The name of the doctor Andreas Vesalius became famous during the Middle Ages. Already at that time, he became famous thanks to a written description of the surgical treatment of tracheostomy. The first experiment was carried out by him on an animal that was artificially ventilated. Andreas first studied the structure and features of the human body through dissection. So our contemporaries consider him the founder of anatomy, and almost all further teachings were based on his discoveries. And it’s not a sin for us to remember who Andreas Vesalius was in his time, to remember the contribution to medicine of an outstanding scientist, because his merits could not go unnoticed already in his time.
Andreas Vesalius was born into a family in which several generations of his relatives were physicians. There were many outstanding scientists in the Viting family: Emperor Maximilian appointed Peter's great-great-grandfather as his doctor, his great-grandfather was a well-known doctor and worked in Brussels. Andreas's grandfather, also a doctor, is the author of additions to the Hippocratic collection, and also first announced the procedure for inoculation against smallpox. It was he who owned the works on the study of smallpox and measles. Andreas Vesalius Sr., father, was an apothecary to Princess Margaret, who was the ruler of the Netherlands. There was also a younger brother in Andreas's family, who took up medicine from a young age. It is not surprising that the profession of a doctor could not escape Andreas himself: after so many generations devoted to the study of medicine, he considered it necessary to make his contribution to its further development.
Andreas Vesalius - biography (briefly):
Andreas was born on December 31, 1514. From a young age, he listened with enthusiasm as his mother read treatises and works on medicine to him. By the age of 16, Andreas had a classical education, which he received in Brussels. After that, in 1530, his studies at the University of Louvain begin. This is a higher educational institution, which was founded by Johann IV of Brabant. At the university, special attention was paid to the study of ancient languages, because they are needed for successful advancement in medicine.
Considering the level of teaching to be insufficiently high, Vesalius changed his place of study in 1531 and continued it at the Pedagogical College. There he managed to master quite well the Greek, Arabic and Latin languages. The propensity for anatomical research manifested itself in a young student quite early. He devoted the hours free from study to the fact that he was engaged in the opening of the corpses of animals and their preparation. This hobby did not go unnoticed by the court physician Nikolai Florin, who, by and large, determined the future fate of the young man, sending him to study at the Medical University of Paris. As a token of gratitude for the parting words, Andreas dedicated to Floren a work called "The Message of Bloodletting" and began to call him a second father.
From 1533, Andreas continued his medical studies in Paris. For four years, he listened to lectures by prominent doctors, in particular Sylvius, who thoroughly studied the structure of the vena cava of the human body, the structure of the peritoneum, studied the appendix, revealed the structure of the liver, and much more. In addition, Vesalius studied anatomy and surgery with the famous Swiss doctor Gunther at that time. It was with him that Andreas began a very warm, friendly and mentoring relationship.
In 1536, Vesalius again came to Louvain and continues his medical practice, in which he is supported by his friend Gemma Frisius. Together, they secretly stole the corpses of executed criminals from the cemetery (such autopsies were strictly prohibited at that time for religious reasons and the canons of the church). With great risk, but with firm self-confidence, the young physician moved forward in his research.
In 1537, Vesalius was awarded a doctorate and a diploma with honors. After a public autopsy in the Senate of the Republic of Venice (where Andreas already lived at that time), he was officially appointed professor of surgery. There he remains, at the same time becoming a teacher of anatomy. Thus, already at the age of 23, he became an outstanding professor, and his fascinating lectures attracted all students.
From 1545, Andreas moved to the University of Pisa, but six years later became a professor at the University of Rome, where he worked until the end of his life.
Vesalius was heavily persecuted by the Spanish Inquisition, who accused him of murdering a man under the guise of allegedly autopsying the corpse of an executed criminal. He was sentenced to death, but this measure was canceled thanks to the intervention of Philip II.
Instead, as a sign of punishment, Vesalius went on a pilgrimage to Palestine, where the Holy Sepulcher is located. The difficult journey ended in an unsuccessful return and the crash of the ship, on which the great scientist was also. Once on a desert island, Andreas Vesalius fell ill, was left without hope of salvation and died at the age of 50 on October 2, 1564.
Andreas Vesalius' contribution to medicine
In 1543, the famous work of Andreas Vesalius "On the structure of the human body" was published. It contained not just text, but rather demonstrative pictures and indications of the mistakes made by another well-known scientist at that time, Galen. Over 200 bugs have been fixed. After this treatise, the authority of the latter was seriously damaged. It was this work that marked the beginning of the modern science of anatomy.
One of the indisputable achievements of Vesalius is the compilation of anatomical terminology in Latin. Based on the names that were introduced into medicine by Celsus (he was called the "Latin Hippocrates"), Andreas removed all the words from the Middle Ages from the terminology, minimizing the terms of Greek origin.
The great scientist also described the correct digestion of bones - this procedure is necessary for creating skeletons.
In his writings, he was able to create a solid foundation for the further development of anatomy and surgery. He was convinced that for someone who wants to become a good doctor in any field, the study of anatomy is a fundamental factor. It was he who gave surgery a chance to develop as a science since antiquity.
All of his iconographic legacy is of great value. And it was graphic methods in anatomical science that irrevocably refuted the relationship of astrology with medicine.
Andreas Vesalius was born on December 31 1514 years in the city of Brussels (Seventeen Provinces). Vesalius' activities took place in many European countries. One of the first began to study the human body through autopsy. In the main work "On the structure of the human body" ( 1543 ) Vesalius gave a scientific description of the structure of all organs and systems, pointed out many mistakes of his predecessors, including Galen. Persecuted by the church.
Andreas Vesalius is rightly considered the creator of modern anatomy and the founder of the school of anatomists. He was also successful as a medical practitioner.
The doctors of Andreas Vesalius were his grandfather and great-grandfather, and his father served as a pharmacist at the court of Emperor Charles V. The interests of those around him undoubtedly influenced the interests and aspirations of the young Vesalius. Andreas studied first at school, and then at the University of Louvain, where he received a versatile education, studied Greek and Latin, thanks to which he could get acquainted with the works of scientists already in his youth. Obviously, he read a lot of books about medicine by ancient and contemporary scientists, since his works speak of deep knowledge. Vesalius independently assembled a complete human skeleton from the bones of the executed. It was the first anatomical manual in Europe.
