METHODS OF PSYCHOLOGICAL DIAGNOSTICS
Psychodiagnostics- This region psychological Sciences, within which methods, methods, techniques are developed recognition of individual typological characteristics personality.
Structure of psychodiagnostics:
Iblock– general theory of psychological measurement
IIblock– private theories and concepts, as well as methods based on them
Eysenck personality test – 2 factors
Catell's 16-factor questionnaire – 16 factors
IIIblock– outside test diagnostics.
Psychodiagnostic methods:
- conversation
- observation(structured, fixed)
- experiment(laboratory, natural)
- testing(distinguished by its measurement and testing focus. The result is a quantitative assessment of the phenomenon being measured)
- survey, survey
- pedagogical documentation forbaby– what, how many visited, difficulties of work, products of activity
- medical documentation– anamnesis, developmental history, illness
- collection of psychological history– information about family, environment. Personality research method – A.E. Lichko
- psychobiographical history– collection of information about the development situation
Testing
Primary requirements to psychodiagnostic tools:
1) Standardization– instructions, stimulus material, procedure, results, norm
2) Validity– compliance with the child’s development level, subject of study, age.
Anna Anastasi “Psychological Testing”: Test validity is a characteristic of what exactly the test measures and how well it does it.
3)Reliability– accuracy and reliability of measurements. The more reliable it is, the less its results depend on the influence of extraneous factors.
Types of validity:
1) Differential diagnostic– a characteristic of how much the test results allow one to differentiate subjects according to the indicator being studied (for example, normal from pathological)
2) Current– to what extent the test results reflect the child’s current level of development
3) Prognostic- from the word forecast. Characteristics of how the test results can determine the future development of the child (ZPD - zone of proximal development)
4) Criteria– from the word criterion – when the test results correspond to an external criterion.
Basic psychodiagnostic approaches
3 ways to get information:
Objective approach
Subjective approach
Projective approach
Objective– diagnostics is based on assessing the results of the subject’s activity and the methods of this activity (all tests of intelligence and cognitive activity)
Subjective– diagnostics is based on the subject’s self-assessments, characteristics of his personality (character, value orientations, etc.) – personality questionnaires and scale methods
Projective– diagnostics is based on the mechanism of personality projection onto weakly structured ambiguous stimulus material (all projective techniques). Roshikh techniques (ink blots)
Drawing tests are impressive - the drawing is already ready. It remains only to be interpreted. Rosen-Zweik test (for frustration tolerance)
Expressive - the child draws - a cactus, a house-tree-man, a non-existent animal, etc.
An unfinished sentence is a problem area in a person’s personality system.
The projective approach is very popular, but the difficulty is that the professional is subjective when processing the results.
The most successful diagnosis is one that uses all approaches.
The main stages of a psychological examination of a child (individual)
I. Preparatory
II. Basic
III. Final
Preparatory stage– listening to complaints from parents (teachers) and requests to a psychologist. The request must be recorded in writing. Familiarity with all documentation. Study of works, activities. Conversation with the child, observing his behavior and reactions. A rough idea of what kind of child it is and what the problem might be. Cognitive environment, emotional-volitional sphere, etc.
Get internal agreement child to work with a psychologist. Positive motivation for examination.
Main stage- implementation of the planned plan. Beginning of the examination. We uncover the problem and adjust the original plan.
The final stage– 1) initial processing of the result (calculation of raw points)
2) translation of primary estimates into standard ones - to compare different methods with each other
3) Comparative analysis of these estimates with the standards that are given.
4) analysis and interpretation of the results obtained
5) drawing up a conclusion
Conclusion diagram:
must be targeted. Psychological and pedagogical recommendation.
3 main parts.
Part 1 – during the conversation….
Conversation and observation. How he came into contact, easily (reluctantly, etc.) related to the examination, etc., how conscientiously he completed the task, reaction to success and failure, formation of self-control, activity in solving problems, anxiety, perseverance/restlessness, exhaustion, understanding of instructions, how, from what point times.
Everything that can help in diagnosis is recorded.
Part 2 – description of all research results
2 basic rules: (1) – Description and analysis of the result in detail.
Data are analyzed according to the subject of study, and not according to methods.
The subject is not the emotional-volitional sphere, but the understanding of emotions, anxiety, etc.
(2) – It is necessary to analyze not only the weaknesses of the child’s development, but also his strengths in order to identify compensation mechanisms.
Interpretation is a psychological description of the results obtained.
Part 3 – summary of the data obtained
What comes to the fore comes to the background.
Summary. The psychologist does not make a diagnosis! He makes only a psychological diagnosis, i.e. He does not identify any nosologies like F84 or others.
L.S. Vygotsky wrote that the final result of the activity of a diagnostic psychologist is the establishment of a psychological diagnosis, the content of which is associated with the determination of individual typological characteristics of a person.
Psychological diagnosis is associated with psychological prognosis.
