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Sanzhenakov Ivan Mikhailovich. Development of enlightenment and education of foreigners of the Altai Mountains in the 19th - early 20th centuries. : dissertation... candidate of pedagogical sciences: 13.00.01 / Sanzhenakov Ivan Mikhailovich; [Place of protection: Moscow. psych.-social Institute] - Moscow, 2008. - 167 p.: ill. RSL OD, 61 08-13/450
Introduction
CHAPTER I. State policy in the field of education of foreigners in the East of Russia in the 19th - early 20th centuries. The role of N.I. Ilminsky in the education of foreigners in the East of Russia.
1.1 Policy of education of eastern foreigners Russian Empire before the liberal reforms of the 60s. XIX century. 15
1.2 Pedagogical activity of N.I. Ilminsky on the development of a system of education for foreigners in the East of Russia. 37
1.3 The essence of the “Rules on measures for the education of foreigners inhabiting Russia” (1870) 48
1.4 Development of foreign education in the East of Russia in 1870 - 1917. 59
CHAPTER II. Activities of the Altai Spiritual Mission in the education of foreigners of the Altai Mountains in the 30s of the 19th - early 20th centuries .
2.1. Activities of missionary schools in the 30s - 60s. XIX century. 76
2.2. The concept of education of foreigners N.I. Ilminsky as the basis for the educational activities of the Altai spiritual mission. 91
2.3. Activities of missionary schools in the late 60s. ХХ - early XX centuries. 100
Conclusion 128
Applications 133
Bibliography 150
Introduction to the work
Russia is a multinational country, since its formation and development
how the state went due to a number of historical reasons and circumstances
I multi-ethnic basis. As a result of the formation of Russia as a state
|* multi-ethnic it included peoples belonging to different 1
J ethnic and language groups, different confessional* and
civilization zones.
In relation to the indigenous non-Russian population of Moscow
/ state in the 16th-17th centuries, Russian* Empire in the 18th century. - early XX
century in accordance with its national idea - (“Moscow is the third Rome”,
from the 19th century "Orthodoxy, Autocracy, Nationality") main political
The goal was to Christianize the peoples of Eastern Russia. -
With the transition to the active stage of modernization (liberal reforms. 60s of the XIX century), the most important goal became the education of the multinational
* the population of the empire, which in the future required the formation of a system
\ universal school education throughout Russia.
\
» During this period, the question of organizing a common system arose urgently
education in the eastern provinces of Russia with a multi-ethnic aboriginal population. Therefore, in the public education of the eastern provinces, in addition to missionary tasks, educational tasks arise and come to the fore as part of the problem of universal education of non-Russian children and youth.
1 In this light, the activities of the Altai
I spiritual mission - educational and missionary - in the context
* relevant state educational policy in relation to
to eastern foreigners in the 19th - early 20th centuries. It should be noted that also
More recently, the activities of spiritual missions were assessed at
professional literature is one-sidedly negative, as soon as
"Christianizing and assimilative in purpose and content. Such an assessment
naturally followed from the paradigmatics of domestic social science during the socialist stage of its development.
Therefore, there is a need to review and reassess pedagogical literature on the problem of the educational component of the activities of the spiritual mission in Altai at the end of the 19th - beginning of the 20th centuries. in the context of modern scientific paradigmatics of social science.
The analyzed problems are not one-dimensional. Its disclosure requires the involvement, in addition to the history of pedagogy, of a number of other social science disciplines, in particular, historical science with such sections as the history of state national politics and the history of the church.
The first works examining the problem of the pedagogical component of the Altai Mission’s activities through the prism of modern social scientific* paradigmatics appeared in the late 90s of the 20th century. These are the works of A.V. Blinova, Yu.Yu. Gisey, D: V. Katsuba, M.R. Manyakhina [PO]. However, the works of these authors are of a general historical nature, and such an aspect as the role of the Altai spiritual mission in the education of the non-Russian population is not sufficiently covered, which requires a more complete analysis of the problem, its assessment in a broader context. It is necessary to analyze the government’s educational policy in this period, consider the N.I. system. Ilminsky, the main ideologist and organizer of enlightenment and education of the non-Russian population of the eastern part of the empire in the second half of the 19th century, to characterize the activities of the Altai spiritual mission itself and its results.
In this regard, in solving these problems, the author had the opportunity to explore the previously inaccessible funds of the Synodal Library of the Moscow Patriarchate, which makes it possible to significantly expand the range of sources and allows us to present a full-scale assessment of the activities of the Altai Spiritual Mission in educating the Altai people.
Relevance. The development of education is the most important indicator of progress in the cultural state of any society. The school, being a translator of language and culture both for an individual ethnic group and for the entire multiethnic community as a whole, forming both ethnic and general civic identity, acts as a system-forming and integrating factor in a multinational state. Thus, the school can play the role of an instrument not only of educational, but also of national policy of the state.
Therefore, rethinking and objective assessment of all aspects of the activities of missionary schools, not only as tools of education, but also as mechanisms of social consolidation, seem very important and relevant today.
Awareness by the Russian state of the special role of the school in a multi-ethnic, multinational country, both as an institution of education and as an instrument for the linguistic and spiritual consolidation of the peoples of the empire; their integration in the spirit of the national-state idea dates back to the end of the 60s of the 18th century. The importance of school as one of effective means in the integration of the peoples of Russia was recognized by the state throughout all subsequent stages of the Russian social process.
During the liberal school reform of the 60s of the 19th century, which in the long term had the goal of creating a universal school system, the question of organizing general education in the eastern provinces of the Russian Empire with a foreign population. It was meant that the type of schools created in these territories had to be correlated, first of all, with parochial schools, structurally
One of the steps towards realizing the goal of creating a universal school system was the adoption of the concept of foreign education by N.I. Ilminsky as a state educational policy in the East of Russia.
The implementation of this system of foreign education implied the solution of a double set of tasks: 1) actual pedagogical tasks 2) integration tasks.
Studying the development of foreign education in Russia, using the example of schools of the Altai Spiritual Mission in the context of the activities of N.I. Ilminsky as an ideologist and practitioner of foreign education in the second half of the 19th century. due to the need for a balanced assessment of this experience in organizing a unified educational space in Russia, taking into account its ethnonational characteristics.