Every year, Vesalius' passionate interest in the study of medicine, in anatomical studies, became more and more evident. In his free time from teaching, he carefully dissected the bodies of animal mice, cats, dogs at home, studying the structure of their body.
In an effort to improve his knowledge in the field of medicine, especially anatomy, Andreas Vesalius, at the age of seventeen, went to the University of Montpellier, and to 1533 first appeared at the medical faculty of the University of Paris to listen to lectures by the famous entomist Sylvius. Young Vesalius was already able to critically approach the method of teaching anatomy.
In the preface to the treatise On the Structure of the Human Body, Andreas Vesalius wrote: “My studies would never have led to success if, during my medical work in Paris, I had not applied my own hands to this matter ... And I myself, somewhat sophisticated own experience, publicly performed a third of the autopsies on his own.
A. Vesalius asks questions at lectures that testify to his doubts about the correctness of the teachings of Galen. Galen is an indisputable authority, his teaching should be accepted without any reservations, and Vesalius trusts more his eyes than the works of Galen.
The scientist rightly considered anatomy to be the basis of medical knowledge, and the goal of his life was the desire to revive the experience of the distant past, to develop and improve the method of studying human anatomy. However, the church, which hindered the development of the natural sciences, forbade the autopsy of human corpses, considering it blasphemy. Many difficulties had to be overcome by the young anatomist Andreas Vesalius.
In order to be able to do anatomy, he used every opportunity. If there was money in his pocket, he negotiated with the cemetery watchman, and then a corpse suitable for autopsy fell into his hands. If there was no money, Vesalius, hiding from the watchman, opened the grave himself, without his knowledge. What to do, I had to take risks!
Vesalius studied the bones of the human and animal skeleton so well that he could name any bone by touch without looking at them.
Andreas Vesalius spent three years at the university, and then circumstances developed in such a way that he had to leave Paris and go back to Louvain.
There Vesalius got into trouble. He removed the corpse of the executed criminal from the gallows and performed an autopsy. The Louvain clergy demanded the strictest punishment for such blasphemy. Vesalius realized that disputes were useless here, and considered it good to leave Louvain and went to Italy.
After receiving in 1537 year of his doctorate, Andreas Vesalius began teaching anatomy and surgery at the University of Padua. The government of the Republic of Venice encouraged the development of natural science and sought to expand the work of scientists at this university.
The brilliant talent of the young scientist attracted attention. Twenty-two-year-old Vesalius, who had already received the title of Doctor of Medicine for his work, was appointed to the Department of Surgery with the duty of teaching anatomy.
Andreas gave lectures with inspiration, which always attracted many listeners, worked with students and, most importantly, continued his research. And the deeper he studied the internal structure of the body, the more he became convinced that there were many very significant errors in Galen's teachings, which those who were under the influence of Galen's authority simply did not notice.
For four long years he worked on his work. Vesalius studied, translated and republished the works of medical scientists of the past, his anatomist predecessors. And in their writings, he found many errors. "Even the greatest scientists," wrote Vesalius, "slavishly adhered to other people's oversights and some strange style in their unsuitable manuals." The scientist began to trust the most authentic book - the book of the human body, in which there are no errors. At night, by candlelight, Andreas Vesalius dissected corpses. He set himself the goal of solving the great task of correctly describing the location, shape and function of the organs of the human body.
The result of the passionate and hard work of the scientist was the famous treatise in seven books, which appeared in 1543 year and entitled "On the structure of the human body." It was a gigantic scientific work, in which, instead of obsolete dogmas, new scientific views were presented. It reflected the cultural upsurge of mankind during the Renaissance.
Printing developed rapidly in Venice and in Basel, where Andreas Vesalius printed his work. His book is decorated with beautiful drawings by the artist Stefan Kalkar, a student of Titian. It is characteristic that the skeletons depicted in the drawings stand in poses characteristic of living people, and the landscapes surrounding some of the skeletons speak more about life than about death.
All this work of Vesalius was intended for the benefit of a living person, the study of his body in order to preserve his health and life. Each capital letter in the treatise is adorned with a drawing depicting children studying anatomy. So it was in ancient times the art of anatomy was taught from childhood, knowledge was passed from father to son. The magnificent artistic composition of the frontispiece of the book depicts Andreas Vesalius during a public lecture and an autopsy of a man.
The work of Vesalius excited the minds of scientists. The boldness of his scientific thought was so unusual that, along with the followers who appreciated his discoveries, he had many enemies. The great scientist experienced a lot of grief and disappointment when even his students left him. The famous Silvius, the teacher of Vesalius, called Vesalius "Vesanus", which means insane. He attacked him with a scathing pamphlet which he called "A defense against the slander of the anatomical works of Hippocrates and Galen by a certain madman."
He did not disdain to turn to the emperor himself with a demand to roughly punish Vesalius: “I implore Caesar’s Majesty,” wrote Professor Jacob Silvius, “so that he severely beat and generally curbed this monster of ignorance, ingratitude, arrogance, the most pernicious example of wickedness, born and brought up in his house, as this monster deserves, so that with its plague breath it does not poison Europe.
Andreas Vesalius foresaw how events would turn out after the publication of his treatise On the Structure of the Human Body. Even earlier, he wrote: “... my work will be attacked by those who did not take up anatomy as zealously as was the case in Italian schools, and who now, at an advanced age, are languishing with envy at the correct revelations of the young man.”
Most eminent doctors really took the side of Sylvius. They joined his demand to curb and punish Andreas Vesalius, who dared to criticize the great Galen. Such was the strength of recognized authorities, such were the foundations of public life of that time, when any innovation aroused alertness, any bold statement that went beyond the established canons was regarded as freethinking. These were the fruits of the centuries-old ideological monopoly of the church, which imposed rigidity and routine.
Having opened dozens of corpses, having carefully studied the human skeleton, Vesalius came to the conclusion that the opinion that men have one rib less than women is completely wrong. But such a belief went beyond medical science. It affected church doctrine.
