Walls- these are vertical fences that separate rooms from external environment and from each other. The walls must withstand the loads placed on them, ensure a constant temperature in the room and make it soundproof. In construction, depending on their purpose, walls are classified into external and internal. Depending on the material used, walls are made of artificial materials (concrete, brick, asbestos-cement) and natural (limestone, shell rock, tuff, wood). Depending on the perception of loads from the building, the walls can be self-supporting, self-supporting And non-structural. Bearers walls take loads from other parts of the building (floors, roofs) and, together with their own weight, transfer them to the foundations. Self-supporting The walls rest on foundations, but they carry the load only from their own weight. Non-load bearing(curtain) walls are fences that rest on each floor on other elements of the building (frame) and support their own mass within one floor.
The walls of civil buildings must meet the following requirements: be strong and stable; have durability corresponding to the class of the building; correspond to the degree of fire resistance of the building; be an energy-saving element of the building; have heat transfer resistance in accordance with thermal engineering standards, while ensuring the necessary temperature and humidity comfort in the premises; have sufficient soundproofing properties; have a design that meets modern methods of constructing wall structures; types of walls must be economically justified based on the given architectural and artistic solution, and meet the capabilities of the customer; material intensity (material consumption) should be as minimal as possible, since this greatly helps to reduce labor costs for the construction of walls and overall construction costs.
Partitions are called relatively thin walls that serve to divide the internal space within one floor into separate rooms. The partitions rest on the floors on each floor and do not carry any load other than their own weight.
PARTITIONS. Partitions must be soundproof, nailable, durable, and stable. Partitions are installed on the floor structure before flooring is laid. In places where partitions made of combustible materials adjoin stoves and chimneys, brick cuts should be arranged along the entire height so that the distance from the partition to the inner surface of the stove or chimney is at least 40 cm. FRAME. GYPSUM PARTITIONS. BRICK PARTITIONS. Brick partitions are laid with a thickness of 1/2 brick (12 cm). The basis for partitions can be concrete preparation under ground floor floors or reinforced concrete floors. Due to their significant weight, brick partitions should not be used on wooden floors. A non-load-bearing wall, or partition, can only be internal.
When constructing houses, both multi-storey and private country houses, load-bearing or self-supporting walls can be erected. The first type of enclosing structures experiences serious loads from the floors and roof. Self-supporting walls- these are vertical elements of a building on which nothing rests. During the operation of the house, loads in such structures arise only from their own weight.
Basic distinctive feature itself load-bearing walls, in comparison with loaded ones, is that they have a small thickness. Accordingly, less material is used during their construction. The thickness of the walls of this type, depending on what they were built from, can range from 50-380 mm.
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During the construction of the rear, among other things, non-load-bearing enclosing structures can also be assembled. Such walls also do not take the load from the elements of the house located above. In another way, structures of this type are called hinged. They are always built within the same floor. However, if their height exceeds 6 m, they can already be considered self-supporting. Their design and calculations are carried out accordingly.
Self-supporting walls are basically only external enclosing structures. Such elements of the building simply protect it interior spaces from wind and precipitation, adjacent to the main frame. Ceilings to such walls are attached to the side on all floors in height. When building houses, both single-layer and multi-layer self-supporting enclosing structures can be erected. If walls of this type are located inside the building, they only serve as partitions.
According to SNiP standards, in such structures when performing redevelopment in multi-storey and country houses It is allowed to make openings or expand them to the required parameters. Also, walls of this type, in some cases, can even be dismantled and rebuilt without the risk of collapse of other building structures.
Before starting the construction of any house, of course, it is also drawn up detailed project. At the same time, an operation such as the calculation of self-supporting, non-load-bearing and loaded walls for stability is also performed. For brick structures, for example, such calculations are made taking into account data from several tables from paragraphs 6.16-6.20 of SNiP II-22-81. In any case, when calculating the stability of a self-supporting wall, the compliance of the ratio of its thickness to height with a given geometry with standard values is determined.