An experimental platform for “testing” the system of foreign education N.I. Ilminsky came to Kazan baptized Tatar schools. As in the Kazan educational district, the deployment of an appropriate network of schools in Altai and the preparation of the necessary “infrastructure” was linked directly to the activities of the clergy, as well as the educational activities of the corresponding spiritual mission. The Altai Spiritual Mission, created in 1828s and began to function in 1830, serves as the “organizational basis” for the development of education in Altai. Since the 60s of the 19th century, the mission schools have used the experience of Kazan foreign schools.
To present the conditions under which foreign education developed in Altai after the adoption of the Rules of 1870, we examined the history of foreign education in Russia as a whole before N.I. Ilminsky.
The degree of development of the problem. The change in the vector and goals of Russia's development at the turn of the 80s - 90s of the XX century, the course towards the creation of a civil society and the rule of law, the subsequent political, socio-economic and cultural transformations that took place in the country in the last twenty years, have provided modern historians with and teachers the opportunity, on the basis of new archival documents, to consider through the prism of modern
paradigmatics of cultural and educational processes of pre-revolutionary Russia.
Until the end of the 80s. XX century The activities of the Altai spiritual mission, for obvious reasons, did not attract special attention from researchers. Only in the last one and a half to two decades > a number of works have appeared devoted to certain aspects of the mission's activities.
Modern literature (A.V. Blinov, L.F. Bondarenko, L.S. Borina.. D.V. Katsyuba: K.L. Malashkov, M.R. Manyakhina) examines the main aspects of the activities of missionary schools, the purpose of which was , first of all, Christianization, religious and moral education of foreign schoolchildren. In this regard, the spiritual and moral content of education in mission schools is specially considered. The ethnocultural features of education in missionary schools are noted
In addition, researchers* independently review the literary; scientific and translation activities of the Altai spiritual mission, without which the required organization of school work would have been impossible.
As a separate independent problem, the role of missionaries in the emergence of Altai literature and the formation of the national intelligentsia is explored.
Since the mid-90s. XX century New research is also beginning to appear on the history of education in the Altai Mountains (N.S. Modorov).
Special mention should be made of the work of N.Yu. Khrapova dedicated to the cultural and educational activities of the Altai Mission. The work devotes much attention to the creation of Altai writing by missionaries based on the Russian alphabet; the dynamics of the growth of missionary schools is recorded, which led to the creation at the end of the HEK century of the Biysk catechetical school with the aim of training teachers for the school network developed by the Altai spiritual mission.
Historiography of works dedicated to N.I. Ilminsky and his system of education of the non-Russian population of the East of Russia can be conditionally divided into three stages: pre-revolutionary (before the revolution of 1917), Soviet (1917 - late 80s of the XX century), modern (from the beginning of the 90s of the XX century).
Activities of N.I. Ilminsky received much attention in the pre-revolutionary period. In the works of pre-revolutionary authors, questions* about the life, pedagogical activity and system of foreign education of N.I. were illuminated to varying degrees. Ilminsky, which reflect very different positions regarding the educator. Such authors as A. Voskresensky, D.K. Zelenin, P.V. Znamensky, SV. Smolensky, N.A. Spassky were supporters and followers of the concept developed by N.I. Ilminsky system of education of foreigners. At the beginning of the 20th century, a number of authors (for example, B.O. s Zalessky, G.C. Krasnodubrovsky, S.F. Speshkov, etc.), who were opponents of the use of the native language in foreign schools, and, accordingly, opponents of N.I. Ilminsky’s system, began to express an opinion that it gives rise to separatist aspirations of “foreign tribes.” The Muslim clergy also sharply opposed N. I. Ilminsky’s system of foreign* education, seeing in it an exclusively missionary character and considering it a dangerous competitor in influencing young people.
During the years of Soviet power, the history of the Altai spiritual mission and the activities of N.I. Ilminsky was practically not considered. Those few authors who specifically studied the activities of N.I. Ilminsky and his educational system, for example, V.M. Gorokhov, F.K. Ulyanov, A.F. Efirov, based their interpretations of the sphere of education of nationalities on the official theory of the national question accepted at that time. These works are characterized by an a priori negative assessment of the organization
foreign education in Russia, unambiguous; characterization of this system as a manifestation of great power Russification.
Among modern researchers of the activities of N.I. himself. Ilminsky are dedicated to the education of eastern foreigners; works by S.Vi. Gracheva, JLA. Efimova, A.N: GTavlova:, Researchers With the positive side is the experience of education of non-Russian peoples; N.I. Ilminsky’s system, as well as the progressive significance of the practice of using the native language introduced by him. in primary schools for: foreigners.
Thus, we can: state the unconditional contradiction between the need to have an objective and balanced picture of school development; affairs: in the XIX - early XX. centuries among non-Russian peoples of the East of Russia in: the context of the development of the Russian school system as a whole - and a one-sided characteristic of: these processes^ in: the force of the general* negative” position of historical and pedagogical literature^ of the Soviet period; how about the church; So. and Russian national policy; empires of that period;
Research problem"- formation and development of education; and education of foreigners of the Altai Mountains as an integral part of the organization of education of foreigners of the East of Russia in the 19th - early 20th centuries. in the context of the trend towards creating a system of universal primary education in Russia
The purpose of the study is to characterize and evaluate the development of education and: education of the non-Russian population of the Altai Mountains in the 19th - early 20th centuries. in the light of the activities of the Altai spiritual mission.
Object of study"- foreign education in: Russia in the 19th - early 20th centuries.
Subject of study- the process of development of foreign education in the Altai Mountains in the 19th - early 20th centuries.
Achieving this goal is facilitated by solving the following tasks:
To characterize foreign education in the East of Russia before the adoption of the “Rules on measures for the education of foreigners inhabiting Russia” in 1870.
To determine the main directions of pedagogical activity of the missionaries of the Altai Spiritual Mission to educate the non-Russian population of the Altai Mountains.
To identify and characterize the areas of interaction between the Altai Spiritual Mission and N.I. Ilminsky.
Reveal the essence of N.I.’s pedagogical system. Ilminsky about the education of foreigners in the Eastern part of Russia.
Determine the role of the Altai spiritual mission in the enlightenment and education of foreigners of the Altai Mountains.