Vesalius did not reckon with another statement of the churchmen. In his time, the belief was preserved that in the human skeleton there is a bone that does not burn in fire, is indestructible. It supposedly contains a mysterious power, with the help of which a person will be resurrected on the day of the Last Judgment in order to appear before the Lord God. And although no one saw this bone, it was described in scientific works, there was no doubt about its existence. Vesalius, who described the structure of the human body, bluntly stated that, while examining the human skeleton, he did not find a mysterious bone.
Andreas Vesalius was aware of the consequences of his speeches against Galen. He understood that he opposed the prevailing opinion, offending the interests of the church. And how they deal with such impudent loners, he knew well. The scientist continued to teach at the University of Padua, but every day the atmosphere around him heated up more and more. It was bitter for him to part with Padua, with the university, to interrupt his work and research. But he saw no other way.
Just at this time, he received an invitation from the Spanish Emperor Charles V to take the place of the court physician. The court of the emperor was at that time in Brussels. Vesalius's father was still serving Charles, and the young professor accepted the emperor's offer. Of course, in Brussels he will not have a department, he will not be able to study with students. But on the other hand, the imperial court will serve as a reliable shelter for him from the persecution of the church, leaving the opportunity to study anatomy. Thus, the position of court physician, although not to the liking of Vesalius, had its advantages.
And yet it was difficult to find a more unsuitable position for Vesalius. He was a scientist, a researcher. Now he had to learn principles that were very far from science, the ability to please his noble patients, to catch their thoughts, to participate in all court ceremonies.
But even under these conditions, he did not stop the work to which he devoted his life. Andreas Vesalius devoted all his free time to his treatise On the Structure of the Human Body. He made corrections, additions, clarified what seemed to him not entirely convincing. Using every opportunity, he was engaged in anatomy. But the idea that he was cut off from scientific centers, that research activities had become a side business for him, oppressed Vesalius.
He dreamed of returning to the scientific department again. But in reality, Vesalius could not even think about leaving Brussels and moving to another place where he could do the work he liked. As soon as he left the imperial court, the Inquisition would again show interest in him. That is why, in the most dreary moments of his life, Vesalius convinced himself that he had to come to terms with the circumstances.
A. Vesalius managed to publish his treatise “On the structure of the human body” with the second edition. It was only a short happy moment in all these years, and then everything went on as before. The monotonous days dragged on in a long succession.
But then came the end of Vesalius' stay at the imperial court. His patron Charles V abdicated, retired to a monastery and soon died. Philip II, a bilious and evil man, ascended the throne. He did not like Vesalius and openly expressed his dislike to him. Numerous envious and enemies of the court physician hastened to take advantage of this. The attitude of the new emperor towards Vesalius worsened even more. Vesalius felt that he needed to leave Brussels as soon as possible. He made an attempt to escape from the power of the new emperor, asked to be released to Italy. But the wayward Philip categorically opposed this.
Under Philip, the severe prohibitions of the church on dissecting corpses again touched Vesalius. To break them meant to enter into open conflict with the church. Vesalius bitterly wrote about this time - "I could not even touch a dry skull with my hand, and the less I had the opportunity to perform autopsies."
But no matter how hard Andreas Vesalius tried not to give the church a reason for any accusations, it turned out to be beyond his power. Streams of slander again poured on Vesalius. To top it off, he was falsely accused of dissecting a living person.
Vesalius tried to prove his innocence, but all was in vain. He had to obey. The verdict of the church was categorical: the court physician Andreas Vesalius had to go to the "holy places" to the Holy Sepulcher to atone for his sins...
AT 1564 Vesalius left Madrid with his wife and daughter. Leaving his family in Brussels, he went on a long journey alone. On the way to Jerusalem, the scientist stopped in his beloved Venice, where he spent the best years of his creative life.
Vesalius did not leave the thought of returning to her favorite science. There is an assumption that the Senate of Venice invited him to take the chair again at the University of Padua. But the dream of the scientist to return to science did not come true.
The writing of Andreas Vesalius provoked, as might be expected, fierce attacks from obscurantist doctors, against whom Vesalius defended himself with several polemical writings. FROM 1544 BC, as a life physician to Emperor Charles V, Andreas accompanied him on all his travels, but under his son, Philip II, the Spanish Inquisition managed to seize the long-awaited enemy. Accused that during the autopsy the heart of the deceased showed some signs of life, Andreas Vesalius was condemned to death. Only thanks to the intercession of Philip II, the death penalty was replaced by a pilgrimage to the Holy Sepulcher.
On the way back, the storm threw the unfortunate scientist to the island of Zante (Republic of Venice), where Andreas Vesalius died on October 15 1564 of the year.
Vesalius and scientific anatomy
The famous scientist Andreas Vesalius (1514-1564) managed to correct the mistakes of his predecessors and significantly expanded the anatomical knowledge of his time. Summarizing and classifying known information, he transformed anatomy into a true science. Andreas's desire to study medicine probably appeared at an early age. His grandfather was the author of the Commentaries on the Aphorisms of Hippocrates, and his father was a renowned practicing physician in Brussels. Impressions from reading medical literature led the boy to the path of independent study of nature. Interest in the structure of the body of domestic animals prompted the decision to dissect the corpses of mice, birds, and dogs.
Having received a solid education at the universities of Louvain, Montpellier and Paris, Vesalius enthusiastically studied anatomy, procuring human corpses at the risk of life. Due to his religiosity, the physician before each autopsy asked for forgiveness from God. Even during the years of teaching, Vesalius had doubts that the autopsies were organized incorrectly, and often argued with teachers. Nevertheless, he left the University of Paris, skillfully mastering the technique of dissection, as well as deeply studying the teachings of Galen.
Andreas Vesalius
After one year of military campaigns (the Franco-German conflict of 1535-1536), Vesalius returned to Louvain and for some time was engaged in the manufacture of skeletons. The result of this activity was an invitation to teach anatomy at the University of Padua. In 1537, his work “On the Treatment of Diseases from Head to Feet” was published as a separate brochure, and soon he moved to Italy, starting the most fruitful period of his life. In the same year he received the degree of Doctor of Medicine, taking the place of a lecturer in anatomy and surgery at the University of Padua.
