PSYCHOLOGY

(brief lecture notes)

The word “psychology” translated into Russian means “the science of the soul” (Greek psyche - “soul”, logos - “teaching”). Soul is a concept used to designate the inner world of a person, his consciousness and self-awareness.

The inner world of a person is extremely complex and diverse. It is based on the facts of our internal subjective experience - these are our feelings, thoughts, desires, etc. In addition to the named components, it also includes other forms of manifestation of the psyche - these are facts of behavior, unconscious components, etc. Currently, instead of the concept of “soul”, the concept of “psyche” is used. The subject of psychology is the study of the psyche. As a science, psychology studies individual facts of human mental life, reveals patterns of their development, and reveals the mechanisms underlying them.

Psyche is the property of highly organized matter (brain) to reflect objective reality and, on the basis of the mental image formed in this case, it is advisable to regulate the subject’s activity and behavior.

The basis for the emergence of psychology as a science was the everyday empirical experience of people. Psychological knowledge has helped people get to know each other better, influence individual actions and behaviors, prevent unwanted ones, and take into account individual characteristics. This knowledge was accumulated, passed on from generation to generation, enshrined in proverbs and sayings, in works of art. However, in general, this knowledge lacked systematicity and depth of evidence and therefore could not be a solid basis for working with people.

Everyday psychological knowledge differs significantly from scientific knowledge, primarily in that it was based on intuition and had a specific situational nature. The knowledge available to everyday psychology was based mainly on observations and assumptions. Scientific psychology, as opposed to everyday psychology, is built on generalizations, knowledge is realized and experiment plays a significant role in its acquisition.

Psychology is a relatively young science. Scientific psychology received official formalization a little over 100 years ago. The formation of psychology as a science was closely connected with the development of philosophy and the natural sciences, in the depths of which its formation took place.

The word psychology was introduced into scientific use by the German philosopher Christian Wolf (1679-1754). But the emergence of scientific psychology is usually associated with 1879 - the year of the creation of the first experimental psychophysiological laboratory in Leipzig by W. Wundt (1832-1920).

Psychology is a science whose subject of study is the patterns and mechanisms of mental life.

Branches of psychology. The connection between scientific psychology and practice is characterized by the accuracy of setting applied problems and methods for solving them. As a rule, such problems were generated by difficulties arising outside of psychological areas, and their elimination was beyond the competence of the relevant specialists. Branches of psychology can be distinguished according to several criteria:

by area of ​​activity(in particular, professional), that is, according to what a person does: engineering, pedagogy, medicine, sports psychology, etc.

according to who exactly performs this activity is its subject and at the same time the object of psychological analysis: a person of a certain age (child and developmental psychology), a group of people (social psychology), a representative of a particular nationality (ethnopsychology), a psychiatrist’s patient (pathopsychology );

on specific scientific problems: connection between mental disorders and brain lesions (neuropsychology), mental and physiological processes (psychophysiology).

The place of psychology in the system of sciences. Modern psychology is among the sciences, occupying an intermediate position between the philosophical sciences, on the one hand, the natural sciences, on the other, and the social sciences, on the third. This is explained by the fact that the center of her attention always remains a person, whom the above-mentioned sciences also study, but in other aspects. It is known that philosophy and its component - the theory of knowledge (epistemology) resolves the issue of the relationship of the psyche to the surrounding world and interprets the psyche as a reflection of the world, emphasizing that matter is primary and consciousness is secondary. Psychology clarifies the role that the psyche plays in human activity and its development. According to the classification of sciences by Academician A. Kedrov, psychology occupies a central place not only as a product of all other sciences, but also as a possible source of explanation for their formation and development.

Methods of psychological research

General provisions

Method is a way of organizing activities, a justified, normative way of carrying out scientific research.

Method – research path, arising from general theoretical ideas about the essence of the object being studied.

In psychology, as in other sciences, a certain set of research methods (techniques) is used to obtain facts, process them and explain them.

All methods used in psychological research can be divided into four groups: 1) organizational methods; 2) empirical methods of obtaining scientific data; 3) data processing techniques; 4) interpretive methods.

Organizational methods include comparative, longitudinal and complex methods operating throughout the study;

to empirical methods of obtaining scientific data - observational methods (observation and self-observation), experimental methods (laboratory, natural, formative or psychological-pedagogical experiments), psychodiagnostic methods (standardized and projective tests, questionnaires modern types, sociometry, interview and conversation), praxiometric, i.e. techniques for analyzing processes and products of activity (chronometry, cyclography, professional descriptions, evaluation of products and work performed, etc.), biographical methods (analysis of facts, dates and events in a person’s life path, documentation, evidence, etc.);

to data processing techniques – quantitative (mathematical and statistical) and qualitative analysis;

to interpretive methods - various variants of genetic (analysis of material in terms of development, highlighting individual phases, stages, critical moments, etc.) and structural (establishment of structural connections between all characteristics of the psyche) methods.

Organizational methods

Comparative method– (the “cross-section” method) consists of comparing different groups of people by age, education, activity and communication. For example, two large groups of people identical in age and gender (students and workers) are studied using the same empirical methods of obtaining scientific data, and the data obtained are compared with each other.

Longitudinal method(the “longitudinal section” method) consists of repeated examinations of the same individuals over a long period of time. For example, multiple examinations of students throughout the entire period of study at the university.

Complex method– a method of study in which representatives of various sciences participate in the study, which allows one to establish connections and dependencies between phenomena of various kinds, for example, physiological, mental and social development personality.

Empirical methods

Observational methods

Observation (external) is a method consisting of deliberate, systematic, purposeful and recorded perception of external manifestations of the psyche.

Observation is a way of working in which the psychologist does not interfere with events, only monitors their changes. The main advantage is that the observation is carried out in a natural situation and does not change the usual behavior of the observed. The use of observation as a method presupposes the existence of an observation program.

Types of observation:

Self-observation (introspection) is a person’s observation of his own mental phenomena.

Participant observation – the observer is a participant in the process (a member of the group). It is used in special cases - the study of various subcultures, sects, etc.

Covert observation - the subject does not know that he is being observed. It is carried out using various technical means (video camera, Gesell mirror).

Experimental methods

An experiment differs from observation by active intervention in the situation on the part of the researcher, systematically manipulating certain factors and recording corresponding changes in the state and behavior of the person being studied.

The laboratory experiment is carried out in artificial conditions, as a rule, using special equipment, with strict control of all influencing factors.

A natural experiment is a psychological experiment included in an activity or communication without the participant noticing.

Formative (educational) experiment is a method of research and formation of a mental process, state or personality quality.

Psychodiagnostic methods

A test is a system of tasks that allows you to measure the level of development of a certain quality (property) of a person.

Achievement tests are one of the psychodiagnostic methods that allows you to identify the degree of proficiency of the test subject with specific knowledge, skills and abilities.

Intelligence tests are a psychodiagnostic technique for identifying an individual’s mental potential.

Creativity tests are a set of methods for studying and assessing creative abilities.

Personality tests - psychodiagnostic methods for measuring various sides personality of the individual.

Projective tests are a set of methods for a holistic study of personality, based on psychological interpretation, i.e. conscious or unconscious transfer by the subject of his own properties and states to external objects under the influence of dominant needs, meanings and values ​​(examples: drawing tests, Rorschach test, unfinished sentences, etc.)

Tests have

A standardized procedure for conducting, processing and evaluating results.