The concept of psychological diagnosis and psychological prognosis according to L.S. Vygotsky:
3 conditions for psychological diagnosis:
1) symptomatic– identification of any violation, underdevelopment
2) etiological– identification of the cause, origin of the violation
3) typological– identification, the ability of the psychologist to fit the identified violations into the dynamic picture of the personality.
The personality is seen more holistically. But it is necessary to take into account the child’s development factor
Psychological prognosis – the ability of a psychologist, based on knowledge about the past and present development of a child, to understand the logic of this development in order to predict his future development.
In addition to IQ given by a psychologist, there is a structure of intelligence - a graph for various indicators.
LV – lag in all indicators. ZPR – indicators are uneven, lagging behind. for some, normal for others
The concept of functional diagnosis
(medical, but advanced)
Originated in rehabilitation medicine. The main motto of rehabilitation medicine is an appeal to the personality of the sick person.
F.D. = medical part(u/o, from psychologist IQ and structure of intelligence) + psychological part(personality characteristics) + social part(work of a social teacher: conditions, family, etc. Socio-demographic passport for the child)
The psychological part and the social part make up the psychological history.
Diagnostic training experiment as a method of psycho-pedological diagnostics (DOE)
Training, training, learning ability. Which of this is a pedagogical concept and which is a psychological one?
Education– the process of transferring knowledge, skills, abilities from one to another. Pedagogical technology and effectiveness are assessed by teachers.
Training– the degree of assimilation of knowledge, skills and abilities in the learning process. Pedagogical learning diagnostic tool - quizzes, tests, answers at the board, on the spot, etc.
Learning ability– the child’s ability to absorb knowledge.
Psychological technology. The psychologist determines what the child’s potential is. Reveals the structure, abilities, what is lower, higher or normal. Specifies what exactly the child is capable of.
DOE is a popular psychodiagnostic method aimed at studying a child’s potential for learning in specially organized conditions under the influence of an adult. DOE is intended for qualitative and quantitative assessment of a child’s learning ability.
A child’s learning ability has 3 main components:
1) activity in solving intellectual problems - interest in knowledge
2) receptivity to adult help
3) the formation of a logical transfer of the learned method of solving problems to new, similar ones.
The methods developed in the DOE version are distinguished by high predictive validity, as well as differential diagnostic validity.
This DOE is developed based on the concepts of L.S. Vygotsky on the zone of proximal development and the relationship between learning and development.
Learning entails development, so learning is aimed at the zone of proximal development – the ZPD.
An example of a technique developed for DOE is method of A.Ya. Ivanova entitled "Classification of geometric figures."
Purpose: to identify the level of mental development of a 6-9 year old child, an indicator of his learning ability.
Stimulus material: 2 sets of cards, 24 cards each, depicting geometric figures of different shapes, colors and sizes.
1 set – 4 shapes (circle, square, diamond, triangle) – 3 colors (red, yellow, blue) – 2 sizes (large, small)
2 set – 3 shapes (circle, square and pentagon) – 4 colors (red, yellow, blue and green) – 2 sizes (large, small)
The first set comes with a table showing all the figures in this set.
DOE consists of 2 parts:
1) educational– three types of assistance are provided:
Stimulating
Organizing
2) similar to task– stimulating assistance. organizing if necessary.
Training assistance only in the first part. Strictly dosed. Each dose of help is a hint lesson (no. 1, no. 2, no. 3, etc.)
The second part - a similar task is given. It looks like the first stage of the experiment has been mastered, transferring the learned methods of solving problems to independent activity.
Based on the methodology carried out, it is possible to calculate the learning ability indicator - LP.
PO = OR + VP + LP
OR = indicative response. passive = 0 points, active = 1 point.
RP = receptivity to help. PI is a manifestation of inertia. 1 point for each. KU – number of lessons.
LP – logical transfer – PPSLF = 0 points. Complete transfer of verbal-logical form - named and showed 3 forms.
CHPSLF = partial transfer of verbal-logical form = named and showed 2 forms = 1 point
PPNDF = complete transfer of visually effective form. didn't say, made 2 forms = 2 points
PPNDF = partial transfer of visually effective form. didn’t say, showed 2 forms = 3b.
OLP = lack of logical transfer = 4 points.
Standards:
Software norm – 0-5 points
PO ZPR – 5-9 points
PO OU – 9-18 points
Identifies risk groups. Good for preparing for school.
(Book: Rubinstein S.Ya. Moscow. “Experimental methods of pathopsychology”, 2011.
Volume 1 – description, volume 2 – stimulus material)
Intelligence and cognitive tests
Very popular, aimed at assessing general abilities to understand the world around us. The result is IQ (quantitative assessment) and the level of formation of individual cognitive processes (structure of intelligence).
2 theories:
KTL (culture of free intelligence) – intelligence is determined by the social conditions of the child.
Intelligence is a hereditary factor.
The first measured mental abilities - Galton(work - Measurements of a person's mental abilities)
1905– a scale appeared Binet-Simone. Allowed to differentiate normal from pathology.
List of tasks for 5-10 years. They give a 6-year-old child a 6-year-old test. The answer is correct – IQ norm. If he doesn’t answer, they give him a test for 5 years, etc.