Having started work, Vesalius immediately changed the established method of teaching anatomy. He secured permission to perform autopsies and provided students with teaching aids of his own composition. The scientist no longer experienced a shortage of corpses: the bodies of executed criminals regularly entered the anatomical theater of the university. In 1538, a Venetian printing house printed a book called "Six Anatomical Tables", created in collaboration with the artist Johann Stefan van Kalkar. Vesalius' textbook was an atlas in which the text was accompanied by original drawings depicting various parts of the human body. The physician spent the beginning of 1543 in Basel, acting as an organizer and participant in anatomical demonstrations, creating new books and preparing skeletons.
The reform of the teaching of anatomy begun by Vesalius no longer had a reverse course. First, in Italian, then in other European universities, the methods of teaching all medical disciplines have changed. At the same time, advances in the study of anatomy did not remain the property of one educational institution, but spread throughout all states. As a teacher, Vesalius constantly demanded accuracy from his students in the study of nature. He reminded of the purpose of each, even a small part of the body, called for a comprehensive coverage of the phenomenon under study and its in-depth analysis.
Students were impressed by his critical attitude to the legacy of the past, accuracy in research, striving for evidence-based judgments, moreover, with facts obtained personally. In addition, the young teacher had an attractive appearance, was charming, spoke temperamentally and weightily. Contemporaries noted the confident movements of Vesalius, his eyes burning with passion, his readiness to enter into a discussion, immediately presenting indisputable facts. All these qualities provided the anatomist with high prestige among the audience.
Vesalius was the first to describe the structure of the human body on the basis of facts personally established by him through autopsies. At that time, conclusions regarding the structure of the human body were made on the basis of the works of Galen. Vesalius appreciated his works, translated and prepared them for publication, but pointed out the fallacy of many provisions. In his essay On the Structure of the Human Body, he corrected more than 200 mistakes of a Roman doctor, unfortunately without avoiding his own.
The denial of Galen's authority caused a conflict with colleagues. Few of his contemporaries were willing to accept the new anatomy. Hostility, ridicule and outright contempt accompanied the talented scientist throughout his life. The most violent opponent was Silvius, who published a pamphlet in 1551, where he called the former student "a crazy fool who poisons the air in Europe with the stench of his corpses." Vesalius' answer was immediate: "I demand a meeting with Silvius at the anatomy table, then he can be sure which side is right."
The following years were a time of struggle for the triumph of the new anatomy; in defense of science, Vesalius organized public demonstrations in Padua, Bologna, and Pisa. His rhetorical talent, impeccable logic, rare enthusiasm captivated not only fans, but also critics. As the best method of agitation, the most ardent opponents were invited to the corpse. In Italy, the name Vesalius was pronounced with reverence, he was greeted with triumph by students, but in France, Belgium, Switzerland, the new anatomy was not recognized. However, it was in Basel that the fundamental work “On the Structure of the Human Body” (1543) was created in 7 books, summarizing past achievements and containing valuable additions by the author. At the same time, a short textbook "Extraction" was published, addressed to young doctors trained in the anatomical theater. Throughout 1544, the scientist unsuccessfully fought against enemies, the main among which was the Catholic Church. As a result, Vesalius could not stand it and left for Brussels. Having broken with his beloved science, cursing ignorance, he destroyed all his manuscripts.
Beginning in 1544, Vesalius traveled as a physician to Charles V. After the death of the old emperor, his heir, Philip II, was unable to protect the doctor from the Spanish Inquisition. Accused of dissecting living people, the scientist was sentenced to death, but the execution was replaced by a pilgrimage to Jerusalem. On the way back, the ship was caught in a storm, forced to land on the shore of the island of Zante, where Vesalius fell ill and died.
Some biographers considered Vesalius the author of one book. The text of the essay "On the structure of the human body" is illustrated with engravings by the famous painter Johann van Kalkar. The anatomical works of Vesalius' predecessors contained almost no drawings. The low level of painting of the Middle Ages, the difficulties of drawing on parchment, but most importantly, the neglect of anatomical knowledge gleaned from an autopsy, at that time made anatomical drawings a curious rarity. The exception was sketches of the skeleton in various poses and all the scientific work of Leonardo da Vinci.
Illustration for the composition "On the structure of the human body." Engraving by J. S. Van Kalkar. 1543
Vesalius was well aware of the importance of anatomical drawing. Starting to create the original illustrated manual, he said: "... engravings contribute to the understanding of autopsies and present the eye more clearly than the most understandable presentation." Indeed, the value of the book was largely determined by the quality of the drawings, which personified the living spirit of the Renaissance. According to the famous Russian physician, in the work of Vesalius “the muscles of the human body are presented in dynamics. The poses of the corpses make you think about the wisdom of life and the drama of death.”
The first book was a guide to the study of bones and joints (osteology and arthrology). The skeleton was fully described here, including teeth, cartilage, nails. In conclusion, methods of processing bones were considered and advice was given on the tools necessary for anatomy: saws, hammers, tongs, knives, razors, hooks, scissors, needles. However, ordinary tweezers were not mentioned among them.
The conclusion about the difference in the number of ribs in a man and a woman was intended for specialists: “And the opinion of the mob that men on one side are deprived of some kind of rib and a woman surpasses a man by one rib is completely ridiculous, although Moses kept the tradition that Eve was created by God from Adam’s rib ". In describing the skull, Vesalius was the first to accurately depict the sphenoid and mandibular bones. In conclusion, the author described the procedure for bone maceration. For this, wooden boxes with holes were used; corpses were laid in them and sprinkled with lime. The boxes were then placed in water. After several washes and cleansing, the bones were exposed to the sun for bleaching. Bone digestion was often used to improve the appearance of the skeleton as a teaching tool. The technique of its manufacture is also described to the smallest detail.
The second book is devoted to muscle anatomy (myology). The merit of Vesalius was the creation of original, excellently executed images and accurate tables. Figures with dissected muscles in various poses are located against the backdrop of Italian landscapes. In the setting of the limbs, the dynamics of movement are correctly conveyed. The author denied early preconceptions about tendons and nerves: "The tendon corresponds to the ligament, not the nerve, and the nerve does not dissolve into either the muscle or the tendon." In the second book, the muscles are systematized by shape. At the same time, the conventionality of such concepts as the beginning and attachment of a muscle is indicated; examples of their opposite action were given.