Norms or a specific scale of values ​​(according to age or gender)

A questionnaire is a methodological tool for obtaining primary socio-psychological information based on verbal (verbal) communication, representing a questionnaire for obtaining answers to a pre-compiled system of questions.

Sociometry is a method of psychological research into interpersonal relationships in a group in order to determine the structure of relationships and psychological compatibility.

An interview is a method of social psychology that consists of collecting information obtained in the form of answers to posed, usually pre-formulated, questions.

Conversation is a method that involves directly or indirectly obtaining psychological information through verbal communication.

The effective use of an empirical method depends on whether it is valid (corresponds to what it was originally intended to obtain and evaluate) and reliable (allows one to obtain the same results over and over again).

Psychology of cognitive processes

Concept mental process emphasizes the procedural (dynamic) nature of the phenomenon being studied. The main mental processes include cognitive (cognitive), motivational and emotional.

Cognitive processes provide reflection of the world and transformation of information. Feeling. Perception. Memory. Imagination. Thinking.

Processes of motivation and will provide psychological regulation of human activity, inducing, directing and controlling this activity.

Emotional Processes reflect a person’s subjective assessment of the world around him, himself and the results of his activities.

Mental conditions characterize the static moment of individual psychology, emphasizing the relative constancy of a mental phenomenon over time (in terms of the level of dynamism, they occupy an intermediate position between processes and properties).

Pr-ry. Cognitive – doubt. Motivational-volitional – confidence.

Emotional – happiness, stress.

Mental properties- these are the most stable mental phenomena, fixed in the structure of the personality and determining the constant ways of interaction of a person with the world.

Basic mental properties: temperament, character and abilities.

Mental processes, states and properties represent an inextricable indivisible unity, forming the integrity of a person’s mental life.

Psychodiagnostics is a science that develops and establishes, in an effort to develop those that are least expressed in a person, it contributes to the full state of his psyche and growth. And the most effective methods of psychodiagnostics are what can be used to achieve the goals set above. There are a lot of them in psychology. Clinical methods of psychodiagnostics are considered the main, classical ones, in which, on the basis of a multifaceted, thorough examination, various data are summarized and a diagnosis is made. Attention is paid less to quantitative measurement and more to qualitative analysis of mental phenomena. These psychodiagnostic methods require the use of intuition and experience. These include the following examination methods: conversation, observation, testing, analysis of the results of human labor, analysis of works of fiction.

A conversation, for example, helps to obtain subjective information about a person’s internal state, the nuances of behavior as a result, close contact arises between the client and the psychologist, trust appears, which additionally has a psychotherapeutic effect. Objective research cannot provide such a connection. But the analysis of human labor and creativity is often complicated by subjective interpretation. The observation method is rarely carried out independently. More often it accompanies any other diagnostics: conversation, testing. in psychodiagnostics they are considered subjective. The procedure for conducting them and their interpretation are quite non-standard. And they appeared in contrast to psychometric methods, which require accurate calculations, but do not guarantee the correctness of the conclusions.

In order for these techniques to be effective, the psychologist must not only be a professional, but also have creative thinking, intuition, to be able to approach each individual case in a special way. These methods of psychodiagnostics have this name because the tests they use are based on the principle of transferring (projecting) onto other people desires and properties that are present in the person himself, but are suppressed by him. Projective techniques mainly examine fears, needs, interests, and personality orientations, using such popular tests as the Rorschach, “Nonexistent Animal”, Luscher, TAT, Rosenzweig tests. Diagnostics based on drawings is especially convenient when studying small, weak-speaking children. The overall impression of the drawing and its smallest details are also important. for example, asks the subject to tell what five black and five colored spots made with ink look like. The Rosenzweig test gives the test subject a task on 24 drawings, depicting adding a sentence to each character. Analysis of these phrases reveals a person’s stress level and predicts his behavior during a conflict. The results of the “Animal that does not exist” test are made based on the location of the drawing on a sheet of paper, the contours of the drawn figure and parts of its body. The test, developed by a psychologist from Switzerland, received his name - Luscher. According to his methodology, each color has a constant meaning and its own influence on a person. The subject must choose from 73 (full set) or 8 (incomplete set) colored cards, laid out on white paper, one at a time, until the very last one. You need to start with the most pleasant color. Those colors that are chosen first indicate what a person prefers, loves, the second chosen ones indicate what he is indifferent to, and the last ones indicate what is unpleasant to him. Thus, psychodiagnostic methods help to identify and understand the unique characteristics of a person, his inclinations and motives for actions.

The methodological embodiment of which are, respectively, tests and questionnaires, which are also called methods. The methods have the following features:

1) they allow you to collect diagnostic information in a relatively short time;

2) they present information not about a person in general, but specifically about one or another of his characteristics (intelligence, anxiety, etc.);

3) information is received in a form that allows for a qualitative and quantitative comparison of the individual with other people;

4) information obtained using psychodiagnostic techniques is useful from the point of view of choosing means of intervention, forecasting its effectiveness, as well as forecasting development, communication, and the effectiveness of a particular activity of an individual.

Psychodiagnostic methods:

1. Testing. the subject performs the given activity i.e. passes a certain test. Based on the test results, the researcher draws conclusions about the presence, characteristics, and level of development of certain properties in the subject.

There are verbal (verbal) and nonverbal (drawing) tests. Usually there are two groups of tests - standardized and projective (projective).

Two forms of standardization: in one case we are talking about the uniformity of instructions, examination procedures, methods of recording results, etc. when applying this or that test - and in this regard, all tests are standardized. Otherwise we're talking about that the data obtained on the basis of a particular methodology can be correlated with a specially developed and justified rating scale.

A assessment-oriented test is called a standardized test.

Common standardized tests include:
a) intelligence tests;
b) tests of special abilities. We can talk about special abilities in two ways: as abilities in any area of ​​mental activity (perceptual abilities - abilities in the field of perception; mnestic abilities - abilities in the field of memory; abilities to logical thinking) or as abilities for a certain type of activity (linguistic, musical, abilities for management activities, pedagogical, etc.);
c) creativity tests designed to measure creative abilities.

However, there are tests that are oriented towards something else: they reveal not evaluative indicators (such as the level of development of a property), but qualitative personality traits that are not assessed by any criterion. In other words, the test taker's answers are not rated as correct or incorrect, but the performance is not rated as high or low. This group of tests includes projective tests.

Projective tests are based on the fact that in various manifestations of an individual, be it creativity, interpretation of events, statements, etc. his personality is embodied, including hidden, unconscious motivations, aspirations, conflicts, experiences. The main thing is not its objective content, but its subjective meaning, the attitude it evokes in the subject.

2. Questionnaires.
Questionnaires are methods whose material consists of questions that the subject must answer, or statements with which he must either agree or disagree.

Answers are given either in free form (open-type questionnaires) or selected from the options offered in the questionnaire (closed-type questionnaires).

There are questionnaires and personality questionnaires.

Questionnaires suggest the possibility of obtaining information about the subject that does not directly reflect his personal characteristics. These can be biographical questionnaires, questionnaires of interests and attitudes.

Personality questionnaires designed to measure personality traits. Among them there are several groups:
a) Typological questionnaires are developed on the basis of determining personality types and allow the subjects to be classified into one or another type, distinguished by qualitatively unique manifestations.
b) Personality trait questionnaires that measure the severity of traits - stable personality traits.
c) Motive questionnaires.
d) Values ​​questionnaires.

e) Attitude questionnaires.
f) Interest questionnaires.