Modification scales - 1908-1911 - they themselves. Not only the norm from the pathology, but also the range of the norm. Their merit is that they found a way to diagnose intelligence in the normal range and introduced the concept of “mental age.”
1927 – L.S. Vygotsky wrote an article criticizing the Binet-Simon scale, but emphasized its enormous psychodiagnostic significance.
1909 - Russia - development of Rassolimo - proposed a test to differentiate educational attainment from the norm, proved that underachieving children are not always successful.
Not only IQ, but also drew the structure of intelligence.
Components of a child’s mental development:
1) mental tone
3) thinking
Compiled 7 types of mental development. Each parameter in detail - “Psychological profile”
Raven's Test - "Progressive Matrices" - 1936
Attention, thinking on a non-verbal level.
Reliable, valid, for the study of non-verbal intelligence.
Adult version - from 11 years old - black and white. Children - 5-11 years old - color.
Black and white version – 60 matrices. 5 episodes. 12 tasks.
1, A – the easiest difficulty and series
12, E – the most difficult.
Children's – 36 matrices, 3 series. A, A/B, B. A/B – intermediate series.
The result is the level of intelligence in %.
The structure of intelligence cannot be drawn.
The procedure is used on children and adolescents as a performance test.
Advantages and limitations of the Raven test:
Since the test is non-verbal, it can be used with children who are deaf, with speech impairments, or with migrant children.
You can't measure verbal intelligence.
Amthauer test - 1953
The direction of problems of professional selection and career guidance. For teenagers and adults (from 11 years old).
176 tasks – 90 minutes. The result is grouped into 9 subtests. Based on the result drawing of the structure of intelligence.
"Structure of Intelligence"
Several similar versions. You can track the dynamics of the child's development. You can get IQ. The test is working, diagnostic, effective.
Wechsler test
Basic principles for diagnosing deviations in the child’s birth defects at the PMPK
PMPK – psychological, medical and pedagogical K-commission, K-consultation, K-consilium (school). PR – mental development
Consilium:
Determine a child assistance program
1 month to implement - again consultation
Send to commission to see dynamics
Consultation:
Expand the functions of the commission
Before organizing the commission, assistance to parents and children
Operate as psychological assistance centers for children
They organize correctional and developmental groups
Communication with maternity hospitals for statistics and information in the Regional Educational Institution, etc., how many children were born and with what pathologies.
PMPCommission
1 principle– an integrated approach to examining a child for PMPKthe child is examined by different specialists and a psychological study is an integral part of the clinical, neuropsychological and socio-pedagogical examination of the child. Familiarity with medical documentation. Only a psychologist gives IQ.
2 principle– age validity of the selected methods.
Rozanova T.V. – 9 age stages.
3 principle– a dynamic approach to the study of a child. Any study of a child should be organized taking into account the factor of child development. Those. Not only the child’s current level is assessed, but also the zone of proximal development (ZPD).
To put this principle into practice, the psychologist relies on: - from top to bottom (age task, easier, 6 year old, even easier, even easier, 5 year old......)
From bottom to top (task is easy - done - harder - done - harder......)
4 principle– a psychologist conducts a comprehensive and holistic examination
5 principle– interaction, activity approach.
Compliance with the conditions for conducting psychological research.
In addition to research based on observation and experimental research, possibly a psychodiagnostic study. On its basis, as a rule, hypotheses about dependencies between various psychological characteristics are tested; Having identified their features (measured, described) in a sufficient number of subjects, it turns out to be possible, on the basis of appropriate mathematical procedures, to identify their relationship. For this purpose, psychodiagnostic methods are used, i.e. detection and measurement methods individual characteristics based on procedures and techniques that have proven their effectiveness. Sometimes a psychodiagnostic study involves covering enough large quantity subjects, which makes it possible to reduce the requirements for control of variables during diagnosis (this mainly applies to methods created for mass diagnostics), in many cases the requirements for psychodiagnostic research are the same as for an experiment; this refers to control of variables, but not manipulation.
We identified observation, experiment and psychodiagnostic research as relatively independent research methods. It is necessary to distinguish between cases when observation and psychodiagnostics are included integral part into the experiment. Naturally, during the experiment the subject is observed, and the change in his state is regulated (if necessary) by means of psychodiagnostics; however, as a research method, neither observation nor psychodiagnostics in this case don't perform. Psychodiagnostics, in addition, can act as an independent field of activity for a practical psychologist, focusing not on research, but on examination.
Psychodiagnostic methods include psychological tests . The English word test means "trial" or "trial". The term was introduced into the practice of psychological research at the end of the last century by the American scientist J. Cattell. Widespread and practical significance tests have been acquired since A. Binet, together with T. Simon, developed his system for determining the mental development or giftedness of children. What is a test? Test- this is a short, standardized test that, as a rule, does not require complex technical devices and can be processed mathematically.
