381 - Wat Tyler's rebellion in England
1389 - Battle of Kosovo, battle of the Serbs and Bosnians with the Turks.
In 1453, the Hundred Years' War ended in victory for France. The victory was largely helped by the participation of Joan of Arc at the last stage of the conflict. In 1431, the British burned her at the stake as a witch. Columbus discovered America.Byzantium was captured by the Turks and ceased to exist as a state, Constantinople fell. Leonardo da Vinci and Raphael Santi were born in this century.
At this time in Russia they got rid of Tatar-Mongol yoke. Andrei Rublev died in this century.
Dates of the 15th century from the Unified State Exam assignments:
1415 - uprising of Jan Hus in the Czech Republic (and his burning at the stake)
1419 - 1434 - Hussite wars in the Czech Republic, Jan Zizka’s participation in them
1453 - fall of Constantinople, capture of the city and defeat of Byzantium by the Turks led by Mehmed II the Conqueror
1492 - Columbus's discovery of America
The Reformation movement began in Europe (associated with the name of Martin Luther), which split Christianity once again: Protestants separated from the Catholics. In many European countries, the Reformation led to long and bloody religious wars. One of the most striking events associated with them was St. Bartholomew's Night in France, when the wedding of Queen Margot was used to destroy the Huguenots (Protestants) who came to Paris for the celebration. The first bourgeois revolution in history took place in the Netherlands.
At this time, Ivan the Terrible rules in Russia.
Dates of the 16th century from the Unified State Exam assignments:
1555 - Peace of Augsburg (between Lutherans and Catholics of the Holy Roman Empire)
1588 - the death of the "Invincible Armada", the death of the Spanish fleet in the battle with the British
The British formed colonies in America. In the middle of the century, a revolution will begin in England. The English will execute their king, and Oliver Cromwell will seize power. As a result of the revolution, the third estate (bourgeoisie) will receive the right to vote in power. Thomas Hobbes will write his Leviathan, and John Locke will write his Two Treatises of Government.
At this time in Russia there was Troubles and a rebellious age.
Dates of the 17th century from the Unified State Exam assignments:
1653 - 1659 - Oliver Cromwell's Protectorate ( The final stage English revolution)
1649 - England declared a republic
1688 - " glorious revolution" in England
In Europe - the Age of Enlightenment. This means that life and thinking become secular, the role of religion falls, the role of the so-called common sense and science is increasing. The main European events will happen in France. Here the French, prepared by the works of the philosophers Montesquieu, Rousseau, Voltaire and Diderot, will begin a revolution in 1789. Unhappy Louis XVI and his wife Marie Antoinette will be executed, France will receive its first Constitution with ideas about natural human rights enshrined in it.
A war of independence will break out in America: the English colonies will rebel against the English king, start a war, win it and create a new country - the United States of America. Thomas Jefferson, George Washington and Benjamin Franklin took an active part in the events.
At this time in Russia - Peter I and the era of palace coups.
Dates of the 18th century from the Unified State Exam assignments:
1775 - 1783 - war for the independence of the American states from England
1789 - beginning of the French Revolution
Napoleon will conquer all of Europe and begin a campaign in Russia, where he will be defeated. The strongest and richest power is England; India and China become its colonies. Türkiye will continue to lose strength and suffer further defeats from Russia. It will begin big war with the participation of England and France. Russia will lose ( Crimean War) and will be isolated. In addition to wars, there are a series of revolutions in Europe. Pan-European revolutions occurred in 1830 and 1848. There will be another one in France in 1870. The many German principalities will finally unite into single state Prussia, for which they thank the policies of the “Iron Chancellor” Otto von Bismarck.The Civil War will begin in the United States, leading to the abolition of slavery.
At this time in Russia - Alexander I, Nicholas I, Alexander II and Alexander III. Pushkin, Gogol, Dostoevsky and Tolstoy.
Dates of the 19th century from the Unified State Exam assignments:
1850 - 1864 - Taiping Rebellion in China
1861 - 1865 - American Civil War
1862 - Homestead Act (law on land plots in the USA, adopted during the Civil War)
1865 - assassination of Abraham Lincoln
The century of the First (1914-1918) and Second (1939-1945) World Wars. The century of the emergence and fall of the totalitarian regimes of Hitler, Stalin, Pinochet, Pol Pot and others. The century of an unprecedented breakthrough in science: Einstein’s theory of relativity, space flights (the first flight was made by Yuri Gagarin in 1961), the development of nuclear energy. The century in which the world's population reached six billion people. A century that brought a lot of harm to the nature and ecology of planet Earth.
Dates of the 20th century from the Unified State Exam assignments:
1914 - 1918 - World War I
1939 - 1945 - The Second World War