Main diagnostic approaches:

1.Nomothetic approach focused on the discovery of general laws that are valid for any specific case. It involves identifying individual characteristics and correlating them with the norm.

2.Ideographic approach based on recognizing individual characteristics of a person and describing them. It is focused on describing a complex whole - a specific person. An ideogram is nothing more than a written sign that signifies an entire concept, rather than a letter of a language.

The nomothetic method is criticized, since general laws do not give a complete picture of a person and do not allow one to predict his behavior due to the uniqueness of each person. The ideographic method is also criticized, first of all, for not meeting the standards of objectivity (the results obtained largely depend on the conceptual orientations of the researcher and his experience).

From a methodological point of view, the integration of these two approaches allows us to formulate an objective psychological diagnosis.

IN modern psychology Several complementary approaches to understanding the essence of psychodiagnostics have emerged, which with a certain degree of convention can be designated as instrumental, constructive, gnostic, helping, practice-oriented and integral.

3.Instrumental approach considers psychodiagnostics as a set of methods and means for measuring mental states and properties, as a process of identifying and measuring individual psychological characteristics person using special methods.

The main task of psychological diagnostics comes down to the selection and direct use of diagnostic tools to identify the individual uniqueness of a particular person while establishing differences in the mental organization of different groups of people.

The instrumental role of psychodiagnostics becomes important in the activities of a practical psychologist, which is multi-problem and involves simultaneous verification large quantity diagnostic hypotheses. However, reducing psychological diagnostics only to methods and means for identifying mental phenomena significantly limits its capabilities as scientific discipline, narrows the diagnostic thinking of the psychologist to solving the predominantly pragmatic question of which technique to use.

Closely related to the instrumental direction is the so-called constructing, the purpose of which is to develop methods for identifying and studying individual psychological and psychophysiological characteristics of a person. From the standpoint of this approach, the most important tasks of psychodiagnostics are the design of new psychodiagnostic tools and modification of existing ones; in the development of methods for predicting mental development and behavior depending on various natural and social factors and living conditions, in the development of psychodiagnostic technologies. However, psychodiagnostics cannot be reduced only to the development or modification and adaptation of tools.

The recognition of psychodiagnostics’ ability to recognize mental reality underlies the approach, which can roughly be called Gnostic. Its peculiarity lies in the fact that the emphasis is on revealing the individual identity and uniqueness of the inner world of each person. The use of methods or their complexes ceases to be an end in itself; the attention of the diagnostic psychologist is drawn to the uniqueness of a person’s mental appearance.

The main objectives of the Gnostic approach to psychodiagnostics are: determination general patterns formation and development of mental formations; wedding preparations; establishing a connection between individual manifestations of a mental phenomenon and knowledge of its essence; recognition of individual characteristics in general manifestations of the human psyche; correlation of an individual picture of behavior or state of a particular person with known types and previously established average statistical norms.

4.Helping approach considers psychodiagnostics as one of the types of psychological assistance. Many psychodiagnostic procedures contain therapeutic potential. The use of drawing techniques and filling out questionnaires, which require a person to concentrate on their experiences, is often accompanied by a calming effect.

The helping function of psychodiagnostics especially increases in final stage. At the same time, a psychodiagnostic examination can cause a negative reaction in the subject, so the helping effect of psychodiagnostics has certain limitations.

5. practice-oriented approach to understanding the essence of diagnosis is explained by the intensive penetration practical psychology in solving personal and professional problems of a person. This allows us to consider psychodiagnostics as a special area of ​​practice aimed at identifying various qualities, mental and psychophysiological characteristics, personality traits, helping to solve life problems.

6.Integral approach connects theoretical and practical psychology together. In relation to methods of psychological research, it acts as a common basis that unites all areas of their practical implementation. In this plan psychological diagnostics is a specific scientific direction, based on its own methodological and methodological principles and dealing with theoretical and practical problems of making a psychological diagnosis. The basis of the integral direction is the idea of ​​the integrity of the phenomena of experience, behavior and activity of the individual.

Stages of psychodiagnostic research:

1) Definition of the goal - formulated common goal research and its organizational and empirical methods are determined.

2) Creating a model - a set of properties to be studied is determined, a possible image of the result is created, and a hypothesis is formulated.

3) Selection of methods - methods are specified and adequate conditions are created for their use in experiments.

4) Practice - direct implementation of research work, collection of empirical data.

4) Interpretation - processing of the results obtained, their explanation from the perspective of a specific scientific and theoretical concept, development of recommendations for practical use.

Classification of methods of psychological research.

Basic methods of psychological research

All methods used in psychological research can be divided into four groups: 1) organizational methods; 2) empirical methods of obtaining scientific data; 3) data processing techniques; 4) interpretive methods.

Organizational methods include comparative, longitudinal and complex methods operating throughout the study; to empirical methods of obtaining scientific data - observational methods (observation and self-observation), experimental methods (laboratory, natural, formative or psychological-pedagogical experiments), psychodiagnostic methods (standardized and projective tests, questionnaires of modern types, sociometry, interviews and conversations), praxiometric , i.e. techniques for analyzing processes and products of activity (chronometry, cyclography, professional descriptions, evaluation of products and work performed, etc.), biographical methods (analysis of facts, dates and events in a person’s life path, documentation, evidence, etc.); to data processing methods – quantitative (mathematical-statistical) and qualitative analysis, including differentiation of material by types, groups, options and compilation of psychological casuistry, i.e. description of cases, both those that most fully express types and options, and those that are exceptions or violations general rules; to interpretive methods - various variants of genetic (analysis of material in terms of development, highlighting individual phases, stages, critical moments, etc.) and structural (establishment of structural connections between all characteristics of the psyche) methods. Let us take a closer look at a number of organizational and empirical methods for obtaining scientific data.

Organizational methods

The comparative method (the “cross-section” method) consists of comparing different groups of people by age, education, activity and communication. For example, two large groups of people identical in age and gender (students and workers) are studied using the same empirical methods of obtaining scientific data, and the data obtained are compared with each other.

The longitudinal method (longitudinal section method) consists of repeated examinations of the same individuals over a long period of time. For example, multiple examinations of students throughout the entire period of study at the university.

An integrated method is a method of study in which representatives of various sciences participate in the study, which makes it possible to establish connections and dependencies between phenomena of various kinds, for example, physiological, mental and social development of the individual.

Empirical methods

Observational methods

Observation (external) is a method consisting of deliberate, systematic, purposeful and recorded perception of external manifestations of the psyche.

Self-observation (introspection) is a person’s observation of his own mental phenomena.

Experimental methods

An experiment differs from observation by active intervention in the situation on the part of the researcher, systematically manipulating certain factors and recording corresponding changes in the state and behavior of the person being studied.

A laboratory experiment is carried out under artificial conditions, usually using special equipment, with strict control of all influencing factors.

A natural experiment is a psychological experiment included in an activity or communication without the participant noticing.

Formative (educational) experiment is a method of research and formation of a mental process, state or personality quality.

Psychodiagnostic methods

A test is a system of tasks that allows you to measure the level of development of a certain quality (property) of a person.

Achievement tests are one of the methods of psychodiagnostics that allows you to identify the degree of proficiency of the test subject with specific knowledge, skills, and abilities.

Intelligence tests are a psychodiagnostic technique for identifying an individual’s mental potential.

Creativity tests are a set of methods for studying and assessing creative abilities.