Methodological basis dissertations are research on the history of domestic school and education (V.I. Blinov, V.P. Gorokhov, S.V. Grachev, E.D. Dneprov, S.F. Egorov, P.F. Kapterev, E.N. Medynsky, E.G. Osovsky," A.V. Ososkov, A.I. Piskunov and others), the theory of modernization, which today provides one of the productive interpretations of the process of socio-cultural transformation of a traditional type of society into a modern (civil) one; this model allows us to characterize the specifics of Russia - including as multi-ethnic countries (A.S. Akhiezer, V.A. Krasilshchikov, M.N. Kuzmin, V.G. Fedotova, V.G. Khoros, etc.), information theory of ethnicity (V.V. Stepanov , A.A. Susokolov, etc.), a systematic approach to the analysis of the development of the school as a complex integral system included in the system of society (E.D. Dneprov, M.N. Kuzmin, E.G. Osovsky, etc.), the principle of socio-historical determinism of educational processes (A.V. Golubev, V.T. Ermakov, T.Yu. Krasovitskaya, etc.).
The research is historical and pedagogical with elements of an interdisciplinary nature, which accumulates data from history, ethnopolitical science, and some other related sciences.
To achieve the goal, and.” To solve the intended problems, the following were used research methods:
identification, analysis and grouping of sources, both scientific and. scientific and methodological literature on individual research problems in accordance with the internal structure of its object;
concrete historical, comparative and problem-historical approaches and research methods;
situational-historical and textual analysis, chronological method (synchrony and diachrony);
synthetic, method of bibliographic description;
an analysis of archival (State Archive of the Tomsk Region, State Archive Service of the Altai Republic, State Archive of the Altai Territory) and published documentary materials was carried out.
Research sources:
reports of the Altai Spiritual Mission;
statistical data;
Materials. State Archive of the Tomsk Region (GATO),
State Archive Service of the Altai Republic (GAS RA),
State Archive of the Altai Territory (SAAC);
works of N.I. Ilminsky on problems and areas of foreign education;
works of followers and opponents of N.I. Ilminsky;
Organization and main stages of the study
The first stage (2004-2005) analysis of philosophical, pedagogical, historical literature, determination of the methodological basis and research methods.
The second stage (2006-2007) selection of sources for dissertation research; analysis and synthesis of the obtained material.
The third stage (2007-2008) completion of the research: generalization and systematization of its results, preparation of the dissertation text.
Scientific novelty thing is,
In a dissertation research based on the use, pedagogical literature of the 19th century, XX and early XXI centuries, as well as archival documents, the activities of missionary (foreign) schools of the Altai spiritual mission are shown, the periodization of the pedagogical activities of the Altai mission is determined, and the principle* of constructing the educational process in missionary schools is taken as a criterion (the first period is 30 - 1960s - 1960s, second period - late 1860s - early 20th centuries);
An assessment is made of the role of the Altai spiritual mission in the emergence of the Altai intelligentsia and Altai fiction (being the founder of the first schools in the Altai Mountains, the Altai spiritual mission for a long time was the only institution for spreading literacy in the region; in the foreign schools of the mission, people from which the Altai originated were educated intelligentsia; including M.V. Chevalkov, considered the founder of Altai fiction);
The nature of the influence of the system is revealed - N.I. Ilminsky on the development of education among the non-native population of the Altai Mountains in the 60s. XIX - early XX centuries. (since the late 60s of the 19th century, the foreign schools of the Altai spiritual mission became
use the N.I. system Ilminsky, which included
progressive ideas in the field of pedagogy of his time
\
put foreign education in the region at a high quality level
,| a new stage of its development);
" 4. Using the example of the Altai Spiritual* Mission, the activities of
і educational institutions involved in the preparation of national
teachers (personnel) for foreign schools;
5. The main provisions of the system are determined and disclosed,
foreign* education N.I. Ilminsky (justified as
conservative-theocentric and innovative provisions
, its systems).
Theoretical significance work consists of a typological
>
k
characteristics of the activities of missionary schools in the eastern regions
{ Russia, in reassessing their role as one of. forms of primary education and
I enlightenment of non-Russian peoples of the east of the country, in identifying
\ additional coverage area of the N.I. system Ilminsky, which, taking into account
positions of modern scientific paradigmatics only confirms its not local, but universal character.
Practical significance Factual material and conclusions
\
dissertations can be used by other researchers in
generalizing monographs on this issue, as well as in lectures
theoretical course and practical classes on the history of pedagogy,
> history of culture, education and enlightenment in Russia and Siberia
f Credibility and reliability. research results
is ensured by reliance on modern methodological positions,
using work methods that are adequate to the goals and objectives of the research
і The following provisions are submitted for defense:
1. The Altai spiritual mission played a big role in the formation and
*" development of education in Gorny Altai, especially productive
(і
The pedagogical component of the mission’s activities began in the second half of the 19th century, which is associated with the use of N.I.’s pedagogical and methodological ideas in the learning process. Ilminsky.
The pedagogical activities of the Altai Spiritual Mission contributed to the emergence and development of the Altai national intelligentsia and Altai fiction.
System N.I. Ilminsky was a pedagogical expression of the ideas of internal policy of the Russian authorities in relation to the non-Russian peoples of the East of Russia in the second half of the 19th - early 20th centuries. It reflected the trends in the evolution of the socio-political, ethnocultural, religious and spiritual spheres of society at that time, becoming the basis for the formation of school education for non-Russian peoples of the East of Russia in the second half of the 19th century.
Missionary educational institutions served as the basis for the training of national teachers and the spread of literacy among foreigners in the East of Russia.
The theoretical concept of foreign education by N.I. Ilminsky included both elements of the orthodox theocentric pedagogical tradition and the progressive achievements of pedagogical science and school practice of his time. Theoretical and practical aspects of the N.I. system Ilminsky became a significant contribution to the development of education among foreigners in the East of Russia in general and the Altai Mountains in particular.
Structure and scope of work. The goals and objectives set in this study; determined the content and structure of the dissertation. The dissertation consists of an introduction, two chapters, a conclusion, an appendix, and a list of references.
The history of missionary Christian education of foreigners in Russia in their native language dates back to the last third of the 14th century, when missionary Stefan of Perm began his educational activities among the Komi (Zyryans) people, belonging to the Finno-Ugric group. In 1383, he headed the Perm diocese with its center in the village. Ust-Vym, where he launched educational activities. He compiled the Komi alphabet on an original graphic basis and translated a number of church texts into the Ancient Komi language.
The problem of educating the eastern peoples of the Russian Empire as a whole began to mature later - after the inclusion of lands and territories in the east populated by peoples of other ethno-linguistic groups and faiths into the Moscow State.