The test method in its original specific meaning raised a number of serious objections. The most important of them are the following. When two individuals solve or fail to solve the same test, the psychodiagnostic meaning of this fact can be very different - the same achievement can be due to different psychological processes. The external fact of solving or not solving a test does not yet determine the internal nature of the corresponding mental acts. In the original version, with the help of tests, they tried to make a conclusion about personality based on statistical processing of external data. This error was further aggravated when, on the basis of the same test material, they tried to make a prediction, assuming that the level established by means of a test trial at one stage of development would characterize the given subject in the future. When individuals who have gone through different paths of development and were formed in different conditions, present the same standard tests and, based on their solution, directly draw a conclusion about the giftedness of the persons subjected to this test, then they make a clear mistake by not taking into account the dependence of the results on the developmental conditions.
All this does not mean, however, that testing is unsuitable for research. Currently, the test method is used in psychology along with other methods. With its help, they strive to identify certain abilities, skills, abilities (or lack thereof), most accurately characterize certain personality qualities, identify the degree of suitability for work in a particular field, etc.
Diagnostic value test largely depends on the level of the scientific experiment and the reliability of the psychological fact that was used as the basis for the test, i.e. depends on how the test was constructed: whether it was the result of extensive preliminary experimental work or the result of rough, random and superficial observations. Insufficiently substantiated and verified psychological tests can cause serious errors that can cause significant damage in the field of professional selection, in pedagogical practice, in diagnosing defects and temporary delays in mental development. Among the most common means of understanding psychological phenomena are all kinds polls . The purpose of the survey is to obtain information from objective and subjective facts from the words of the subjects themselves.
The whole variety of survey methods used in psychological research can be reduced to two main types: 1) “face-to-face” survey - an interview conducted by a researcher on a specific subject; 2) correspondence survey - questionnaires intended for self-completion. Oral questioning is a method traditional for psychological research, and has long been used by psychologists of different scientific schools and directions.
However, surveys as methods of collecting primary information have certain limitations. Their data is largely based on the self-observation of the respondents and often indicates, even with complete sincerity on the part of the respondents, not so much about their sincere opinions and moods, but about how they portray them.
At the same time, there are many aspects that cannot be studied without the use of surveys. The scope of application of surveys in pedagogical research is quite extensive:
In the early stages of research, in the process of working on an intelligence plan, only interviewing is used. Using interview data, variables relevant to the problem being studied are identified and working hypotheses are developed;
The survey acts as the main means of collecting primary information to obtain data that allows us to measure the relationship of the variables being studied;
The survey serves to clarify, expand and control data obtained both by other methods and through one or another form of survey. There are two types of interviews: so-called standardized and non-standardized.
In a standardized interview, the wording of questions and their sequence are determined in advance and are the same for all respondents. The researcher is not allowed to reformulate any questions or introduce new ones or change their order. The non-standardized interview technique, on the contrary, is characterized by complete flexibility and varies widely. A researcher who is guided only general plan interview, has the right himself, in accordance with specific situation formulate questions and change the order of plan items.
One type of survey is conversation , which involves identifying connections of interest to the psychologist based on empirical data obtained in live two-way communication with the subject. The conversation, as a rule, acts as an auxiliary method: when analyzing its progress and results, the psychologist faces a number of difficult-to-solve problems regarding the subject’s frankness and his attitude towards the psychologist; with insufficient psychological contact, the subject may be afraid of “losing face,” suspiciousness, distrust and, as a result, a desire to avoid answers into stereotypical, standard statements that correspond to accepted—in the subject’s opinion—ethical and other norms. A good attitude towards a psychologist can cause an unconscious desire to please him, to “please” him with the expected answer. The psychologist himself (as in the observation situation) is also not free from subjectivity; Despite the fact that the conversation is planned in advance and the main issues are determined before it begins, during live communication the psychologist can hardly abstract from personal attitude to the subject - with the ensuing consequences. It would be more accurate to say: the use of conversation as the main method is possible with the appropriate qualifications of the psychologist, which presupposes the ability to establish contact with the subject, give him the opportunity to express himself as freely as possible and at the same time “separate” personal relationships from the content of the conversation. In the work of a number of the world's leading psychologists, conversation has been used as independent method research (“clinical conversation” by J. Piaget, “psychoanalytic conversation” by S. Freud).
One type of conversation is an interview, which is used in psychological and social research. The interview reveals thoughts, views, facts from the life of the respondent, his attitude to political events, situations, social phenomena, etc.
There are two types of interviews: so-called standardized and non-standardized.
In a standardized interview, the wording of questions and their sequence are determined in advance and are the same for all respondents. The researcher is not allowed to change any questions or introduce new ones. The non-standardized interview technique, on the contrary, is characterized by complete flexibility and varies widely. The researcher, who is guided only by the general interview plan, has the right, in accordance with the specific situation, to formulate questions and change the order of the points of the plan.