Book three included a description of the blood vessels and glands. According to the researchers, the image of blood vessels had significant shortcomings, determined by the fact that the author did not understand the process of blood circulation in depth, while following the physiological dogmas of Galen. But in the study of blood vessels, Vesalius showed great knowledge. This is evidenced by a thorough description of the arteries and veins: the laws of branching of the arteries, the ways of roundabout blood flow, and the structural features of the vascular wall did not remain hidden. For Vesalius, the veins were the vessels through which blood flows from the liver to the periphery. Blood saturated with the spirit of life is carried from the heart by the arteries. The heart was presented as an ordinary internal organ, but by no means the center of the vascular system, therefore there was no description of the heart itself. Veins, according to Vesalius, "stand higher" than the arteries, but the topography of the veins is not entirely accurate.
The fourth book presented information on the anatomy of the peripheral nerves and the spinal cord. Some negligence in reasoning testifies to the author's indifference to this issue, therefore he involuntarily repeated the mistakes of Galen. Having described 7 pairs of cranial and 30 pairs of spinal nerves, Vesalius did not take into account the seventh cervical spinal nerve. Obviously, he did not understand the differences between the roots of the spinal nerves. In turn, the nerve trunk is considered as a continuous formation, mainly as a hollow tube through which the "animal spirit" circulates.
Experimental information on the anatomy of peripheral nerves, nerve plexuses, and the spinal cord is presented in the book in a classical way, but they are not original and are sometimes erroneous. Nevertheless, the peripheral nerves of the trunk, upper and lower extremities are described correctly. Being a creative person, Vesalius always moved away from the standard descriptions of Galen, correcting and supplementing them: "... if you notice that I have rather deviated from the opinion of Galen, do not be lazy, I beg you, check his description." There is no doubt that each of the large peripheral nerves was examined personally on corpses.
The fifth book reflects research on the anatomy of the digestive organs, excretion and reproduction. According to the text, the genitourinary organs are "in connection and contiguity" with the organs of nutrition, therefore they are included in this section. In fact, the book was a commentary on the autopsy of the abdominal cavity. The author explained the meaning of each organ, its place in the process of digestion, as well as its relationship with other parts of the body. At the beginning of the book there are 32 drawings depicting organs on a corpse in strict sequence, as well as their appearance on individual preparations and sections. Of course, the author perfectly represented everything that is shown on the tables and written in the book. Considerations regarding the internal structure of organs and the explanation of their functions are not ideal, but quite understandable. Vesalius clearly described the stomach, intestines, liver, spleen, bladder, kidney. He examined the structure of the internal and external genital organs, presented the developing fetus.
The sixth book is devoted to the respiratory organs and the heart. In particular, the description of the organs of the chest cavity was divided into 16 chapters. The membrane covering the ribs (pleura), trachea, larynx, lung and heart are described in detail. Despite vast experience in anatomy, Vesalius never understood the true function of the heart. In addition, he experienced serious difficulties in evaluating observations on the beating heart of animals. He distinguished two chambers of the heart and admitted that there were no holes in the septum between the ventricles, but he could not comprehend the path of blood flow from the right ventricle to the left: “I hesitate a lot about the functions of the heart in this part.”
The seventh book deals with the brain and sense organs. Here are collected facts that seemed to the author rather controversial. When writing this section, Vesalius had little knowledge of the internal structure of the brain. The text shows how much the doctor doubted this issue and still made many mistakes. However, the main details of the brain are correctly described: the brainstem, cerebellum, cerebral peduncles, quadrigemina, visual tubercles, corpus callosum, cerebral hemispheres, cerebral ventricles, pineal gland and pituitary gland.
This book was distinguished by a clear systematization of all known information on the anatomy of the brain. Not trusting his predecessors, Vesalius personally checked every judgment. His invention was the technique of dissecting the brain into slices. Silvius and Vesalius himself knew perfectly well the methods of compacting the brain; the cut was sketched, all large details were indicated in the drawings. Thus, anatomists were able to study the brain using a single method, as well as present their observations graphically.
The meaning of the brain is expressed by the following phrase: "... the brain is built for the supremacy of the mind, as well as sensitivity and movement, depending on our will." According to Vesalius, the brain performs its assigned functions with the help of a certain "animal spirit" that is produced in it and in the membranes, and then goes to the periphery along the nerves: "... I am not in the least afraid to attribute the purpose in the emergence of the animal spirit to the ventricles." Being faithful to Galen, the author mentioned the influence of the brain on vital functions, but he was able to explain it only with the help of the mysterious “animal spirit”, allegedly imparting “strength to the sense organs, causing muscle movements and being an impulse for the divine acts of the reigning soul”!
The supplementary, eighth, book contains the results of research on experimental anatomy and physiology, obtained by the author in the process of vivisection on animals. Vesalius turned to experiments of this kind very often; in the anatomical room next to the table on which the dismemberment of a human corpse was carried out, there was a table for dissecting animals.
The objects of the study were live monkeys, dogs, and pigs. In the course of a simple experiment, which was a bone fracture, the researcher was convinced that after an injury to one bone, the work of the entire organ is disrupted, otherwise the entire limb ceases to function. A variety of experiments concerning the nervous system consisted of the activation of paralysis of the muscles, the opening of the ventricles of the brain and skull in dogs, followed by the destruction of the medulla. Wanting to understand the influence of the recurrent nerves on the voice, Vesalius squeezed or cut the nerves, which entailed a loss of voice. Vesalius knew how to perform operations to remove the spleen from living animals, cut out the kidneys and testicles. Lifetime observations of the work of the heart and lungs were also made for educational purposes.
In medical literature, Vesalius is often described as a pure theorist, far from practical medicine. Despite the fact that he was not an attending physician, in particular a surgeon, his occupation required mastery of surgical techniques. No information has been preserved about his clinical activities, but Vesalius revealed his attitude to some problems of treatment in the preface to the manual on anatomy. In addition, he repeatedly touched on clinical problems in an article on the use of cinchona decoction. Given his scientific degree and vast teaching experience, it is necessary to recognize his merits in the development of surgery as a science. The correctness of the conclusions of Vesalius in his scientific work on the structure of the body was significantly confirmed by his contemporary, the great surgeon Ambroise Pare, who was both a theorist and a practitioner.