The conquest of the Kazan Khanate (1552) and subsequently the Nogai Horde and the Astrakhan Khanate (1556) meant a decisive exit of the Moscow state far beyond the borders of the Russian-Orthodox world and an invasion into the borders of the Islamic world.
The Moscow state sharply expanded its territory, increased its composition and population. These annexations, however, greatly changed the ethnic and religious structure of the state's population: the overwhelming majority of the new subjects of the Moscow Tsar - the peoples of the Volga region - either professed Islam or remained committed to pagan cults. Because of this, as one of the main tasks of domestic policy; The Moscow state (and, accordingly, the Russian Orthodox Church) from the beginning of the second half of the 16th century began to develop in relation to? to new, changed; general conditions; attitudes towards other faiths; defining goals; boundaries and practical; church; And public policy? V; towards subjects of other faiths. Although; the conquest of the Islamic states on the eastern borders of the Moscow state had a c. largely not religious; but economic and political motives, its result was: a transformation practically! mono-confessional state into a multi-confessional one. Hence the need for development arose; ideology of the state, a certain confessional policy.
IN! early XVI- centuries in the upper layers of Moscow; society; and the state, which itself? finally freed from the external; (Golden Horde) dependence - only at the end of the 15th century; a new national idea was formulated: Moscow is the third Rome: Eta-; an ideological concept that considered the Moscow state as the only independent one; an Orthodox state, which imposed certain responsibilities on it; conditioning character; relationships; to those states; where other faiths dominated:
In the second half of the XVI; in: after inclusion: into the Moscow state, conquered; In our eastern territories the Orthodox Church, together with the government, began a policy of Christianization; this region. Its goal at the first stage was to weaken the position of the local nobility and strengthen its own power...
This policy manifested itself first of all; in the construction of Orthodox monasteries in new territories among the indigenous inhabitants of the region; churches and schools opened by the clergy. In the Christianization of the foreign population, economic levers were also used, in particular, through the provision of various benefits to the newly baptized. Orthodoxy in the new territories had to feel the resistance of both paganism, which persisted among the Chuvash, Mari, Mordovians, Udmurts, and Islam, one of the most widespread world religions (along with Christianity and Buddhism), which had a strong, internal organization.
Under these conditions, the importance of the school in the Christian education of newly converted foreigners was realized quite quickly. The initiator of this trend was the first enlightener of Kazan - Saint Gury (c. 1500 - 1563). Archimandrite Gury - writes P.O. Afanasyev, opened schools at the monasteries: Zilantov7 under his direct supervision, Spaso-Preobrazhensky - under the supervision of Archimandrite Barsanuphius, and Sviyazhsky Uspensky - under the supervision of the archimandrite. Herman. These schools accepted, along with others, the children of newly converted foreigners. Tsar Ivan the Terrible, wrote; St. Gury: “teach infants not only to read and write, but to understand the right to read, and may other busarmans be able to teach them.” In order to “teach both the foreigners and the Busarmans,” students in schools had to be familiar with the techniques of missionary work and, for this purpose, use the native language of foreigners. They tried to make the students capable of the difficult task of missionary work, and this required knowledge and ability to use4 the native language of foreigners.
It is no coincidence that the birthplace of the new system of foreign education was Kazan - the largest scientific and pedagogical center in the east of the European part of Russia, where many educational institutions were concentrated, including those intended for training missionary personnel (Kazan Theological Academy (1797), Kazan Foreign Teachers' Seminary (1872), etc.). There were several large madrassas in the city, where Muslims from all the eastern provinces of Russia came to study. The Kazan Tatar Teachers' School (1876) played a significant role in the pedagogical education of Tatar teachers. Kazan University had significant intellectual potential, where various scientific, pedagogical and educational societies were active. The university employed many specialists in the field of Turkic and Finno-Ugric languages, history and ethnography of non-Russian peoples of the Volga region (A. Kazem-Bek, N.F. Katanov, N.I. Zolotnitsky, etc.).
Left in 1846 at the academy as a bachelor, specifically for teaching Tatar and Arabic languages Ilminsky, however, read mathematics and botany to students, as well as the history of philosophy and the Hebrew language. However, his main occupation was oriental languages.
In connection with the mass apostasy of those who converted to Christianity to Islam (the transition of newly baptized Tatars to Islam), on February 5, 1847, the Highest Order was issued to translate the necessary liturgical books into the Tatar language. Along with Professor A.K. Kazem-Bek, and G.S. Sablukov, N.I. Ilminsky was one of the first members of the committee formed for this purpose.
Formation and development of the pedagogical system N.I. Ilminsky was determined by a number of prerequisites and factors that influenced the educational situation in the Volga region in the second half of the 19th century. Historical and cultural conditions and factors were associated with complex processes of interaction between the cultures of the peoples of the Volga region (including Russian), in their historical development. The geopolitical factor, which reflected the confessional confrontation between Orthodoxy and Islam in educational sphere, as well as interests and aspirations. Russian state in the east of the empire.
Having overcome the resistance of conservative and chauvinistically inclined ruling and socio-pedagogical circles, supporters of the education of non-Russian peoples through their native language and (partly) their national culture, achieved the construction of the N.I. system. Ilminsky to the rank of a concept - official state policy.
Its basis is pedagogical; The concept was based on a plan for the education of foreigners through their native language - translations of Russian books into native languages, as well as the training of professional missionary teachers.
As the historian of education notes, at the end of the 19th century. BY. Afanasiev, before -introduction- of the system, N.I. Ilminsky, which received the status of an official regulatory document in (1870) “although schooling was included ... among the main means for Christian education) of foreigners, in fact, in relation to other means then practiced, it was only secondary position". The government's main attention in the 18th and first half of the 19th centuries was paid to the older generation of foreigners: the government tried to convert, first of all, adult foreigners to Christianity, hoping that their children would become Christians on their own. P.O: Afanasyev admitted that there were, of course, exceptions, but isolated ones that could not significantly influence the general trend in the policy of educating foreigners. (Although Stephen of Perm also associated baptism with learning to read and write, regardless of the age of those baptized).