Questionnaire(correspondence survey) also has its own specifics. It is believed that it is more expedient to resort to correspondence surveys in cases where it is necessary either to find out people’s attitudes towards heated debates or intimate issues, or interview a large number of people in a relatively short period of time. The main advantage of questionnaires is the possibility of mass coverage of a large number of people. A questionnaire guarantees anonymity to a greater extent than an interview, and therefore respondents can give more sincere answers. However, surveys cannot be conducted without certain working hypotheses. The interview method does not have such strict requirements. The advantage of a non-standardized interview is obtaining more in-depth information, flexibility of the survey; The disadvantage is the comparative narrowness of the coverage of respondents. A combination of questionnaires and interviews is usually recommended, since this technique covers a large number of respondents in a relatively short term allows you to obtain material for in-depth analysis.
Sociometry as a method of psychological research is used to determine the reference nature of each person who is part of the group. This method uses a number of opinion identification techniques aimed at identifying opinions, assessments, attitudes of group members towards each other, motives for interpersonal choices in the group, interpersonal relationships in small groups, etc.
Related information.
Psychodiagnostic methods, called private or special, are designed to solve a specific range of practical psychodiagnostic problems and are aimed at diagnosing properties and qualities. And today we will try to understand what psychodiagnostic methods exist.
The first division of psychodiagnostic methods that we will talk about concerns the content part. Based on it, psychodiagnostic methods are divided into:
Standardized psychodiagnostic methods are considered the most effective if it is necessary to obtain data on a group of people in a short time, and also to make any specific decision based on a quantitative justification of reliability. Standardized methods are protected from various types of errors that may arise due to the low qualifications of the specialist implementing the methods.
Qualitative methods of psychodiagnostics are more effective if they are used by experienced psychologists, for example, specialists in personnel recruitment or professional selection, etc. Through qualitative methods, it is possible to study the personal characteristics of people with greater accuracy and depth, but for their implementation they require significant large quantity time. Among other things, professional psychodiagnosticians agree that qualitative methods can be even more effective if a psychologist conducts psychological training, psychotherapy or psychological correction with a person, based on the results of using the method.
In psychodiagnostics, methods are also distinguished based on how formalized they are. Thus, two groups of methods are distinguished:
The group of less formalized methods includes those that realize the potential general techniques psychological diagnostics of a person. Among them are analysis of performance results, diagnostic conversation, observation, etc. The use of such methods requires a highly qualified specialist, because in most cases, these methods lack standards for implementation and interpretation of results.
Among highly formalized methods, various forms of testing and surveys are distinguished. They are distinguished by many characteristics, for example, strict regulations for conducting, processing and interpreting results, a high degree of reliability, etc. For this reason, the diagnostic procedure is structured so that none of the subjects has any advantages over the others.
The two types of methods we consider below belong to highly formalized methods. The most popular among them are test methods, the main one of which is testing, which involves solving standardized tasks, the purpose of which is to determine quantitative (in some cases, qualitative) characteristics that describe the psychological characteristics of an individual according to given parameters. In terms of content, test methods are divided into a number of groups:
With the help of such tests, it becomes possible to give an objective assessment of the level of development of a person’s personal characteristics, which can be attributed to mental processes and education.
Survey methods are used in psychodiagnostics to determine the level of personality development. These techniques take the form of surveys aimed at studying psychological characteristics personal sphere of the subjects. The assessment is given after interpreting the answers that the test takers give to the questions posed (as a rule, several answer options are offered).
In practice, among psychodiagnostic specialists, it is common to use methods that include both test and survey tasks. Such methods are called test-survey.
As for projective methods, their basis is the interpretation of test subjects’ answers to seemingly neutral questions and reactions to situations that may have different interpretation on the part of the subjects. Thanks to this, the specialist can assess the mental characteristics and deep essence of the personality, which means this method can be classified as less formalized methods.
Methods of psychodiagnostics can also differ in the form of implementation - they can be individual, group, form (written), oral, machine (hardware), computer, as well as verbal and non-verbal. At the same time, they all consist of several components, namely from:
If one person undergoes a psychodiagnostic procedure, it is called individual, and if there are several people, then group. Both the individual and group methods have their pros and cons.
Eg, group methods They allow you to study the characteristics of a large number of people, have more uniform implementation conditions, and also simplify the work of a specialist and require less time to obtain results. However, the disadvantages include the reduced ability to establish contact and understanding with the subjects and the formation of a positive sphere of their personality regarding the diagnosis. At the same time, individual methods do not have such disadvantages, but they only allow you to work with individual people.
Almost all methods of psychodiagnostics that are used in our time are written (form), i.e. have the form of written tasks, to complete which it is enough to provide the people being studied with answer sheets and writing materials. But also oral methods continue to be used today, albeit somewhat less frequently. In the process of conducting oral psychodiagnosis, the researcher asks questions, and the subject answers them.
Machine (hardware) psychodiagnostic methods involve the use of special technical means(special machines and other diagnostic equipment) that operate on a mechanical principle. If it applies computer method, for example, a computer survey or testing, then the processing of the received information is greatly simplified, as is their interpretation, because all data is in the form of tables, diagrams, diagrams, graphs, etc.