After the death of Vesalius, rare autopsies were performed in unsuitable premises, which was contrary to sanitary requirements and was explained by the prohibitions of the authorities. In Italy in the 16th century, autopsies turned into solemn demonstrations, carried out with the permission of the city administration. The “performance” took place in special rooms equipped like amphitheatres. The main characters were professors of medicine, performing actions in the presence of colleagues and students. The teachers dissected the corpses with their own hands, aiming not only to study the structure of the human body, but also to teach the anatomy of students. A century later, the center of anatomical research moved to France, and later concentrated in the Netherlands.
The largest anatomical school existed at Leiden University. At one time, the famous Dutch surgeon Nicholas Tulip (1593–1674) from Amsterdam, known to the world from a painting by his compatriot Rembrandt, graduated from it. Being a serious researcher in the field of comparative anatomy, the physician for the first time presented the structure of the anthropoid ape, likening it to a person. The name Tulpa is associated with the appearance of the symbol of doctors all over the world: a burning candle and the motto "Serving others, I destroy myself."
The University of Leiden became the place of study and work of another famous anatomist, Frederick Ruysch (1638-1731). A consistent supporter of Vesalius, in 1665 he defended his dissertation and left for Amsterdam at the invitation of the guild of local surgeons. Combining lectures on anatomy, Ruysch was engaged in scientific research. He is credited with inventing an original method of embalming, in creating a unique collection for the anatomical museum, where congenital anomalies and malformations were demonstrated. The Dutch scientist mastered the technique of preparing anatomical preparations to perfection, he knew the technique of injecting blood vessels with colored and hardening liquids. The great merits of Ruysch were appreciated by foreign luminaries of medicine. In 1705 he was elected a member of the Leopoldina Academy of Berlin, in 1720 he became a member of the London Scientific Royal Society, and after 7 years he attended meetings of the Paris Academy of Sciences.
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Andrei Vesalius is the founder of scientific anatomy. His remarkable book De humini corporus fabrica, written in 1543, was the first fully illustrated anatomy of the human body. It was based on the observations of the scientist, made by him during autopsies, and refuted many thousands of years of misconceptions in this field of knowledge. Andrew Vesalius is a Renaissance scholar. He was professor of anatomy at the University of Padua and physician to the Holy Roman Emperor Charles V.
Vesalius was born on December 31, 1514 in Brussels. At that time the city was part of the Holy Roman Empire. Today it is the capital of Belgium. Andrei was one of four children - he had two brothers and a sister. His father, Anders van Wezele, served as court apothecary to Margaret of Austria. Mother, Isabelle Crabbe, raised children in a rich house located in a respectable area near the Cowdenberg Palace, where the boy's father worked.
Vesalius went to school at the age of six. It was probably the educational institution of the Catholic fraternity in Brussels. For 9 years, he mastered arithmetic, Latin and other languages, and also thoroughly studied the principles of the Catholic religion. His father was often absent on duty. And the boy, encouraged by his mother to follow in his father's footsteps, took full advantage of the family's well-stocked library.
At the age of 15, Andrei Vesalius entered the University of Louvain. It was located 30 km east of Brussels. It was a moment of family pride: his father was banned from higher education, as he was born out of wedlock. As was customary then, Vesalius studied art and Latin. He also mastered Hebrew and Greek. After receiving his Master of Arts degree in 1532, he was admitted to the prestigious medical school of the University of Paris.
Andrew Vesalius began his medical education in 1533, at the age of 19. The talented student was greatly influenced by the works of the ancient Greek physician Claudius Galen, written 1300 years before he met them. These teachings were considered absolute and flawless truth. Most of Galen's anatomical observations were made during the autopsy of animals, mainly primates, since in that era it was forbidden to dissect people.
Andrei Vesalius, as an anatomist, owes much to his anatomy teacher Johann Guinter von Andernach, who translated the ancient Greek texts of Galen into Latin. Like the ancient Greek physician, he considered personal experience and observation to be the best way to gain anatomical knowledge. Most human autopsies at that time were carried out solely for the purpose of assuring students that everything written by Galen and Hippocrates was true.
During a typical demonstration, a butcher or surgeon would make the necessary incisions, while the teacher, seated high above the body, would read the relevant passages from ancient writings aloud. The assistant assisted the students by pointing to the organs under discussion. Since the ancient texts could not contain any errors, the students were not allowed to ask questions or discuss the dissection. Academic disputes, as a rule, concerned the correctness of the translation of ancient works, and not anatomy.
Guinter von Andernach was a rare type of teacher in those days. He allowed his students to dissect themselves. Although this practice was condemned by most universities. As a rule, an autopsy was performed on executed criminals, and it was considered humiliating for educated people to deal with these despicable specimens.
Vesalius' talents impressed Guinter so much that he asked him to help with a book on Galenic anatomy, Institutiones anatomicae. The work was published in 1536. In it, Guinter praised his 21-year-old student: "This promising young man has an outstanding knowledge of medicine, is fluent in Latin and Greek, and is very experienced in anatomy."
Andrew Vesalius was forced to leave Paris in 1536 as war broke out between France and the Holy Roman Empire. To complete his medical studies, he returned to the University of Louvain. His expertise in anatomy was quickly recognized. Soon, Vesalius was assigned to observe and comment on the autopsy of an 18-year-old noblewoman who died suddenly. Anatomy of young women at that time was rare. Vesalius was outraged by the inexperience of the surgeon and took over the autopsy.
Despite a keen awareness of his growing experience, he was still dissatisfied with his knowledge of human anatomy. Vesalius realized that the texts could teach him nothing more. Now Andrei had to break down the barriers to knowledge erected by the old professors of medicine who were happy to worship Galen and Hippocrates. For research, he needed human bodies.