System N.I. Ilminsky was a historically justified socio-pedagogical phenomenon. Its study and assessment are unthinkable without taking into account the geopolitical factor that influenced the development of education of the non-Russian peoples of Eastern Russia. In the Russian Empire, with its vast territory and multi-ethnic composition of the population, this factor has always played a significant role. In this context, the Volga region was a center of attraction for the interests of Orthodoxy and Islam, and competition in the sphere of religious education of the local peoples was especially acute here. We are considering the N.I. system. Ilminsky as a specific cultural and pedagogical system. She solved the problem of actually educating the non-Russian peoples of the East of the Russian Empire and the task of integrating them into Russian society. This range of issues reflected the internal political interests of the Russian state in relation to the peoples inhabiting the east of Russia.
The massive apostasy of old and newly baptized eastern foreigners from Christianity to Islam and paganism prompted the Holy Synod to take adequate measures to counter this practice. The highest church body of the state decided to create special missions for individual non-Russian peoples. In 1830, such missions arose in Vyatka, Perm, Samara, Tobolsk and other dioceses.
The activities of the Altai Spiritual Mission in the Altai Mountains gave a powerful impetus to the development of religious and secular education in the region. The first schools in Altai were opened by the founder of the Altai Spiritual Mission, Makariy Glukharev. Macarius for the first time drew attention to public education within the framework of his mission, as an effective means of Christianizing the foreigners of the Altai Mountains, “the main and fundamental means for strengthening the newly baptized in the faith, raising their moral level and improving the very material life of the newly baptized, and even for the spread of Christianity among pagans remains religious- moral education of children". He founded two schools for boys and one for girls. In the first two, from 5 to 20 students studied annually, and in the last, from 7 to 12 students.
The specific features of the region, in particular the residence of the non-Russian population of other faiths, distinguished missionary schools from other types of schools. Educational goals of training prevailed over educational ones. Religious education was in first place in mission schools, and the content of education was corresponding - the Law of God, catechism, prayers. The learning process in missionary schools in the initial period was based on Russian, which most students either poorly understood or did not understand at all. Considering this. a fact that can be explained by the ineffective nature of students’ mastery of academic subjects.
Leading a nomadic, traditional way of life, foreigners, in turn, did not see anything useful in literacy, which was practically unnecessary in their daily life.
For? overcoming the language barrier between missionaries and the local population of Fr. Macarius, having studied the dialects of the inhabitants of the Altai Mountains, created the Altai alphabet - “Comparative Dictionary of Altai dialects”, made the first translations of works of religious content into the Altai language; Thus, he laid the foundation for Altai writing, which was created by Macarius based on the Cyrillic alphabet. The Altai literary language was formed - on the basis of the Teleut dialect with enrichment - at the expense of the dialects of other nationalities of the Altai Mountains: How valuable and important were the works of Macarius, it is clear from the fact that these works were used by the Altai missions until I860, the year when Macarius' successors new, more complete and improved translations were made. Enormous assistance in translations was provided to the Monk Macarius by the Teleut youth M.V. Chevalkov, who was converted by him to Orthodoxy, and who subsequently served for many years as an interpreter (translator) in the Altai spiritual mission.
The missionaries used all the opportunities at their disposal to meet with the local population, both pagans and newly baptized. It should be noted that the mission staff respected local customs and rituals, folklore, recording it. But Special attention They devoted their time to studying the language of the local residents.
Archimandrite Macarius worked for 14 years as head of the Altai spiritual mission. However, due to deteriorating health, he submitted a petition to the Holy Synod to resign as a missionary in order to devote the rest of his days to traveling to Jerusalem. During the 14 years of leadership of the mission by Makariy, the first schools in the Altai Mountains were opened, 675 adult Altai residents and more than 700 children were baptized. These numbers are not great, but Macarius did not set out to achieve numbers. As Archpriest E.K. wrote. Smirnov, - “He (Archimandrite Macarius - I.S.) strove only to make the most correct and lasting beginning possible, albeit for a small, but completely organized one; mission, to outline the path for its further development, to indicate the best and surest means for activity in it and: to transfer it into the hands of a capable and prepared successor."
The number of missionaries gradually grew; in 1844, the Altai spiritual mission had 15 employees, 3 churches, 3 camps, 3 schools, 4 villages for newly baptized Altaians. .
B5 same time; missionaries had to overcome many difficulties; for: opening; new educational institutions. Let us give a few examples, the first difficulty was the huge space, sparsely populated by the local population. Each march or missionary camp covered tens and even hundreds of square kilometers. It took months just to travel around these areas. During the year, missionaries made dozens of trips.
Participation of N.I. Ilminsky in the educational activities of Altai-. The mission began in the first and half of the 60s, the twentieth century. The main direction in the cooperation of the educator with the missionaries of the Altai mission was the editing of Altai grammar:
On behalf of the Holy Synod N.I. Ilminsky had to give his feedback on the grammar of the Altai language. In the fall of 1867, he became involved with the missionary of the Altai Spiritual Mission, Fr. Verbitsky scientific correspondence regarding Altai grammar;
N.I. Ilminsky was widely known in scientific and missionary circles as an experienced linguist and the author1 of a number of works on the theory of translation1. Analysis of theoretical works by N.I. Ilminsky allows us to highlight the pedagogical and linguistic approaches to translation activity that he formulated: 1. The use of the living; colloquial dialect5 of foreigners - through the Russian-graphic basis; 2. Taking into account the specifics of Russian and native languages, comparing their phenomena; 3. Compliance with the principles of consistency, accessibility, systematicity.
An important component, part of the theory of foreign translations of N!I. Ilminsky - was his teaching about the Russian alphabet as a means of expressing foreign sounds: The practice of using Russian graphics in creating the writing systems of non-Russian peoples of the East “Russia had not only pedagogical, but also socio-political significance. Refusal. Ilminsky from the Arabic graphic basis when compiling Tatar translations and turning to the Russian alphabet was explained both by considerations of practical convenience and by religious and patriotic motives expressed in the integration of the peoples of Russia.
Even earlier (in January 1866), the head of the mission, Fr. Vladimir (later Archbishop of Kazan) with the brethren and trustee of the mission Malkov. Archimandrite Vladimir met with Ilminsky, visited his baptized Tatar school. He examined everything in it in detail, admired the organization of school affairs, and learned from his visit a lot of useful things for the schools of his mission.
N.I. Ilminsky filed Fr. Vladimir had the idea to send Macarius-Nevsky (later the head of the Altai spiritual mission) to Kazan for direct, personal meetings with him on finalizing the Altai grammar and its publication: He later outlined this idea in a letter to Fr. Vladimir to St. Petersburg for presentation to the Chief Prosecutor of the Holy Synod.