It is also important to note that computer psychodiagnostics allows you to analyze the data obtained in the shortest possible time, which would be impossible if other methods were used, because they require considerable time. For this reason, specialists have the opportunity to diagnose at a deep level the individual characteristics of people’s thinking, determine the tempo and other characteristics of their activity.
In case of use verbal methods of psychodiagnostics, the researcher and the subject interact in a verbalized (verbal-logical) form. When are they used? non-verbal methods, the stimulus (test) material has the form graphic images, drawings, pictures, etc.
It is easy to notice that each of the psychodiagnostic methods has its own specific features. In their work, professional psychologists can use one or several methods simultaneously, which allows them to obtain a more objective assessment of a person and capture the maximum number of his characteristics and features.
Psychodiagnostics - This is a field of psychological science and at the same time an important form of psychological practice, which is associated with the development and use of various methods for recognizing individual psychological characteristics of a person. Psychodiagnostics differs from other types of diagnostics (technical, medical, pedagogical, professional) in its object, subject and methods used. Psychodiagnostics is a field of psychological science that develops theory, principles and tools for assessing and measuring individual personality characteristics (L.F. Burlachuk).
Method- a wide class of techniques that are similar to the main technological technique or similar to the theoretical system of ideas on which the validity of this class of techniques is based. The class of techniques united by the affinity of a technological technique is also called technology.
Methodology- a specific, private procedure, or system of actions designed to obtain information about a specific mental property (subject of examination) from a specific contingent of subjects (object of research) in a certain class of situations (conditions of the examination) to solve certain problems (goal of the examination).
Classification of psychodiagnostic methods
In the classification of research methods in psychology proposed by B.G. Ananyev, psychodiagnostic methods belong to the group of empirical ones associated with obtaining scientific data and accumulating data (Fig. 1).
Rice. 1. Classification of methods of psychology B.G. Ananyeva
There are other classifications of psychological methods, where psychodiagnostic methods are classified as a separate group, that is, they do not belong to research methods (N.B. Grinshpun and others).
The classification of psychodiagnostic methods is intended to make it easier for the psychologist to choose a technique that best suits his task. Therefore, the classification should reflect the connection of methods with diagnosed mental properties and practical tasks. But there is no complete correspondence between tasks and methods. The most valuable techniques are universal and can be used to solve different problems. The methods of mastering these techniques and the procedures for their use have technological characteristics, according to which the techniques are grouped into operational and technological classifications.
Psychodiagnostic methods are grouped for different reasons. Let's consider the most common classifications of psychodiagnostic methods.
Czech psychologist J. Shvancar classifies psychodiagnostic methods into groups on several grounds:
1. Depending on the nature of the stimulus material used (verbal, non-verbal, manipulation, “pencil and paper” tests, etc.);
2. Depending on the nature of the diagnostic indicators obtained (simple and complex);
3. Depending on the presence of the correct answer (tests with the “correct” solution and tests with the possibility of different answers);
4. Depending on the nature of the mental activity of the subjects:
introspective (the subject’s message about his personal experience, experiences, relationships);
· extrospective (external observation and assessment of various mental manifestations of the subject);
projective (transfer to the subject of unconscious personal characteristics, internal conflicts, hidden drives, etc. to unstructured, ambiguous stimuli);
· executive (the subject carries out any action - perceptual, mental, motor, - quantitative level and quality features which are an indicator of intellectual and personality traits).
In the classification of psychodiagnostic methods by V.K. Gaida and V.P. Zakharov unites them by the following reasons:
1. By quality: standardized, non-standardized.
2. According to the purpose of use:
· general diagnostic (questionnaire tests by R. Cattell, G. Eysenck, tests of general intelligence);
· professional aptitude tests;
· giftedness tests;
· tests of special abilities (technical, musical);
· achievement tests.
3. According to the material with which the subject operates:
· blank;
· subject (Koss cubes, “addition of figures” from the Wexler set);
· hardware (devices for studying the characteristics of attention, etc.).
4. By the number of subjects: individual and group.
5. According to the form of the answer: oral and written.
6. By leading orientation: speed tests, power tests, mixed tests. In power tests, the problems are difficult and the solution time is not limited; the researcher is interested in both the success and the method of solving the problem.
7. According to the degree of homogeneity of tasks: homogeneous and heterogeneous (they differ in that in homogeneous methods the tasks are similar to each other and are used to measure certain personal and intellectual properties; in heterogeneous methods, the tasks are different and are used to assess various characteristics).
8. By complexity: individual tests and test sets (batteries).
9. By the nature of the answers to the tasks: tests with prescribed answers, tests with free answers.
10. According to the diagnosed area of the psyche: personality tests and intellectual tests.
11. By the nature of mental actions: verbal, non-verbal.
One of the leading grounds for the classification of psychodiagnostic methods according to A.A. Bodalev and V.V. Stolin is the degree of involvement of the psychologist in the diagnostic procedure and its influence on the result of psychodiagnostics. For this reason, the authors combine psychodiagnostic methods into 2 groups:
1. Objective ones are characterized by a minimal degree of involvement and influence of the psychodiagnostician on the procedure for conducting, processing and interpretation of diagnostic results:
· hardware techniques;
· some standardized self-reports.