It is possible to build such enclosing structures from almost any materials. Self-supporting walls are elements of a building that can be constructed from wood, brick, or blocks. In any case, such structures are assembled exclusively on strong supports. Their foundations are poured simultaneously with the foundation of the building itself.
Self-supporting brick, block walls, etc. are mated with other types of enclosing structures exclusively using flexible connections. When using rigid ones, due to the unequal degree of loading, the building elements may subsequently crack and deform. Accordingly, living in the house will become unsafe.
Self-supporting walls are structures that, when laid with bricks or blocks, are required to be reinforced according to standards. However, such enclosing parts of buildings are usually strengthened not as thoroughly as loaded ones. When constructing walls of this type, rods are inserted through a larger number of rows of masonry. According to the standards, reinforcement for such structures can be used with a diameter of 1-2 mm.
When constructing high-rise buildings, self-supporting external walls can be constructed from:
When constructing buildings that are not too high, sometimes blocks are also used:
A feature of such materials in comparison, for example, with the same brick, is a relatively low degree of strength. Therefore, the use of their standards is allowed, depending on the variety, when constructing houses no more than 3-5 floors high.
Constructions of external walls of civil and industrial buildings
The structures of external walls of civil and industrial buildings are classified according to the following criteria:
1) by static function:
a) load-bearing;
b) self-supporting;
c) non-load-bearing (mounted).
In Fig. 3.19 shown general form these types of external walls.
Load-bearing external walls perceive and transfer to the foundations their own weight and loads from adjacent building structures: floors, partitions, roofs, etc. (at the same time they perform load-bearing and enclosing functions).
Self-supporting external walls perceive vertical load only from their own weight (including the load from balconies, bay windows, parapets and other wall elements) and transfer them to the foundations through intermediate load-bearing structures - foundation beams, grillages or plinth panels (at the same time they perform load-bearing and enclosing functions).
Non-load-bearing (curtain) external walls floor by floor (or through several floors) they rest on adjacent supporting structures of the building - floors, frames or walls. Thus, curtain walls perform only an enclosing function.
Rice. 3.19. Types of external walls according to static function:
a – load-bearing; b – self-supporting; c – non-load-bearing (suspended): 1 – building floor; 2 – frame column; 3 – foundation
Load-bearing and non-load-bearing external walls are used in buildings of any number of floors. Self-supporting walls rest on their own foundation, so their height is limited due to the possibility of mutual deformations of the external walls and internal structures of the building. The taller the building, the greater the difference in vertical deformations, so, for example, in panel houses It is allowed to use self-supporting walls with a building height of no more than 5 floors.
The stability of self-supporting external walls is ensured by flexible connections with the internal structures of the building.
2) According to the material:
A) stone walls They are built from brick (clay or silicate) or stones (concrete or natural) and are used in buildings of any number of storeys. Stone blocks are made from natural stone (limestone, tuff, etc.) or artificial (concrete, lightweight concrete).
b) Concrete walls made from heavy concrete class B15 and higher with a density of 1600 ÷ 2000 kg/m 3 (load-bearing parts of the walls) or lightweight concrete of classes B5 ÷ B15 with a density of 1200 ÷ 1600 kg/m 3 (for thermal insulation parts of the walls).
For the production of lightweight concrete, artificial porous aggregates (expanded clay, perlite, shungizite, agloporite, etc.) or natural lightweight aggregates (crushed stone from pumice, slag, tuff) are used.
When constructing non-load-bearing external walls, cellular concrete (foam concrete, aerated concrete, etc.) of classes B2 ÷ B5 with a density of 600 ÷ 1600 kg/m 3 is also used. Concrete walls are used in buildings of any number of floors.
V) Wooden walls used in low-rise buildings. For their construction, pine logs with a diameter of 180 ÷ 240 mm or beams with a section of 150x150 mm or 180x180 mm are used, as well as board or glue-plywood panels and panels with a thickness of 150 ÷ 200 mm.