In the summer of 1868, Fr. Macarius. arrived in Kazan, where he lived for about a year and a half, working hard on Altai grammar. Macarius attended a Kazan school, where missionary sympathies attracted him from the very beginning: the sight of the children of the baptized Tatar Kazan school reminded him partly of the Altai foreigners with whom he became close. Being a long-time expert in church singing, Father Macarius began to teach boys and girls to sing in chorus in their native language the prayers “Heavenly King,” “Our Father,” “Rejoice to the Virgin Mary,” and then other chants. From this beginning, all services in the Kazan school gradually began to be conducted in the Tatar language, and adult baptized Tatars willingly attended.
And finally, what was important for Macarius was; that the Altai language was related to the Tatar, and this gave him a lot of interesting things. material for1 comparison with the Altai language, therefore, for work on Altai grammar. With the help of N.I. Ilminsky Macarius Nevsky, using the comparative method, understood for himself through other Turkic languages much of what was incomprehensible to him in the Altai language. Phenomenal linguistic knowledge of N.I. Ilminsky provided invaluable service in correcting the Altai; grammars. Hieromonk Macarius himself did the painstaking and thorough work of translating the Four Gospels and other books of the Holy Scriptures and liturgical texts into the Altai language.:. Subsequently in\ 1882-G8 84; Over the years, four collections of “Lives of Saints” were published in Kazan in the Altai language.
Having rightfully appreciated “the initiative and efforts of Hieromonk Macarius (Nevsky) in Kazan as a systematic matter; teaching church singing to pupils of a foreign school and establishing worship in the Tatar language in local churches, the council of the Brotherhood of St. Guria elected him for life;; with his member and. asked the Holy Synod to honor the missionary with the rank of abbot.
Compiled by Olga Gorshkova
From the editor: For followers of the Teaching of Living Ethics, Altai is one of the special places on the planet. The editors of the magazine are planning a series of publications dedicated to Altai. Now before you is a conditional introduction to this series - a small geographical and historical overview of this wonderful region.
Altai (from the Mongolian altan - golden) is a mountainous country in Asia.
Being the western outpost of the mountains of Southern Siberia, Altai is the first to encounter the humid winds of the Atlantic sweeping over the vast plains. It, like a powerful breakwater of air currents, finds itself in the zone of influence of various climate-forming factors, which create countless ecological and geographical shades that give the nature of this mountainous region a pronounced originality and charm. On the territory of Altai one can observe the desert landscapes of the Mongolian highlands, which give way to mountain taiga, gradually merging in the north with the taiga zone. The mutual penetration of these types of landscape creates unique and contrasting combinations that captivate the traveler’s eye.
Russian, Mongolian, Gobi Altai are all parts of a vast mountain system in the center of the Asian continent. Take a look at the physical map. In its middle part you will see one of the largest plains in the world - Western Siberia. In the southeast, a strip of foothills merges with the highlands of Central Asia. It is here, where natural contrasts are especially visible and distinct, that the Altai Territory is located.
Located in the temperate zone, it stretches from southeast to northwest for almost 1000 km. From west to east the region extends for 600 km and from north to south for 500 km. Its area is 261.7 thousand sq. km. The borders of the region have different ranks: state - at the junction with China, Mongolia and Kazakhstan, republican - with Tuva, regional - with the Novosibirsk and Kemerovo regions and the Khakass Autonomous Region of the Krasnoyarsk Territory.
From the administrative center of the region, the city of Barnaul, to Moscow is 3,419 km.
The mountainous country of Altai lies in the south of Siberia between 48° and 56° north latitude and is closely adjacent to the mountain ranges of Kuznetsk Alatau, Salair, Western Sayan, Tannu-Ola and Mongolian Altai lying to the east. Altai is connected with them both in orography and in structure, so it is difficult to draw a clear boundary here. Usually the border separating Altai and Western Sayan is considered to be the watershed of the Biya, Abakan basins and the Shapshalsky ridge. In the south and southeast, the Altai Mountains are connected to the Mongolian Altai through the border massif Tabyn-Bogdo-Ola and the South Altai, Sailyugem and Chikhacheva ridges extending from it. The southwestern outskirts of Altai extend to the basin of Lake Zaisan. To the north, Altai sharply, in ledges, falls to the West Siberian Plain, penetrating into the western steppes with a fan of low ridges.
Administratively, most of the Altai Mountains belong to the Altai Mountains Republic and the Altai Territory, the smaller part (in the southwest) is included in the East Kazakhstan region of Kazakhstan.
The tectonic structures of Altai were formed as a result of the Hercynian and Caledonian folding, but the decisive role in the modern relief was played by the neotectonic movements that occurred relatively recently (about 10 million years ago), manifested in the consolidated uplift and block movement of gigantic masses earth's crust and accompanied by intense erosional dissection. As a result of this activity, a complex system of ridges was formed with many spurs of varying heights and lengths.
The highest ridges are located in Central Altai - Katunsky with Belukha (4506 m), North Chuysky (up to 4173 m) and South Chuysky (up to 3960 m) - and in the very south, where the Tavan-Bogdo massif borders the Mongolian Altai -Ula rises to 4082 m (Nairamdal).
In general, Altai is characterized by a continental type of climate with a clearly expressed contrast between warm, short summers and cold winters, due to the inland location of the territory.
Over the Altai region, located almost in the very heart of Asia, most of the year is dominated by air masses that form under conditions of prolonged cooling of the continent. The further you are from the mountains, the greater the likelihood of disruption of the anticyclonic regime by incoming air masses from the Atlantic or from the Polar Basin.
The inland location of the Altai Territory, the complex relief of the mountains and the dominance of zonal air transport determined not just the diversity of local climates, but their extreme contrast in both space and time. The northern part is characterized by insufficient moisture, warm summers and moderately severe winters with little snow. The southern (mountain) part is quite humid, summers are moderately warm, winters are moderately severe and snowy. The eastern part of Altai is characterized by very harsh winters. Altai is characterized by a significant height of the sun in summer (60-66 degrees) and long days, up to 17 hours. In winter, the sun barely reaches 20 degrees in height, and the day becomes more than twice as short.