2. Dialogic are characterized by a large degree of influence of experience, professional skills, the personality of the experimenter and his other characteristics on the diagnostic procedure and diagnostic results. With his reactions, responses, demeanor, a psychodiagnostician can create optimal conditions to obtain diagnostic important information, and completely distort its meaning. These methods include:
· conversations;
· interview;
· diagnostic games;
· pathopsychological experiment;
· projective techniques.
Thus, all methods can be placed on a scale, the poles of which are formed by objective tests and dialogic methods.
One of the main technological techniques underlying the design of psychodiagnostic tools is the presence or absence of the correct answer to the tasks of the methods. Based on this principle, two types of diagnostic techniques are distinguished:
· methods based on tasks that do not have a correct answer; these methods are characterized only by the frequency and direction of responses (most personality questionnaires);
· techniques based on tasks that require the correct answer (intelligence tests, special abilities tests).
The basic methodological principle can serve as the basis for the classification of psychodiagnostic tools (Fig. 2).
This classification does not consider psychophysiological instrumental techniques that involve psychological interpretation of physiological or instrumentally recorded behavioral indicators.
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Rice. 2. Classification of techniques according to methodological principle
Another leading basis for the design of methods is the nature of the use of the subject’s speech activity. Based on this, two types of diagnostic techniques are distinguished:
* verbal techniques mediated by the speech activity of the subjects; tasks appeal to memory, imagination, belief system in their language-mediated form, i.e. their implementation, and, consequently, the results obtained, largely depend on the level of culture and education of the subject;
* non-verbal techniques include the speech ability of the subjects only in terms of understanding instructions; performing the task is based on non-verbal abilities (perceptual, motor); this type of technique depends less on the level of education of the subject, which is particularly taken into account when assessing “natural” or fluid intelligence, free from the influence of culture.
The psychodiagnostic method is specified in three main diagnostic approaches, which, according to L.F. Burlachuk, practically exhaust many known techniques. These approaches are referred to as:
1. Objective, when diagnosis is carried out on the basis of success, effectiveness and/or method of performing an activity:
· intelligence tests;
· tests of special abilities;
· objective personality tests.
2. Subjective, when diagnosis is carried out on the basis of information provided by the subject about himself based on self-assessment of his own personal characteristics, condition, behavior, etc.:
· most personality questionnaires;
· state and mood questionnaires;
· questionnaires of opinions and interests;
· questionnaires.
3. Projective, when diagnosis is carried out on the basis of an analysis of the characteristics of the subject’s interaction with outwardly neutral, impersonal material, which, due to its weak structure and uncertainty, becomes an object of projection:
· motor-expressive;
· perceptual-structural;
· apperceptive-dynamic.
The development of psychological diagnostics leads to the emergence of a special research method - diagnostic. What place does this method occupy in the system of other methods of psychology, what are its specifics?
Due to the fact that in the psychological literature we often encounter different contents put into the concepts of “method” and “methodology,” let us immediately define our position. We proceed from the fact that the well-known methodological principles of psychology receive their primary concretization in the research method.
It is generally accepted to divide the research method into non-experimental(descriptive) and experimental. The non-experimental method forms different types(methods) of observations, conversations, studying the products of activity. The experimental method is based on the targeted creation of conditions that ensure the isolation of the factor (variable) under study and the registration of changes associated with its action, and also allows for the possibility of active intervention by the researcher in the activities of the subject. On the basis of this method, numerous laboratory and natural experiment methods, traditional for psychology, are built, as well as a special variety of them - the formative experiment.
Diagnostic techniques (tests) are sometimes considered within the framework of the experimental method (B. G. Ananyev, 1976, etc.). We believe that it should be highlighted psychodiagnostic method, having well-defined features and generalizing many specific techniques.
The main feature of the psychodiagnostic method is its measurement, testing, evaluation orientation, due to which the quantitative (and qualitative) qualification of the phenomenon being studied is achieved. This becomes possible by following certain requirements characteristic of the psychodiagnostic method.
One of the most important requirements is the standardization of a measurement tool, which is based on the concept norms, since an individual assessment, for example, of success in completing a task, can be obtained by comparison with the results of other subjects. It is equally important that any diagnostic technique (test) must meet the requirements reliability And validity. The concepts of norm, validity and reliability are the “three pillars” on which the development and application of diagnostic techniques rests. Strict requirements are also imposed on the research procedure (exact adherence to instructions, strictly defined methods of presenting stimulus material, time limits and inadmissibility of experimenter intervention, etc.). Let us add to this that the analysis of the psychodiagnostic method allows us to highlight specific motives, determining the activity of the subject, special strategy of his behavior, features of the situation– both social (interaction between the psychologist and the subject) and stimulus (for example, with to varying degrees structure).
When characterizing a diagnostic method, it is not enough to limit ourselves to indicating its measurement and testing orientation. Otherwise priority explanations given to the experimental method. In fact, a diagnostic study in its completed form should include elements of explanation, disclosure of causes, and finally the development of appropriate recommendations (see more about this below).