Shortly after returning to Louvain, Andrew Vesalius and his friend found the almost complete corpse of the executed criminal, left in the open. The opportunity presented itself was too good to pass up. That night, Vesalius stole the body, kidnapped it, and dissected it into a skeleton, which he then used as a visual aid. In order not to arouse suspicion, he made up a story that he brought it from Paris. Conducting demonstrative dissections for students, Vesalius in Louvain actually became an informal teacher of anatomy. In 1537, at age 22, he received a bachelor's degree in medicine.
The young doctor wanted to become a doctor. To do this, he needed to obtain the appropriate qualifications. To this end, he entered the University of Padua in northern Italy. The professors quickly realized that Vesalius was an exceptional student. Almost immediately, they allowed him to take his final exams. The gifted young man received his doctorate just in time for his twenty-third birthday. The teachers immediately elected him professor of anatomy and surgery.
Andrew Vesalius will write his main works in Padua. He keenly felt the need for illustrations and visual aids that could help students understand anatomy. Vesalius used them during autopsies. In the first year of his professorship, in 1538, he published Tabulae anatomicae sex - "Six Anatomical Tables". The illustrative illustrations were accompanied by notes made during his first public autopsy in Padua by Andrei Vesalius. The contribution to the anatomy of the scientist is undeniable. He made schematic representations of the liver, venous and arterial system, and the skeleton. The book instantly became very popular. She shamelessly copied.
In 1539, the anatomical studies of Vesalius received the support of the judge of Padua. He became interested in the work of the scientist and began to supply him with the bodies of executed criminals for autopsy. By this time, it had become apparent to Vesalius that Galen's anatomy was incorrect. However, the refutation of prevailing ideas is a difficult and sometimes dangerous business. Even in more recent times, all too often new ideas had to fight for their right to exist, even if they were supported by solid evidence. Vesalius, on the other hand, had to refute the orthodox views that had prevailed for 1300 years.
In the work "Six Anatomical Tables", instead of describing his modern observations in the course of research, the scientist made concessions to tradition. Andrew Vesalius presented the liver in a medieval form - in the form of a five-lobed flower. He depicted the heart and aorta as Galen described them - these were the organs of monkeys, not people. However, in the skeleton, he managed to make revolutionary, albeit subtle, changes. Vesalius showed a human jaw consisting of one, not two bones, as Galen incorrectly claimed.
In addition to this mini-mutiny, Vesalius also took part in the controversy about venosection, or bloodletting. This technique has been regularly used to treat or alleviate the symptoms of patients. Doctors argued about where to cut the vein - near the site of injury or at a distance from it. The discussion heated up because doctors relied on the Arabic translation of Galen's writings - his original works in Greek had not been available in Europe since Roman times. However, the fall of Constantinople changed this situation. And the work of Galen could again be studied in the original. The doctors found that the Greek text was sometimes at odds with the Arabic translation they had been using for so long.
In 1539, at the age of 24, Vesalius wrote a letter about bloodletting. Without siding with any revolutionary change, he again broke with conventional wisdom by recounting his own observations rather than quoting classical texts. Vesalius was now determined to seek the truth on his own, rather than relying on the work of others.
In 1540, at the age of 25, Andrew Vesalius began work on an illustrated anatomy textbook De humini corporus fabrica ("On the structure of the human body"). This book became his most significant work. In 1543, Vesalius took a leave of absence from the University of Padua. He traveled to Basel, Switzerland to complete the preparation of the book for publication.
On the Structure of the Human Body was an impressive work of 700 pages in seven volumes. Her visual impact - over 270 breathtaking illustrations - was enormous. The second volume, for example, features stunningly detailed human images, layer by layer of illustrations showing the muscular structure of the body. These drawings are probably the most famous medical images in history.
It is difficult to overestimate the importance of the book written by Andrei Vesalius. The contribution to medicine was enormous. In addition, the work became an important milestone in the history of art. Unfortunately, the name of the artist who worked with the scientist remained unknown. The images were accompanied by a description of how the muscles worked.
It is not surprising that, given the richness of the illustrations and the large volume, the book was a costly acquisition. It was intended for doctors, libraries and aristocrats. Realizing that others might be interested in his work, the author simultaneously released a practical, more accessible book with fewer drawings called Epitome. Andrew Vesalius in Epitome used many more male bodies than female ones for illustrations, probably because there were significantly more male criminals executed than female ones.
Fabrica became the ancestor of the modern science of human anatomy. She decisively broke with Galen and Hippocrates. Andrei Vesalius based his discoveries only on what he actually saw during autopsies, and not on what he expected to see. Here are just a few of his statements:
Most readers received the book positively. It has become a desktop for serious anatomists and doctors. However, some physicians and scientists felt threatened, as they built their careers on Galen's work, and lashed out at Vesalius.
For example, Jacob Silvius, who taught Andrew in Paris, described his former student as an insolent and illiterate slanderer who treacherously attacked his teacher with aggressive lies, distorting the truth of nature again and again. In saying this, he may have taken revenge on his student, who had previously said that Sylvius's methods of teaching, which consisted of studying the corpses of cats and dogs, and not people, were not capable of leading to progress in the science of human anatomy.
Andrew Vesalius dedicated "On the Structure of the Human Body" to Emperor Charles V. He also presented him with a special copy printed on parchment. Vesalius dedicated the Epitome to Charles's son, Prince Philip.
When the emperor noticed a book authored by Andrei Vesalius, the biography of the scientist made another turn - he was appointed doctor of the imperial family. He resigned his duties as a professor at Padua, becoming the fifth representative of the Vesalius dynasty, who was in the service of the court. As a life doctor, he had to serve in the army. When the war began, Vesalius was sent to the battlefield as a surgeon. Accustomed to working with corpses, he struggled to operate on living patients. Experienced surgeon Daza Chacon helped him learn how to quickly perform amputations.
In the winter of 1543, Vesalius came to Italy to perform in anatomical theaters, and then returned to military service in the spring of 1544. He became an excellent surgeon. One of Vesalius' court duties was to embalm the corpses of wealthy nobles who died in battle. This allowed him to make further anatomical studies, take notes, and make observations.
Peace was declared in mid-1544. And Andrew Vesalius, the surgeon, returned to take care of the emperor and his court in a more comfortable environment. His reputation continued to grow as he received letters from doctors throughout Europe asking for advice in the most difficult cases.