In winter, the weather is usually clear and frosty, occasionally giving way to cloudy weather with snowstorms. The presence of deep valleys and basins contributes to the formation of inversion conditions: on the slopes and high peaks in January (the coldest month of the year) there can be up to 15-20 degrees below zero, while below, in the basins, the stationary transparent air cools to minus 40-50 degrees. The coldest place in Altai is the Chui steppe, where average temperature January is minus 32, and the absolute minimum is minus 62 degrees. In general, the mountainous regions of the region act as a warm island among the plains and foothills flooded with cold air. Sometimes anticyclonic weather changes with the arrival of air from the southwest and west to cloudy weather with weak winds. Closer to spring, cyclonic activity and the removal of warm air from Central and mountainous Central Asia intensify.
In summer, the region is influenced by air masses of Arctic origin, warming up over Western Siberia. They are associated with cool and rainy weather. Often in the middle of summer, hot weather sets in on the plains surrounding the mountains, and then the mountains with their cooler climate contribute to increased precipitation formation. Due to the fan-shaped arrangement of the ridges, incoming streams of moist air penetrate deep into the mountains, forming thick clouds. In the highlands in the summer there are frequent rains and thunderstorms, many days with inclement weather, and snowfalls are not uncommon.
The transition period (September, October) is characterized by the alternation of inclement rainy weather with dry and warm weather. Intrusions of cold arctic air bring cold snaps and snowfalls. In November, the transition to winter is completed.
In terms of the number of glaciers (1,130) and the area of glaciation (890 sq. km), Altai ranks third among the mountainous countries of the world. The largest of them - Myongsu - has a length of 11 km and is located in the Katunsky ridge. Near the Belukha massif there are 169 glaciers with an area of 151 square meters. km.
Numerous rivers flow between the ridges along faults, which are characterized by deep valleys with steep slopes. Among the largest rivers are the Bashkaus and Chulyshman, which feed the Biya through Lake Teletskoye, the rivers Chuya, Argut, Koksu, the powerful tributaries of the Katun, Charysh, Anui and Peschanaya - tributaries of the Ob, Bukhtarma - one of the sources of the Irtysh. The rivers of Altai are of the Altai type according to their regime. They feed mainly on melted snow waters and summer rains. Characterized by insignificant runoff in winter, long spring-summer floods and high level water in rivers in summer, supported by melting glaciers in Central and Southern Altai.
There are many lakes in Altai - more than 6 thousand, many of them are tarns or moraine-dammed. It is often said that Altai is a country of blue lakes. The largest ones - Teletskoye, Markakol - are located in basins of tectonic origin. Particularly famous is the picturesque Lake Teletskoye (its length is 78 km, average width - 3.2 km, depth - up to 325 m) with steep wooded and sometimes rocky shores. The largest lake in the Altai Mountains, Lake Markakol (about 449 sq. km.) is also famous for its very beautiful shores and rich in flora and fauna.
Kulundinskoye Lake is the largest among all Altai lakes (728 sq. km).
Altaians are an indigenous people inhabiting the mountains and foothills of the geographical Altai. From the middle of the 19th century, in connection with the transition from a nomadic way of life to a settled way of life, the Altaians (Dzungars after the collapse of the Dzungar state in Central Asia in the 18th century) until the beginning of the 20th century were divided into a number of tribal and territorial groups. Currently, Altaians are divided into small nationalities: Altaians, Teleuts, Shors, Tubalars, Telengits, Uriankhians and live in the Altai Republic, Altai Territory, Kemerovo region of the Russian Federation, Western Mongolia, Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region of China.
The main source of studying the origin of a people is its language. It is generally accepted that the language of a people is the history of a people. Having originated in ancient times, a language, together with its speaker, goes through a complex path of development, during which it mixes with neighboring languages, becomes enriched, experiences a certain influence, and itself influences neighboring languages. History is known for language shifts and assimilation of one language by another.
The Altai language is decisive for many Turkic-Mongolian, Tungus-Manchu, Japanese-Korean languages. Therefore, these languages are included in the Altai language family of the peoples of the world, like other language families: Indo-European, Semitic-Hamitic, etc.
Of the Turkic peoples, those closest to the Altaians in language are their neighbors the Western Tuvans, Khakassians and Kyrgyz, the Uyghurs of Central Asia, the Karachais and Balkars in the Caucasus.
Also very great importance to study the history of the people have information from ancient written sources. Thus, the analysis of ancient Sumerian cuneiform texts found on the territory of Iraq (Mesopotamia) and dated to the last third of the 3rd millennium BC, carried out by many scientists, indicates that the majority of Sumerian words literally repeat common Turkic, including Altai, words and whole phrases. There are a lot of such matches, more than 4 hundred. The above convergences provide convincing evidence of the relationship between the Sumerian and Altai families of languages. The ancient Sumerians were a part of the Proto-Turkic tribes that had long ago separated from the main mass and united with the Indo-Europeans. The chronicles record the arrival of the Sumerians in Mesopotamia from the plains, where there are many cedar forests and rivers - presumably Siberia. And the opening in the village. Karakol in the middle reaches of the Ursul River burial, which proves the synchronicity of the development of the cultures of Ancient Mesopotamia, Ancient Egypt and Ancient Altai, confirms that between these very distant areas there were still certain contacts, if not direct, then, in any case, like a relay race - from tribe to tribe.
Currently, the Altai Republic is one of those regions in which you can still see in all its diversity the traditional culture of the indigenous people - the Altaians, the Russian old-timers of the Old Believer population and the Kazakhs, who have been compactly living here for more than 100 years.
Traditional holidays and games, in which the archaic and modern are presented in all their splendor, cannot fail to make a deep impression on a modern person, especially a city dweller - it may seem to him that he has found himself in a completely different world, in a different space-time dimension.
Ethnographic study of the region began quite a long time ago - more than 200 years ago. However, to this day there is still a lot in this area white spots, awaiting their discoverers. The traditional spiritual culture of the Altai people is of greatest interest. Archaic genres of folklore are practiced here and musical instruments that have experienced virtually no modernization are used.
The traditional material culture of the Altai people also hides no less secrets. modern development which is facilitated by the agricultural orientation of the republic’s economy. Thanks to the preservation of economic and cultural types - cattle breeding, hunting, crafts, the role of which has especially increased in the conditions of the socio-economic crisis - the peoples of the Altai Mountains managed not to lose the distinctive features of their cultures.