The psychodiagnostic method is specified in three main diagnostic approaches, which practically exhaust the many known methods (tests). These approaches can be conventionally designated as objective, subjective And projective.
We can summarize what has been said in the form of a hierarchical ladder of the system of means of cognition in psychology (Fig. 2.1).
As can be seen from the figure, at the top there are principles of psychological research. Below are research methods: non-experimental (descriptive), experimental and psychodiagnostic. At an even lower level are the corresponding methods for each of these methods. approaches. At the bottom of the figure are specific techniques, formed within the framework of certain approaches. It is necessary to dwell on diagnostic approaches in more detail.
Objective approach – diagnostics is carried out on the basis of success (effectiveness) and/or method (features) of performing the activity.
Subjective approach – diagnosis is carried out on the basis of information reported about oneself, self-description (self-assessment) of personality characteristics, condition, behavior in certain situations.
Projective approach – diagnostics is carried out on the basis of an analysis of the features of interaction with outwardly neutral, seemingly impersonal material, which, due to its known uncertainty (weak structure), becomes an object of projection.
For readers who are accustomed to contrasting the objective and the subjective, we will immediately point out that in this context, subjectivity does not mean falsity, and objectivity does not mean truth. Further consideration of those tests or techniques that correlate with the designated approaches makes it easy to verify the validity of this position.
An objective approach to diagnosing manifestations of human individuality consists mainly of two types of techniques, the separation of which has become traditional. This methods for diagnosing personal characteristics themselves And intelligence tests. The first ones are aimed at “measuring” the non-intellectual characteristics of a person, the second ones are aimed at establishing the level of its intellectual development.
Of course, such “isolation” of the sphere of personal (characterological) manifestations and the sphere of intelligence has a limited, but nevertheless important meaning for psychodiagnostics. S. L. Rubinstein at one time very accurately pointed out that the mental properties of a person form two main groups: characterological properties And capabilities. The first group of properties is associated with incentive (motivational) regulation of behavior, and the second ensures organization and execution. Preserving relative independence for personal manifestations, on the one hand, and intellect, on the other, allows us to penetrate more deeply into the essence of these mental formations. Finally, it is known that emphasizing their functional uniqueness contributed to the development of diagnostic techniques, the practical value of which is undeniable.
Diagnostics of the level of intellectual development is represented by numerous intelligence tests (general ability tests). Personal techniques, identified within the boundaries of the objective approach, can be divided into action tests(“targeted personality tests”) and situational tests. The most common targeted personality tests are a variety of perceptual tests, such as camouflaged figure detection. In situational tests, the subject is placed in a situation similar to one that may arise in life. Finally, in the objective approach, two more significant groups of tests are formed: special ability tests, designed to measure the level of development of individual aspects of intelligence and psychomotor functions that ensure effectiveness in specific, fairly narrow areas of activity, and achievement tests, which reveal the degree of proficiency in certain knowledge, skills and abilities.
The subjective approach is represented by numerous questionnaires. These common diagnostic tools are at their most general view can be divided into personality questionnaires, state and mood questionnaires, and opinion questionnaires and questionnaires. Three latest groups questionnaires are designed to obtain information about the subject that, as a rule, does not have a direct relationship to one or another of his personal characteristics, however, opinion questionnaires, which are common in sociological, socio-psychological research and are designed for a variety of specific tasks, can to a certain extent reflect and personal characteristics of respondents.
Questionnaires are widely used in clinical psychodiagnostics in the form symptom questionnaires. Questionnaires may also include biographical questionnaires.
Various classifications have been proposed for techniques created within the projective approach (for more details, see Chapter 6). The simplest and most convenient way is to divide them into: motor-expressive, perceptual-structural and apperceptive-dynamic (S. Rosenzweig, 1964).
The diagnostic approaches described above perform not only a classification function. These approaches are presented as if in the form of a scale of “compliance to measurability” of those individual psychological characteristics they are aimed at revealing (the possibilities for applying the basic psychometric requirements imposed on the methods formed by these approaches are consistently limited), a scale corresponding at the same time to the degree of structure the stimulus material used. This is most obvious when comparing, for example, intelligence tests and projective techniques. For a psychometric assessment of the validity and reliability of the latter, today there is no adequate mathematical and statistical apparatus.
The “method-approach-methodology” system we are discussing in relation to diagnostic method shown in Fig. 2.2.
Within each approach, groups of homogeneous, close to each other techniques can be distinguished. Of course, the proposed classification is not the only possible one and, like any other, has certain disadvantages. It is clear that some specific psychodiagnostic techniques are difficult to classify as one of the three identified approaches; they will occupy a kind of intermediate position. There are and cannot be “impassable” boundaries between different diagnostic approaches. The purpose of our classification is not to replenish the list of existing ones, but to find a simple and logically sound scheme for presenting those problems of psychological diagnostics that seem to us the most important and relevant in the world. at this stage development of psychological knowledge.