Personality tests are a psychodiagnostic technique for measuring various aspects of an individual’s personality.

Projective tests are a set of methods for a holistic study of personality, based on psychological interpretation, i.e. the conscious or unconscious transfer by the subject of his own properties and states to external objects under the influence of dominant needs, meanings and values.

A questionnaire is a methodological tool for obtaining primary socio-psychological information based on verbal (verbal) communication, representing a questionnaire for obtaining answers to a pre-compiled system of questions.

___________________

For a long period, psychology was defined as the science of the subjective world of man. And this content corresponds. and a set of its methods. According to the idealistic concept, which separated the psyche from all other phenomena of nature and society, the subject of the study of psychology was the study of subjective states of consciousness. In them, the phenomenon coincided with the essence - i.e. the forms of consciousness that a person could observe were actually considered at that time as the main saints of the spirit / essence of the psyche. processes. This coincidence determined the method - a subjective description of the phenomena of consciousness obtained in the process introspection (introspection). But this approach excluded an objective, causal explanation of mental processes. Revision of self-observation as a method of psychology. research was due to the fact that it began to be considered as a complex type of mental activity, which is a product of mental development, using the verbal formulation of observed phenomena and having limited application. The latter is due to the fact that not everyone is crazy. processes proceed consciously + self-observation of one’s psyche. processes can make significant changes in their course. Thus, the task arose of developing objective research methods that would be common for all other sciences: methods for observing the course of activity + experimental measurement of the conditions for its occurrence. The main technique was behavior observation humans in natural and experimental conditions + analysis of changes specified by the experimenter. At this stage it was created three methods psychologist. research: a) M. structural analysis: the psychologist sets a task for the subject and traces the structural structure of the processes, with assistance. which the test subject. solves the problem. Here the psychologist not only records the result, but also carefully monitors the process of solving the problem. Techniques that can carry out a complete structural analysis can be direct (changing the structure of the problem + suggesting ways to help the solution => there is a change in the course of the psychological process) or indirect x-r. (use of signs that are not elements of an activity, but can be indicators of its state, etc.) b) Experimental genetic method. HPF is a product of long-term development and therefore it is important to trace how this process went, etc. This can be found out both by studying the performance of tasks at successive stages of child development (genetic cross-sections), and by creating experimental conditions, allowing. reveal how the psyche is formed. activity. c) M. experimental pathological (syndromic analysis) - analysis of changes in behavior that occur during pathological conditions. He is often used in neuropsychology. research. But it can also be used in general psychology and the psychology of individual differences, in which the overdevelopment of a person. psycho sides life or individual this feature can cause a restructuring of all psyches. processes. Along with the described methods of psychological research great importance have both quantitative and qualitative methods of mental assessment. processes and methods for measuring the level of their development. These include psychological tests _____

Validity- correspondence specific research accepted standards. Reliability– this is the quality of a method that allows you to get the same results when using this method multiple times. There are several classifications of psychological. methods. Classification according to B.G. Ananev: 1 g. – organizational methods (comparative method, longitudinal method [multiple examinations of the same person over a long period of time], complex method). 2 g. – empirical methods (observation [internal, external, included, free], experiment [natural, laboratory], survey, questionnaire, test, conversation, analysis of activity products). 3 g. – methods of data processing (includes quantitative and qualitative analysis). 4 g. – interpretive methods (genetic and structural analysis).

Specifics experiment as a method of psychological research lies in the fact that it purposefully and thoughtfully creates an artificial situation in which the property being studied is highlighted, manifested and assessed best. The main advantage of the experiment is that it allows, more reliably than all other methods, to draw conclusions about the cause-and-effect relationships of the phenomenon under study with other phenomena, and to scientifically explain the origin of the phenomenon and its development. However, organizing and conducting a real psychological experiment that meets all the requirements in practice can be difficult, so in scientific research it is less common than other methods. There are two main types of experiment: natural and laboratory. They differ from each other in that they allow one to study the psychology and behavior of people in conditions that are remote or close to reality. Natural experiment organized and carried out in ordinary life conditions, where the experimenter practically does not interfere with the course of events, recording them as they unfold on their own . Laboratory experiment involves the creation of some artificial situation in which the property being studied can best be studied. The data obtained in a natural experiment best corresponds to the typical life behavior of an individual, the real psychology of people, but is not always accurate due to the lack of the experimenter’s ability to strictly control the influence of various factors on the property being studied. The results of a laboratory experiment, on the contrary, are superior in accuracy, but inferior in the degree of naturalness - correspondence to life. Conversation- in psychology, an empirical method of obtaining information (information) about a person in communication with him, as a result of his answers to targeted questions. A dialogue between two people, during which one person reveals the psychological characteristics of the other, is called the conversation method. Interview called targeted questioning. An interview is defined as a “pseudo-conversation”: the interviewer must always remember that he is a researcher, do not lose sight of the plan and conduct the conversation in the direction he needs. Validation methods: There are three main methods of test validation. None of them can be preferred, since the choice of which method to use is determined by the specific task. Validation based on criteria: The method requires demonstrating a correlation or other statistical relationship between a test score and the level of performance on a “job” (such as solving math problems). In other words, people with high test scores tend to perform better at work than people with lower test scores. If the criterion for comparison is known to us at the time of the test, then this is called concurrent validity, and if the criterion values ​​​​appear at a later time, then this is predictive validity. For example, the consistency of a student's subsequent academic performance with an entrance exam score is predictive validity, and the consistency of a student's final exam scores with that score is concurrent validity. Criterion-based validity is measured by the validity coefficient. It is a number between 0 and 1 that is the degree of closeness "r" between the test and the measure of "performance" (criterion). The higher the coefficient value, the better you can make predictions based on a test score Content based validation: The method requires demonstrating that the test questions measure quantities that are essential to determining the value of a given attribute. For example, a test of typing speed would have high validity for selecting people for a secretary position, since the job is expected to require frequent use of a keyboard. However, if the job requires typing only occasionally, the same test will have little content validity. In general, content-based validity is not used to measure learning ability and general problem-solving abilities. Validation based on property: The method requires demonstration that the test measures the property or characteristic for which it is intended. This method is often used for tests that measure abstract quantities. For example, trait-based validity can be used when a school is assessing the “goodness” of students. In this case, “goodness” is not some observable value, but a concept created to explain the possible behavior of students in the future. To demonstrate that a test has good attribute-based validity, a school will need to show that, first, the test actually measures that attribute and, second, that attribute is associated with good student performance. Attribute-based validity is often used to measure psychological personality traits, such as intelligence, self-awareness, or creativity. Reliability of the method- this is a criterion that indicates the accuracy of psychological measurements, that is, it allows one to judge how credible the results obtained are. This is the consistency of the results of testing subjects at different points in time, during primary and secondary testing and using tasks that differ in equivalence and content. Reliability characterizes tests of properties, but not states. Properties:

1. Reproducibility of research results.

2. Measurement accuracy.

3. Sustainability of results.

Types of reliability

1. Test-retest reliability: The retest method consists of retesting a sample of subjects with the same test after a certain time interval under the same conditions. The time interval depends on age (for example, in young children, changes can occur within one month), as well as events occurring in the subject’s life. Alternative forms The reliability of alternative forms is checked by repeated testing of one sample of subjects with a parallel form of the test after a minimum time interval under the same conditions. The reliability index is taken to be the correlation coefficient between the test results of two parallel forms of the test. The high correlation coefficient and the large interval between two tests indicate that different shapes tests are close to each other. On the other hand, a low reliability coefficient for parallel forms suggests that the different forms are not comparable, they probably measure different things, and therefore cannot be substituted for each other.