In 1556, Emperor Charles V transferred power to his son Philip. In gratitude to Vesalius, who was 41 years old, for his faithful service, Charles granted him a lifetime pension and the aristocratic title of Count Palatine. The court physician continued to work, now in the service of Philip.
Andrew Vesalius accompanied Philip to Madrid, but he did not enjoy life there. Spanish physicians treated diseases by relying on the movements of the planets. The dissection of human bodies was forbidden. It all seemed rather backward. In addition, Philip gave preference to traditional medical methods of treatment, rather than modern scientific ones. It became clear to Vesalius that he would never become the chief physician of the ruler.
In 1561 the professor of anatomy, Gabriele Fallopius, who held Andrew's former position at the University of Padua, sent him a copy of a book he had written called Observationes Anatomicae. In it he commented on "On the Structure of the Human Body", pointing out in a friendly manner some of the discrepancies between Vesalius's work and his own later observations. He also made it clear that he was seriously ill.
Fallopius died in 1564. The department of anatomy in Padua became vacant. That same year, Vesalius left Spain on a pilgrimage to Jerusalem. Various surviving sources state that he was sent by Philip to make a pilgrimage as a token of penance. The emperor allegedly made such a decision after a noble family reported on the revolutionary anatomist to the Spanish Inquisition about the autopsy of a nobleman, whose heart was still beating.
All these reports rely on a single source - a letter allegedly written in 1565 by the diplomat Hubert Languet. It was most likely fabricated 50 years after the death of the anatomist. Andrew Vesalius, whose biography is not tainted by such facts (there are no primary documents confirming the charges against him), probably went on a pilgrimage trick in order to leave Philip's court in Spain unhindered and then return to Padua.
In 1544, Vesalius married the daughter of a wealthy adviser in Brussels, Anna van Hamme. They had one child, a girl who was born in 1545. Her parents named her Anna. The family lived together most of the time. But when Vesalius went on his pilgrimage to Jerusalem, his wife and daughter returned to Brussels.
The scientist reached Jerusalem, where he received a letter with an invitation to accept the Department of Anatomy and Surgery at the University of Padua. Unfortunately, Andrei Vesalius, whose brief biography was tragically interrupted, never returned to Padua. His journey from Jerusalem was marred by violent storms. By the time the ship reached port on the Greek island of Zakynthos, Vesalius was desperately ill. He died a few days later. Andrei Vesalius, the founder of scientific anatomy, has died at the age of 49. This happened on October 15, 1564. He was buried in Zakynthos.
VESALIUS, ANDREAS (Vesalius, Andreas) (1514-1564), Italian naturalist. Born December 31, 1514 (or January 1, 1515) in Brussels (Belgium). He studied medicine in Brussels, Louvain and Paris. In 1537 he received the degree of bachelor of medicine in Louvain, in the same year - the degree of doctor of medicine in Padua. From 1539 he was a professor at the University of Padua.
The main scientific works of Vesalius are devoted to human anatomy. In 1538, the scientist published Anatomical Tables - six sheets of engravings made by Stefan Van Kalkar, a student of Titian Vecelli. In them, Vesalius clarified and supplemented the anatomical terminology, illustrated new data on the structure of the human body. Convinced that many of the anatomical texts of Galen, the famous Roman physician (c. 130-200 AD), were based on animal dissections and therefore did not reflect the specifics of human anatomy, Vesalius decided to undertake experimental studies of the human body. The result was a treatise on the structure of the human body (De humani corporis fabrica, 1543).
“Know thyself” (Nosce te ipsum) - this, in fact, was the essence of anatomy, and the book of Vesalius greatly contributed to the process of knowledge. But a person is extremely persistent in delusions, all the more so - a specialist, and a narrow specialist - even more so. And parting with delusions is like death. And the book of Vesalius, not claiming to be an absolute truth, forced a lot to rethink anew, in accordance not with conjectures - they, like a shell rock, stuck around the bottom of the ship of knowledge, preventing progress, but with the facts that were obtained by experiment and practice.
It must be said that Vesalius was not inclined to write too much. In addition to the main book of his life, we know only a few of his publications. These are the famous "Tabullae anatomicae sex" ("Six anatomical tables"), which were the prelude to his main work. A separate publication also published his letter on bloodletting from the right cubital vein in inflammatory processes. Since venous blood flows from the liver to the periphery, and it mixes in the superior vena cava, according to Vesalius, even with left-sided inflammation of the lungs, bloodletting from the veins of the right hand can have a therapeutic effect. This work was a response to the furious controversy on the issues of bloodletting and, to a certain extent, put an end to that controversy.
In addition to his main work, Vesalius wrote Epitome, which was published in the same year 1543 as an annotation to his book. This is, if you like, anatomy for beginners in an accessible and concise manner. By the way, according to experts, this book did not appear in Russian, while its originals were not found in the libraries of the CIS.
He is the author of two other publications. This is a letter about the healing properties of a decoction of cinchona root (Basel, 1546) and a letter to Gabriel Fallopius with a response to his criticism (Venice, 1564) - the same Fallopius, after whom the pipes he discovered are named (that is, the oviducts through which the egg cell passes from the ovary into the uterus). So, in the first letter, Vesalius reports on the successful use of cinchona decoction for gout, devoting several pages along the way to defending his anatomical views. The second contains frank thoughts about the development of anatomy, considers the merits of Fallopius, and notes with regret the premature departure of Vesalius from anatomy.
In 1543, Vesalius became the court physician of the Holy Roman Emperor Charles V, acquired an extensive private practice and a high reputation. After the abdication of Charles V in 1556, he entered the service of his son Philip II, King of Spain. After the death in 1562 of Gabriele Fallopio, who held the chair of anatomy in Padua, Vesalius decided to return to research work. Under the pretext of illness and a desire to make a pilgrimage to the Holy Land, he obtained permission to leave. In May 1564, Vesalius received his former chair and, before the start of the new semester, set off on a journey to Jerusalem. On the way back, the ship on which Vesalius sailed was shipwrecked and was thrown onto the island of Zakynthos. Vesalius died on the island of Zakynthos in June 1564.
Preface to the Russian edition of the treatise by Andrei Vesalius "On the structure of the human body"