G) walls made of non-concrete materials mainly used in the construction of industrial buildings or low-rise civil buildings. Structurally, they consist of outer and inner cladding made of sheet material(steel, aluminum alloys, plastic, asbestos cement, etc.) and insulation (sandwich panels). Walls of this type are designed as load-bearing only for one-story buildings, and for larger numbers of floors - only as non-load-bearing.
3) according to a constructive solution:
a) single-layer;
b) two-layer;
c) three-layer.
The number of layers of the building’s external walls is determined based on the results of thermal engineering calculations. To comply with modern standards for heat transfer resistance in most regions of Russia, it is necessary to design three-layer external wall structures with effective insulation.
4) according to construction technology:
a) by traditional technology Hand-laid stone walls are being erected. In this case, bricks or stones are laid in rows over a layer of cement-sand mortar. The strength of stone walls is ensured by the strength of the stone and mortar, as well as the mutual bandaging of vertical seams. For an extra boost bearing capacity masonry (for example, for narrow walls), horizontal reinforcement is used welded mesh after 2 ÷ 5 rows.
The required thickness of stone walls is determined by thermal calculations and linked to standard sizes bricks or stones. Brick walls with a thickness of 1; 1.5; 2; 2.5 and 3 bricks (250, 380, 510, 640 and 770 mm, respectively). Walls made of concrete or natural stones when laid with 1 and 1.5 stones have a thickness of 390 and 490 mm, respectively.
In Fig. Figure 3.20 shows several types of solid masonry made of brick and stone blocks. In Fig. 3.21 shows the design of a three-layer brick wall 510 mm thick (for the climatic region of the Nizhny Novgorod region).
Rice. 3.20. Types of solid masonry: a – six-row brickwork; b – two-row brickwork; c – masonry from ceramic stones; d and e – masonry made of concrete or natural stones; e – masonry of cellular concrete stones with external cladding brick
The inner layer of the three-layer stone wall supports the floors and load-bearing structures of the roof. Outer and inner layers brickwork are connected to each other by reinforcing mesh with a vertical pitch of no more than 600 mm. The thickness of the inner layer is assumed to be 250 mm for buildings with a height of 1 ÷ 4 floors, 380 mm for buildings with a height of 5 ÷ 14 floors and 510 mm for buildings with a height of more than 14 floors.
Rice. 3.21. Stone wall three-layer construction:
1 – internal load-bearing layer;
2 – thermal insulation layer;
3 – air gap;
4 – outer self-supporting (cladding) layer
b) fully assembled technology used in the construction of large-panel and volumetric block buildings. In this case, installation individual elements buildings are carried out by cranes.
The external walls of large-panel buildings are made of concrete or brick panels. Panel thickness – 300, 350, 400 mm. In Fig. Figure 3.22 shows the main types of concrete panels used in civil engineering.
Rice. 3.22. Concrete panels of external walls: a – single-layer; b – two-layer; c – three-layer:
1 – structural and thermal insulation layer;
2 – protective and finishing layer;
3 – load-bearing layer;
4 – thermal insulation layer
Volume-block buildings are buildings of increased factory readiness, which are assembled from separate prefabricated block-rooms. The outer walls of such volumetric blocks can be one-, two-, or three-layer.
V) monolithic and prefabricated-monolithic construction technologies allow the construction of one-, two- and three-layer monolithic concrete walls.
Rice. 3.23. Prefabricated monolithic external walls (in plan):
a – two-layer with an outer layer of thermal insulation;
b – the same, c inner layer thermal insulation;
c – three-layer with an outer layer of thermal insulation
When using this technology, the formwork (mold) is first installed into which the concrete mixture. Single-layer walls are made of lightweight concrete with a thickness of 300 ÷ 500 mm.
Multilayer walls are made prefabricated monolithic using an outer or inner layer of stone blocks made of cellular concrete. (see Fig. 3.23).
5) by location window openings:
In Fig. 3.24 shown various options location of window openings in the external walls of buildings. Options A, b, V, G used in the design of residential and public buildings, option d– when designing industrial and public buildings, option e– for public buildings.
From considering these options, it can be seen that functional purpose buildings (residential, public or industrial) determines constructive solution its outer walls and appearance generally.