Cleavage method The splitting method consists of dividing the test into two comparable parts. The respondent completes the tasks of these two parts during one session, obtaining two results. The correlation coefficient between the test results of these two parts is taken as the reliability index. It is called the internal consistency coefficient of the test Internal reliability Internal reliability measures the extent to which test questions measure the same thing. Internal reliability is usually measured using Cronbach's Alpha coefficient. The more similar tasks, the greater the internal reliability. Therefore, there are often very long tests asking the same question with many different ways– the more similar questions you add, the higher value Cronbach's α you get.

One of the most important means of increasing the reliability of the methodology is the uniformity of the examination procedure, its strict regulation: the same environment, the same type of instructions, the same time restrictions for everyone, methods and features of contact with subjects, and so on. The characteristics of the reliability of the methods are greatly influenced by the sample being studied. It can either reduce or overestimate this indicator; for example, reliability can be artificially inflated if there is a small scatter of results in the sample, i.e. if the results are close in value to each other. Therefore, the manual usually contains a description of the sample on which the reliability of the methodology was determined. Currently, reliability is increasingly determined on the most homogeneous samples, i.e. on samples similar in gender, age, level of education, professional training, etc. There are as many varieties of reliability of methods as there are conditions that influence the results of diagnostic tests. Since all types of reliability reflect the degree of consistency of two independently obtained series of indicators, the mathematical and statistical technique by which the reliability of the methodology is established is correlations (according to Pearson or Spearman). The more the resulting correlation coefficient approaches unity, the higher the reliability, and vice versa. According to K.M. Gurevich 1 reliability of the measuring tool(reliability factor); 2 stability of the studied trait (stability coefficient); 3. constancy, i.e. the relative independence of the results from the personality of the experimenter (constancy coefficient). method quantitative processing(processing is based on statistical procedures, requires a large sample, studies more common problems) method of high-quality processing. Quality m-y, in contrast to quantitative ones, based on statistical procedures, are non-standardized. Quality MDs are aimed at studying as much as possible wide range phenomenology of the phenomenon under study and do not aim to trace quantitative patterns. Qualitative methods are aimed at revealing cause-and-effect relationships and analyzing the procedural characteristics of the phenomenon being studied. Allows you to analyze internal page and the relationship of this phenomenon. More in-depth analysis. (differentiation of material into groups, variants, description of cases, both those that most fully express types and variants, and those that are exceptions) analyses.

Interpretation data - a set of assumptions about the nature of the data obtained as a result of measurement and subject to analysis. Interpretive-descriptive method- a method in which the subject “externally” interacts with the sign-symbolic representation of the object (graphs, tables, diagrams). interpretive methods These include genetic and structural methods. The genetic method makes it possible to interpret all processed research material in terms of developmental characteristics, highlighting phases, stages, and critical moments in the formation of mental neoplasms. He installs "vertical" genetic connections between levels of development. The structural method establishes “horizontal” structural connections between all studied personality characteristics. Interpretive method, allows you to interpret the data obtained on the basis of psychological theory, to identify the correctness or incorrectness of the research hypothesis

3 Evolution of the psyche in phylogenesis.

Psuche (Greek) – soul

Psyche - systemic property of highly organized matter (brain), which consists in the subject’s ability to reflect the world, build a picture of the world that is inalienable from oneself and, on this basis, regulate one’s behavior and activities.

In the process of the development of the earth, especially complex compounds appeared, which were characterized by the enormous size and complexity of the molecules of which this substance is composed. Such giant molecules, which are based on carbon atoms combined with other substances, appeared many years ago when the surface cooled. These giant molecules, with which Soviet scientists (Academician A.I. Oparin) associate the origin of the earth, were called coacervates. This is how a living being came into being. which already very early took on the Character of cells, in other words, the smallest organisms, the existence of which was supported by constant exchange of substances with the external environment. Feature the existence of these cells was that they always showed a certain irritability to substances necessary to maintain existence, while remaining indifferent to substances that did not directly participate in their life activity. In other words, already at this level of the existence of life, the known “needs” of living matter arose, and from all the phenomena of the external environment, biotic influences that were essential for the maintenance of life and abiotic influences that were insignificant for it were distinguished, to which living cell remained indifferent. An essential feature of complex shapes plant life lies only in the fact that the number of biotic factors includes not only those substances that are directly absorbed by plants (for example, carbon dioxide), but also those conditions (for example, sunlight), without which such assimilation cannot proceed. Therefore, the plant becomes sensitive to a number of conditions included in the complex metabolic process. All this suggests that plants have certain needs or, as modern biologists say, make certain demands on environmental conditions. New Feature, which appears during the transition from plant life to animal life, is that the animal experiences the new kind irritability: even the most simply constructed animal, under certain conditions, begins to react not only to direct biotic stimuli included in the metabolic process, which were usually indifferent, but which can signal the appearance of biotic stimuli. This new form irritability in relation to previously indifferent agents that come into contact with biotic conditions and acquire signaling significance, perhaps what A. N. Leontiev proposed - called sensitivity. The emergence of sensitivity is a new qualitative leap that characterizes the transition from plant to animal existence; it leads to the emergence of completely new forms of life activity and can serve as the main objective criterion for the emergence of the psyche. However, in the process of evolution, the very type of adaptation of animals to the environment changes radically: innate behavioral programs, which occupy a leading place in insects and lower vertebrates, recede into the background at higher stages of evolution, and in vertebrates, especially in mammals, behavior becomes completely different. another principle. At this stage of development, living conditions become so complex that it is necessary to develop new forms of adaptation of individuals to changing forms of the environment. Therefore, it is clear that for animals living in more complex conditions of a rapidly changing environment, a leap to another level of behavior is necessary. The most significant thing for this leap is the need to change the form of reflection of reality that the animal has. In order for an animal to be able to take into account changing environmental conditions and react with a rapid change in behavior and the corresponding environment, it is not enough for it to reflect only individual signals that trigger the innate repertoire of behavior. For more complex forms of plastic individual behavior, analysis and synthesis of environmental conditions becomes necessary. To do this, it is necessary that the animal reflects not individual properties, but entire objects, entire objects, entire situations, a whole complex of properties; in order to analyze these changing environmental conditions, the animal is able to navigate the reality around it and develop those forms of behavior that would be relevant to specific subject environment. Naturally, this requires the emergence of apparatuses that would not only make it possible to isolate individual properties, but would also make it possible to analyze environmental conditions; it is necessary that, on the basis of analysis, new ones can be created, no longer innate, but individual conditioned reflexes and programs that respond to changing environmental conditions. Finally, it is necessary that animals that develop new, changeable behavior programs can compare the results of actions with environmental conditions, detect erroneous actions in time, change these erroneous actions into correct ones in time, and thereby provide the necessary forms of plastic, changeable behavior. All this requires a leap to completely new forms of nervous mechanisms and, above all, to the apparatus of the cerebrum and its cortex. This new apparatus is built on top of the elementary ancient brain and, at the stage of evolution that interests us, becomes the main apparatus of individual forms of changeable behavior. The cerebral cortex allows you to reflect a complex of signals, highlight the essential, inhibit the unimportant, reflect entire objects and entire situations, and program complex variable forms of conduction. This is the most important function cerebral cortex. And that is why the cerebral cortex, which greatly increases in the animal series and plays an increasingly important role, should be regarded as a mechanism that allows an animal to move from receiving individual signals that set in motion innate forms of behavior - to an apparatus that allows one to analyze and synthesize complex irritation and providing a transition from the sensory psyche to the perceptual psyche, reflecting entire images. The more developed the cerebral cortex, the more the animal begins to analyze external environment and respond accordingly to the analysis of this environment. New forms of behavior arise, which many researchers called skills or habits or learned forms of behavior. Next to the instinctive and simple forms of variable behavior in animals, there is another form of behavior that is of interest. Animals exhibit some forms of truly intelligent intelligent behavior. The behavior of an animal is entirely determined by a visually perceived situation, the experience of the past, but the animal can never go beyond the limits of this visual situation, abstract from it and grasp an abstract principle, in other words, it cannot regulate its behavior by the foresight that arises as a result of the learned principle of action. In contrast, human psychological activity is characterized by the fact that a person, along with these two forms of behavior (programmed hereditarily and programmed by personal experience), has a third form of behavior, which becomes more and more dominant and begins to occupy a dominant place among us: such form is the transfer of social experience from one person to another person. All learning at school, all the assimilation of knowledge, all the assimilation of work methods is essentially the transfer of generational experience to the individual, in other words, the transfer of social experience from one person to another. If an animal is born into the world only with a hereditary program and enriches it with personal conditioned - reflex experience, then a person, being born with much poorer instinctive programs than an animal, develops his psychological process not only with the help of his individual experience of other generations through the influence other people, learning experiences from other people. The assimilation of social experience does not exist in animals, but exists in humans. This is the last fundamental difference between the psychological activity of an animal and the psychological activity of a person. The psychological activity of a person is fundamentally different from the psychological activity of an animal both in its structure, in its functional characteristics and in its genesis. Study, work, work activity- everything in a person is filled with such actions that a person carries out consciously or has in mind the meaning that these actions will receive and which do not have any biological meaning. These conscious actions can only be understood from public organization human activity.

4 Behaviorism and neobehaviorism.

Behaviorism arose in the USA and was a reaction to the structuralism of W. Wundt and E. Titchener and to American functionalism. Its founder was J-Watsoi (1878-1958). In the article “Psychology from the Behaviorist's Point of View” (1913), he criticized psychology for its subjectivity and practical uselessness. He declared the subject of behaviorism to be the study of behavior in an objective way and for the purpose of serving practice. The subject of behaviorism is the study of behavior in an objective way; the purpose is to serve the practice. The philosophical basis of behaviorism was positivism and pragmatism. As scientific prerequisites, J. Watson named research on animal psychology by Thorndike, the school of objective psychology, and the influence of the works of I.P. Pavlov and V.M. Bekhterev. Main goals: 1. In each given case, with a given stimulus, know what the reaction will be; 2. If there is a reaction, what situation caused it.

Classification of reactions: acquired-hereditary, internal - external. External acquired - playing tennis, opening the door; External hereditary - grasping, sneezing, instincts and emotions; Internal acquired – thinking; Internal hereditary - reactions of the endocrine glands, changes in blood circulation. Instinct is an adaptation caused by external stimuli. Emotions are adaptations caused by stimuli. internal order and relate to the subject's body (eg redness). Observations of newborns - the number of complex unlearned reactions at birth and shortly after is small and cannot provide adaptation

Human behavior as the subject of behaviorism is all actions and words, both acquired and innate, what people do from birth to death. Behavior is any reaction (R) in response to an external stimulus (S), through which the individual adapts. Human behavior is interpreted extremely broadly: it includes any reaction, including purely physiological ones. At the same time, this definition is extremely narrow, because limited only to the externally observable: physiological mechanisms and mental processes. As a result, behavior is interpreted mechanistically, reduced only to its external manifestations. Two problems of behaviorism: to predict a reaction from a given situation, and to judge from a reaction what situation caused it. “Consciousness cannot be observed from the outside; there is no consciousness for science. What can be observed from the outside is behavior. Consciousness belongs to the researcher; the object being studied should not have consciousness. Behavior - motor activity of humans and animals. Based on the teachings of I. Pavlov about unconditioned reflexes. New reactions formed during the life of the subject are conditioned (conditioned) reactions. Conditioning is based on association. I. Pavlov: classical conditioning is a combination of unconditioned and conditioned (at first neutral) reactions. Rules of classical conditioning: 1/ the unconditioned stimulus must be sufficiently intense. The combination of unconditional and conditioned stimuli should be quite frequent. The greatest effect: the unconditioned stimulus comes immediately after the conditioned one. 2/ Mechanisms of generalization and differentiation. First comes generalization - the subject reacts to any similar stimulus. Then - differentiation (discrimination). 3/ Extinction and spontaneous recovery. If there is no reinforcement, the development of a reaction fades away. There may be spontaneous recovery after some time. Stages: development - extinction - spontaneous recovery - repeated extinction." Watson classifies reactions on two grounds: whether they are acquired or hereditary; internal (hidden) or external (external). Behavior is considered as a result of learning. Skill and learning become the main problems of behaviorism. Speech and thinking are considered as types of skills. Skill is an individually acquired or learned action. It is based on elementary movements that are innate. A new or learned element in a skill is the tying together or combining of separate movements so as to produce a new activity. Watson described the process of developing a skill and built a learning curve. Retention of skills constitutes memory. Watson puts forward the conditioning hypothesis. Calling all hereditary reactions unconditioned reflexes, and acquired ones conditioned, J. Watson argues that the most important condition for the formation of a connection between them is the simultaneity in the action of an unconditioned and conditioned stimulus, so that stimuli that initially did not cause any reaction now begin to cause it.

In behaviorism, the process of skill formation and learning is interpreted mechanistically. Skills are developed through blind trial and error and are an unguided process. Learning – This a fairly gradual change in the subject's actual and possible behavior resulting from experience. Experience- repetition, skill, practice, training. Despite some limitations, Watson's concept laid the foundation scientific theory the process of motor skill formation and learning in general. By the mid-20s. Behaviorism became widespread in America. At the same time, it is becoming increasingly clear to researchers that excluding the psyche from consideration leads to an inadequate interpretation of behavior. If we exclude its motivational-cognitive components from behavior, it is impossible to explain the integration of individual reactions into a particular act or activity. The mechanistic interpretation of behavior ignores the active conscious activity of the subject and does not take into account the qualitative changes that occur in human behavior in comparison with animals. Watson's historical merit is the sharpening of the problem of an objective approach in psychology and the study of behavior and ways to control it.

In 1913, W. Hunter, in experiments with delayed reactions, showed that an animal not only reacts directly to a stimulus, but behavior involves processing the stimulus in the body. -This was set new problem. Attempts to overcome the simplified interpretation of behavior according to the “stimulus-response” scheme by introducing internal processes that unfold in the body under the influence of a stimulus and ensure a reaction constitute various variants of neobehaviorism.

Major contribution to development neo-behaviorism contributed by K. Hull (1884-1952) His hypothetical-deductive theory of behavior was formed under the influence of Pavlov’s ideas. Thorndike, Watson. So does Watson. Hull did not take into account the factor of consciousness, but instead of the “stimulus-response” scheme, Hull introduces the formula proposed in 1929 by Woodworth, “stimulus - organism - reaction,” where the organism is some invisible processes occurring inside. Using logical and mathematical analysis. Hull sought to identify the relationship between these internal variables, stimuli and behavior. They derived laws of behavior. Hull considered the main determinant of behavior to be the need that causes the activity of the organism, its behavior. The strength of the reaction depends on the strength of the need. Need determines the nature of behavior. Hull emphasizes the role of reinforcement in the formation of behavioral connections. He developed a mathematical calculation of the dependence of the reaction on the nature of reinforcement (partial, intermittent, constant) and on the time of its presentation.