One of the main requirements for external walls is the necessary fire resistance. According to requirements fire safety standards Load-bearing external walls must be made of fireproof materials with a fire resistance rating of at least 2 hours (stone, concrete). The use of fire-resistant load-bearing walls (for example, wooden plastered walls) with a fire resistance limit of at least 0.5 hours is allowed only in one- and two-story houses.
Rice. 3.24. Location of window openings in the external walls of buildings:
a – wall without openings;
b – wall with no big amount openings;
V - panel wall with openings;
d – load-bearing wall with reinforced partitions;
d – wall c hanging panels;
e – fully glazed wall (stained glass)
High requirements for the fire resistance of load-bearing walls are caused by their main role in the safety of the building, since the destruction of load-bearing walls in a fire causes the collapse of all structures resting on them and the building as a whole.
Non-load-bearing external walls are designed to be fireproof or difficult to burn with lower fire resistance limits (from 0.25 to 0.5 hours), since the destruction of these structures in a fire can only cause local damage to the building.
In the previous article, I talked about how to correctly calculate the foundation for a brick house, but today we’ll look at diagram of the foundation itself and determine under which walls it is needed. Also, in this article, I will talk about how to prepare the site and correctly mark all the walls under which concrete will be poured.
We have already figured out which foundation for a brick house is better, and, in our case, the choice fell on the strip one, but in order not to repeat ourselves, we will immediately proceed to the scheme.
In order to decide on a scheme strip foundation, let's take a look at the layout of the rooms in the house.
As we can see, there are a lot of walls in the house, and pouring a monolithic reinforced concrete strip under each of them is impractical, since in this case, the cost of the foundation will at least double.
In most cases, it is sufficient to construct a foundation only under load-bearing and heavy walls. And thin and relatively light partitions can be erected on a rough concrete (reinforced concrete) floor.
Now let's take a look at the diagram of the foundation itself, and then I will explain on what principle the internal load-bearing walls were chosen.
Bearers walls No. 1 and No. 2 designed to more evenly transfer the load from the roof to the foundation. Their additional purpose is to prevent significant “sagging” of wooden ceiling beams, since there is a very large distance between the opposite external walls.
The diagram below shows how the ceiling will be located wooden beams, on which the entire roof will rest.
In this regard, these walls will be at least 20 - 25cm thick, which means they will already have a relatively large weight. In addition, the roof will still rest on them, and the lack of a foundation under such walls is fraught with consequences.
Wall No. 3 separates the garage from the main house. No matter how well the garage is heated, it doesn't matter winter period, this will be the coldest room in the house due to the constantly opening gate.
So, in connection with the above, in order to retain heat in the house, it was decided to make this wall thicker, the same as all the external walls. Although it will be practically self-supporting, it will still have significant weight, which implies the presence of a sufficient foundation under it.
The remaining walls separating rooms and other rooms from each other can be made into thin partitions, the load from which can be easily withstood by a reinforced concrete floor poured onto the ground. In other words, the foundation under self-supporting thin partitions will not be poured.
In the previous article, in which we calculated the foundation for a brick house, I said that the entire monolithic reinforced concrete strip will be 40 cm thick, despite the fact that the total thickness of the external walls will be about 50 cm.
Below in the diagram you can see how a 50cm wide wall will be placed on a 38cm wide plinth. (Read in the previous article why the foundation is 40cm and the plinth is 38cm).
The diagram is quite approximate and, accordingly, does not respect proportions. Parameters such as the thickness of the sand cushion, the thickness of the monolithic reinforced concrete slab etc. - we will look at it later, in the relevant topics.
Since a rough reinforced concrete floor will be immediately poured on top of the base, there will be no “sagging” of the wall, and for strength and support on the ground, a foundation base of 40 cm will be sufficient. This will save on the foundation.
Your main enemy in the process of marking the foundation is grass and uneven ground, which is responsible for most of the errors in measurements. Therefore, before marking, the future construction site was cleared of tall vegetation (grass, bushes, etc.). In most cases, to clean and prepare the area, it is enough to use a trimmer (gasoline or electric scythe).