The theory of operant learning represents a separate line in the development of behaviorism. B. Skinner(1904-1990). Based on experimental studies and theoretical analysis, Skinier formulates a position on three types of behavior: unconditional reflex. conditioned reflex and operational. The first two types of behavior are called responding behavior by Skinner.

Responsive behavior is Skinner's version of Pavlov's. or classical conditioning. He also called it type S conditioning to emphasize the importance of a stimulus that comes before and elicits a response. However, Skinner believed that, in general, animal and human behavior cannot be explained only in terms of classical conditioning. Instead, he emphasized behavior that was not associated with any known stimuli. Operant behavior(caused by operant conditioning) is determined by the events that follow the response. That is, behavior is followed by a consequence, and the nature of this consequence changes the tendency of the organism to repeat this behavior in the future. Skinner realized that it was pointless to speculate about the origins of operant behavior, since we do not know the stimulus or internal cause, responsible for its appearance. It happens spontaneously. Operant conditioning– a special way for the formation of conditional connections. The difference from the respondent is reinforced by spontaneous action. The form of learning is characterized by the fact that spontaneous but desired behavior is reinforced. In this way, initially spontaneous movements are selected and behavior is formed in the desired direction. The animal makes a movement spontaneously or initiated by the experimenter, then receives reinforcement. Operant- actions and movements that appear spontaneously.

Following the attitude of Watsonian behaviorism, B. Skinner excludes inner world person from behavior. Based on his theory, he proposes a version of programmed learning, which involves dividing the material into small portions and immediately reinforcing each step. In general, in his theory, mental processes are described in terms of reactions, and man is described as a reactive being exposed to the influence of external objects. This leads to a transformation of the concepts of freedom, responsibility, and dignity. In its extreme transformation, Skinner's theory contributes to solving social problems by controlling some people over others.

Neobehaviorism continues to occupy a significant place in modern psychology. Behavioral science contributed to the establishment of the objective method in psychology

Related information.

Federal Agency for Education and Science of the Russian Federation

TEST

Bydiscipline:

« Psychodiagnostics»

on this topic: “Classification of psychodiagnostic methods, their advantages and disadvantages”

Introduction.

1. Classification of psychodiagnostic methods.

2. Classification of psychodiagnostic methods according to J. Shvancar; V.K. Gaide, V.P. Zakharov; A.A. Bodalev, V.V. Stolin

Conclusion.

Introduction

Psychology is a very young science. Scientific psychology received official formalization a little over 100 years ago, namely in 1879. The emergence of psychology was preceded by the development of two large areas of knowledge: natural sciences and philosophies; psychology arose at the intersection of these areas, so it is still not determined whether to consider psychology natural science or humanitarian. From the above, it appears that none of these answers are correct.

This is the science of the most complex thing known to mankind. After all, the psyche is “a property of highly organized matter.” If we keep in mind the human psyche, then to the words “highly organized matter” we need to add the word “most”: after all, the human brain is the most highly organized matter known to us. Getting to know any science begins with defining its subject and describing the range of phenomena that it studies. What is the subject of psychology? The answer involves considering various points of view on the subject of psychology - as they appeared in the history of science; analysis of the reasons why these points of view replaced each other; acquaintance with what ultimately remained of them and what understanding has developed to date. The word “psychology” translated into Russian literally means “the science of the soul” (Greek psyche - “soul” + logos - “concept”, “teaching”).

PSYCHODYAGNOSTICS is a field of psychological science and at the same time the most important form of psychological practice, which is associated with the development and use of various methods for recognizing individual psychological characteristics of a person. The term “diagnosis” itself is derived from the well-known Greek roots (“dia” and “gnosis”) and is literally interpreted as “discriminating knowledge.” Psychodiagnostics is not only a direction of practical psychology, but also a theoretical discipline.

1. Classification of psychodiagnostic methods

The classification of psychodiagnostic methods is intended to make it easier for the practitioner to choose a technique that best suits his task. Therefore, such a classification should reflect the connection of methods, on the one hand, with the diagnosed mental properties, and on the other hand, with the practical problems for which these methods are developed. The criteria for solving these problems should predetermine the choice of properties to be diagnosed, and subsequently the methods aimed at these properties and best suiting the existing conditions.

Of course, there is no one-to-one correspondence between tasks and techniques. The most valuable techniques have versatility - they can be successfully used to solve different problems. In mastering these techniques and in the procedures for their implementation, there are technological features that deserve independent consideration. Based on these characteristics, the methods are grouped into an independent operational and technological classification.

Basic research and diagnostic methods.

One of the most accessible and widely used research methods in social psychology is observation. Observation is a scientifically targeted and in a certain way recorded perception of the object under study. The advantages of observation include: naturalness, independence from the ability of the subjects to evaluate their actions, the ability to assess the long-term consequences of educational influences, etc. The disadvantages are: passivity, the presence of elements of subjectivity, the inaccessibility of certain hidden manifestations (experiences, thoughts, motives) to this method, etc. .P.

The most typical situations in which observation is effective are the following:

Obtaining information about a mental phenomenon in a “pure” form;

Collection of primary information that does not require a large sample of objects under study;

Evaluation of facts obtained using other methods (for example, surveys);

To others effective method research is experiment. An experiment is the active intervention of a researcher in the life activity of a subject in order to create conditions under which any socio-psychological fact is discovered. The advantages of the experiment are: an active position of the observer, the possibility of repetition, strictly controlled conditions. Disadvantages include: artificial conditions, high costs for control significant factors.

Experiments are natural, laboratory, and emergent. A natural experiment is characterized by minor changes in the usual conditions of training and education. In this type of experiment, they try to minimally change the conditions and context in which the mental phenomenon of interest to the diagnostician occurs. A laboratory experiment is distinguished by strict standardization of conditions that make it possible to isolate the phenomenon under study as much as possible and to escape from changing environmental conditions. A formative experiment involves introducing research results into teaching practice with subsequent study of the changes that arise as a result of such innovations.

Widely spread survey. A survey is the process of obtaining information contained in the verbal messages of the subject. There are the following types of survey: questionnaire, interview, conversation. During the survey process, information is received in the form of written answers from those surveyed (respondents). An interview involves obtaining information through respondents' oral responses to questions asked orally. The conversation method is based on obtaining information in the process of bilateral or multilateral discussion of an issue of interest to the researcher.

Modeling. This is a research method based on the construction of models of the phenomenon being studied. A model is a copy of an object of interest to the researcher or a phenomenon in some aspect. A model is always a simplification (reduction) of the phenomenon under study. It is intended to highlight the most important (from the point of view of research goals) in the object being studied. This simplification facilitates the process of qualitative and quantitative analysis

Testing. Tests provide a systematic enumeration of various symptoms associated with a hypothetical latent factor. A TEST in psychodiagnostics is a series of the same type of standardized short tests to which the test subject, the carrier of the alleged hidden factor, is subjected. More strictly defined: a test is an objective and standardized measurement of a sample of behavior.

Various test tasks are designed to reveal the subject's various symptoms associated with the latent factor being tested. The sum of the results of these short tests indicates the level of the factor being measured (here, for clarity, we mean the most simple circuit test score calculation).

Behind the apparent simplicity of scientific tests lies a great deal of research on their development and testing. Refers to diagnostic methods that, unlike research methods, are characterized by an emphasis on the measurement (i.e., numerical representation) of some psychological variable. The testing procedure can be carried out in the form of a survey, observation or experiment.

A number of special requirements are imposed on tests as methods of accurate psychodiagnostics. This:

1. Sociocultural adaptability of the test – compliance test tasks and assessments of the cultural characteristics that have developed in the society where this test is used, having been borrowed from another country.

2. Simplicity of formulation and unambiguousness of test tasks - in verbal and other test tasks there should not be such moments that can be perceived and understood differently by people.

3. Limited time for completing test tasks - the total time for completing tasks of a psychodiagnostic test should not exceed 1.5-2 hours, since beyond this time it is difficult for a person to maintain his/her working capacity for a sufficiently long time. high level.

4. Availability of test norms for a given test - representative average scores for a given test, - i.e. indicators representing a large population of people with whom the indicators of a given individual can be compared, assessing the level of his psychological development.

The test norm is the average level of development of a large population of people similar to the given subject in a number of socio-demographic characteristics. To be confident in the reliability of the results of psychodiagnostic research, it is necessary that the psychodiagnostic methods used be scientifically substantiated, i.e., meet a number of requirements. These requirements are

1. Validity – “completeness”, “suitability”, “compliance”.

There are several varieties of validity. Validity: theoretical, empirical, internal, external.

The validity of the methodology is checked and clarified during its rather long use.

2. Reliability – characterizes the possibility of obtaining stable indicators using this technique. The reliability of a psychodiagnostic technique can be established in two ways:

By comparing the results obtained using this technique by different people

By comparing the results obtained using the same method in different conditions.

3. Unambiguousness of the method – characterized by the extent to which the data obtained with its help reflect changes in precisely and only the property for which the method is used to evaluate.

4. Accuracy – reflects the ability of the technique to subtly respond to the slightest changes in the assessed property that occur during a psychodiagnostic experiment. The more accurate the psychodiagnostic technique, the more subtly it can be used to evaluate gradations and identify shades of the quality being measured, although in practical psychodiagnostics a very high degree of accuracy of assessments is not always required.

2. Classification of psychodiagnostic methods according to J. Shvancar; VC. Gaide, V.P. Zakharov; A.A. Bodalev, V.V. Stolin

Psychodiagnostic methods are grouped according to for various reasons. Here are some of the most common classifications of psychodiagnostic methods.

1. Classification of methods according to J. Shvancar.

J. Shvancara combines psychodiagnostic methods into groups according to the following reasons:

1. according to the material used (verbal, non-verbal, manipulative, “paper and pencil” tests, etc.);

2. by the number of indicators obtained (simple and complex);

3. tests with the “correct” solution and tests with the possibility of different answers;

4. according to the mental activity of the subjects:

introspective (the subject’s report about personal experience, relationships): questionnaires, conversation;

· extrospective (observation and assessment of various manifestations);

· projective. The subject projects unconscious personality traits ( internal conflicts, hidden drives, etc.) to poorly structured, ambiguous stimuli;

· executive. The subject performs any action (perceptual, mental, motor), the quantitative level and qualitative features of which are an indicator of intellectual and personality traits.

2. Classification of psychodiagnostic methods according to V.K. Gaide, V.P. Zakharov.

1. by quality: standardized, non-standardized;

2. by purpose:

· general diagnostic (personality tests like questionnaires by R. Cattell or G. Eysenck, tests of general intelligence);

· professional aptitude tests;

· tests of special abilities (technical, musical, tests for pilots);

· achievement tests;

3. according to the material with which the subject operates:

· blank;

· subject (Koos cubes, “addition of figures” from the Wexler set);

· hardware (devices for studying the characteristics of attention, etc.);

4. by the number of subjects: individual and group;

5. according to the form of the answer: oral and written;

6. By leading orientation: speed tests, power tests, mixed tests. In power tests, the problems are difficult and the solution time is not limited; the researcher is interested in both the success and the method of solving the problem;

7. according to the degree of homogeneity of tasks: homogeneous and heterogeneous (they differ in that in homogeneous tests the tasks are similar to each other and are used to measure well-defined personal and intellectual properties; in heterogeneous tests the tasks are varied and are used to assess various characteristics of intelligence);

8. By complexity: isolated tests and test kits (batteries);

9. by the nature of answers to tasks: tests with prescribed answers, tests with free answers;

10. by area of ​​mental coverage: personality tests and intellectual tests;

11. by the nature of mental actions: verbal, non-verbal.

3. Classifications of psychodiagnostic methods according to A.A. Bodalev, V.V. Stolin

1. according to the characteristics of the methodological principle that underlies this technique:

· objective tests (in which the correct answer is possible, that is, correct execution tasks);

· standardized self-reports:

· questionnaire tests, open questionnaires

· scale techniques (C. Osgood’s semantic differential), subjective classification

· individually oriented techniques (ideographic) such as role repertoire grids

· projective techniques

· dialogical techniques (conversations, interviews, diagnostic games);

2. according to the involvement of the psychodiagnostician himself in the diagnostic procedure and the degree of his influence on the result of psychodiagnostics: objective and dialogical. The former are characterized by a minimal degree of involvement of the psychodiagnostician in the procedure for conducting, processing and interpreting the result, the latter are characterized by a high degree of involvement. The measure of involvement is characterized by the influence of experience, professional skills, the personality of the experimenter and his other characteristics, and the diagnostic procedure itself. Below is a scale on which the entire continuum of psychodiagnostic methods is located from the objective pole to the dialogic pole.

Conclusion

Modern psychological diagnostics is defined as a psychological discipline that develops methods for identifying and studying individual psychological and individual psychophysiological characteristics of a person. Psychodiagnostics also refers to the field of psychological practice, the work of a psychologist to identify various qualities, mental and psychophysiological characteristics, and personality traits.

There are several classifications of psychodiagnostic methods. However, the leading basis for the methodological classification of psychodiagnostic techniques is the measure of “objectivity-subjectivity” that its results possess. In the case of objective methods, the influence of the performer (diagnostic psychologist) on the results is minimal. In the case of subjective techniques, the results, on the contrary, depend on the experience and intuition of the performer. When carrying out objective and subjective methods, the performer is required to perform completely different technological operations. Therefore, this classification is called “operational”.

There is no hard boundary between the two classes - objective and subjective methods. Between the extreme options, there are a number of intermediate options for methods that have both certain signs of objectivity and certain signs of subjectivity.

Bibliography:

1. Stolyarenko L.D. Psychology. Rostov n/d: Phoenix", 2003

2. Shevandrin N.I. introduction to personality psychodiagnostics Rostov n/d, 1996

3.Abramova G.S. Practical psychology: a textbook for university students - 4th ed., revised. And additional - Ekaterinburg, 1999

4. General psychodiagnostics / Ed. A.A. Bodaleva, V.V. Stolina. – M.: Moscow State University Publishing House, 1988. P. 10-13.

5. Workshop on psychodiagnostics: differential psychometrics / Ed. V.V. Stolina, A.G. Shmeleva. – M.: Moscow State University Publishing House, 1984. P. 16-17.

6. Digital library Goomer.

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