There was no need to level anything, since construction site and so it turned out to be more or less even.
Of course, some time and effort were spent on cleaning, but this made it possible to more accurately mark the foundation and subsequently made the work much easier and faster.
It is worth adding that in our region the cleanliness of sites is monitored, and abandoned and overgrown ones entail a significant fine to the owner.
The markings were made using a tape measure, a cord, pegs made from d8mm reinforcement, and a hammer, with which these same pegs were driven in.
First of all, we determine the location of the house on the site. Schematically it looks like this:
Before marking the location of the house on the site, carefully study the documents permitting construction. The basic rules for locating the house, regarding the red line and neighboring plots should be spelled out there. The diagram has a red line at the bottom.
Now, you need to mark rectangular perimeter the whole house. Below in the diagram, the perimeter is indicated by red dots.
Only after this can you begin marking the foundation. Now you have something to start from and marking all the walls will not be difficult.
The procedure and technology for accurately marking the foundation for a house, without the use of expensive tools and devices, is very simple and described in detail in one of the previous articles. In our case, it was produced in exactly the same way, so we will not dwell on this.
After accurately marking the perimeter of the house, checking that the sizes of the diagonals match, we marked everything external walls, and then internal ones. Thus, everything was ready for the next stage of construction of our future home.
It is worth adding that the marking was done by two people for about 2 hours, since the house is huge with a lot of corners. By the way, marking can be done by one person, but it is quite long and difficult to do accurately.
Well, that’s basically all there is to it house foundation diagrams, as well as everyone preparatory work. Well, in the next article we will proceed directly to the construction of the foundation itself brick house.
3 curb ledge at the foot of the wall
4 curb at the foot of the wall
5 pit along the wall
6 rusticated plastered walls
7 adjacent walls
8 WALLS
9 and the walls have ears
10 walls have ears
[saying]
⇒ one can be overheard because another or others might be listening surreptitiously, even the most secret conversations may become known to others:
- - (even) the walls have ears.
11 like peas off the wall
⇒ all requests (orders etc) are ignored, ignored by s.o.; all attempts to persuade s.o. to do sth. or to change his mode of behavior produce no results, have no effect on s.o.:
- (it"s) like beating (banging) your (one"s) head against the wall (a wall, a brick wall, a stone wall) ;
- you might as well beat (bang) your head against a wall (a brick wall, a stone wall) ;
- you might as well talk to the wall (a wall, a brick wall).
♦ All this was told to him [Nadelashin] at the same time. But no matter what you say to Nadelashin, it’s like you’re hitting a wall (Solzhenitsyn 3). Didn't have been told about it at the time. But no matter how often one spoke to Nadelashin, it was like beating one"s head against a stone wall (3a).
♦ “I tried to come to an agreement with this Golem - it’s like peas against a wall...” (Strugatsky 1). "I tried to come to an agreement with this Golem. It"s like talking to a brick wall" (1a).
♦ “Careful. It’s slippery here. How many times have I told you not to pour slop in front of the door - it’s like peas against a wall” (Pasternak 1). "Careful - it"s slippery. I don"t know how many times I"ve told them not to throw the slops out of the door - might as well talk to a wall" (1a).
12 houses and walls help
[saying]
etc
- etc) ;
- [usu. in sporting contexts] etc) advantage.
13 walls at home help
[saying]
⇒ a person feels more sure of himself, performs better etc in his home or usual, familiar surroundings than he does in an unfamiliar setting:
- it helps to be in your own territory (in your own home, on your own turf etc) ;
- [usu. in sporting contexts] one has the home court (field etc) advantage.
14 Houses and walls help
15 battlement wall
16 walls at home help
houses and walls help
last
We were afraid to start the engine at the factory, where we were still outsiders... Now the factory, we thought, was not needed: the walls at home help; We will finish it at home, on our machines. (A. Beck, Life of Berezhkov)- We were afraid to test the engine at the works, where we were still regarded as outsiders... We had no more need of the works, we thought. There's no place like home and your own machines for developing an engine.