Altai is known as one of the regions of ethno- and cultural genesis of modern Turkic-speaking peoples of the world. However, at the same time, it is located at the junction of the formation of many Central Asian civilizations, which had an important impact on adjacent territories and peoples. In the Altai language, with careful study, you can find words and concepts that do not belong to the vocabulary of the Altai language family.
Here it is possible to trace the communication routes of interaction between the great cultures of antiquity and early Middle Ages using the example of grain graters, mills and other household utensils still in use; cooking methods; making traditional dwellings and much more.
For thousands of years, being at the intersection of many cultures and languages, tribes and peoples, Mountain Altai to this day represents a rich mosaic in ethnic, religious and linguistic terms.
Representatives of the indigenous population of Altai are the Altaians. They are modest and hospitable, good travel companions and talented storytellers.
The traditional dwelling of the Altaians is the ail. This is a hexagonal building (among the Altaians 6 is considered a symbolic number) from wooden beams with a pointed roof covered with bark, at the top of which there is a hole for smoke. Modern Altaians use the village as a summer kitchen, preferring to live in a larger hut.
The food of the Altaians consists mainly of meat (lamb, beef, horse meat), milk, and fermented milk products.
Among the Altai pagans, the most important holiday is called tyazhyl-dyr - green leaves, this is the holiday of the beginning of summer. It looks like the Russian Trinity. Celebrated in June, during the white full moon, on the new moon. In autumn, the holiday of saaryl-dyr - yellow leaves - is celebrated. During this holiday, Altai people ask for a good winter. Once every two years, the national festival of folk games El-Oyyn is held in the Altai Mountains. Representatives from all regions of Altai gather at the festival, delegations from Mongolia, Tuva, and Kazakhstan arrive. Competitions, sports competitions, costume processions, performances by artists, and a national costume competition are organized.
The preliminary population as of January 1, 2001 was 205.5 thousand people, of which 53.1 thousand people were city dwellers (live in the city of Gorno-Altaisk), and 152.4 thousand people were rural residents.
The distribution of the population across the territory of the republic is uneven. Thus, about 50% of the population lives in the territory of Gorno-Altaisk, Maiminsky and Shebalinsky districts, constituting 9% of the republic’s area.
National and ethnic composition The population of the Republic is very diverse. According to the latest census, the population of Russian nationality was 63%; Altai - 31%; Kazakh - 5.6%.
Other nationalities are few in number. The Russian population lives mainly in the northern regions of Maiminsky, Turochaksky, Shebalinsky, Ust-Koksinsky and Gorno-Altaisk. Altaians predominate in the Ulagan, Ust-Kan, and Ongudai regions. Kazakhs (83%) live in the Kosh-Agach region.
Altaians belong to the Altaic language family, the Kyrgyz-Kypchak subgroup of the eastern branch of the Turkic group. In the past, they were divided into 8 tribal groups, seoks, depending on economic activity.
Ethnographically, the indigenous population represents two ethnographic groups - northern and southern Altaians. Northern Altaians, due to the peculiarities of their origin, belong to the Ural type, southern Altaians - to the Central Asian and South Siberian type. The northern Altaians include the Tubulars (Tuba-Kizhi), living in the Choysky and Turochaksky districts, the Chelkans - in the Turochaksky district, the Kumandins - in the Turochaksky district (along the Lebed and Biya rivers), the Shors - in the Choysky and Turochaksky districts.
The southern Altaians include the Altaians themselves or Altai-Kizhi, Telengits, Teles, Teleuts. Altai-Kizhi are concentrated in the Ongudaysky, Ust-Kansky, Shebalinsky and Maiminsky districts. Telengits in Ulagansky and Kosh-Agachsky (Chuya, Argut valleys). Teleuts live compactly in the Shebalinsky and Maiminsky districts. Telesy - in Ulagansky district.
The population of the Altai Territory was formed in the process of colonization of the south of Western Siberia during the 18th - 20th centuries. In regional historical ethnography, it is usually divided into two ethnocultural groups: old-timers and migrants. The reasons for the formation of the chronological (60-80s of the 19th century) and cultural border between the two groups on the territory of the Altai mountain district were the peculiarities of the Russian development of the territory of the Upper Ob region and the departmental policy of the Cabinet - the owner of the Altai lands. The later inclusion of the territory of the Altai Territory into the Russian Empire in comparison with other regions of Siberia (from the end of the first quarter of the 18th century) and the policy of the Cabinet, which in the first half of the 19th century limited resettlement to the territory of the Altai mountain district, contributed to the predominance of colonization flows from the North of the European part Russia and the Volga region, as regions free from serfdom. Secondary migrations from the Urals and Siberia played a major role. Important driving factor resettlement to Altai was church schism and persecution of Old Believers. The Cossacks played a significant role in the formation of the primary population.
The bulk of the old-timers were pioneer settlers of the 18th century. Elements of their culture were formed in the conditions of the North of Russia and Pomerania (Arkhangelsk, Olonetsk, Vologda provinces), as the main territory for the formation of colonization flows, as well as the Urals, the Urals (Vyatka and Perm provinces) and Trans-Urals (Tobolsk province), as intermediate territories that served as a reservoir accumulation of migrants from Russia and their subsequent migrations to other regions of Siberia. The second source of migration to the territory of Altai was the Old Believer population of the middle reaches of the Volga River (Nizhny Novgorod province), which, as a result of persecution for adherence to the old faith, through complex routes, including through the North and the Urals, ended up in Siberia.
The main areas of settlement of old-timers on the territory of the Altai Territory were forest-steppe, taiga, foothill and mountain areas. Until now, this population predominates in the eastern and central regions of the region. The attractiveness of the territory was the presence of timber, arable land and pastures. In the 1890s, the first German settlements appeared in Altai. The main reason for their relocation was high price lands in the Volga region and Ukraine.
Being free from serfdom, adapting to new natural conditions, the northerners developed the principles of living and communicating together, a unique housing, everyday, and artistic culture. During the development of the south of Western Siberia, they were enriched by the experience of local peoples and formed an independent ethnocultural group of old-time Siberians with a predominance of cultural elements of the North Russian type, on which were layered the cultural and everyday traditions of subsequent flows of colonists from the Volga region and southern Russia. As a result, in the 18th - first half of the 19th centuries, local ethnographic groups of old-timers were formed on the territory of the modern Altai Territory: Kerzhaks, Chaldons, Pomeranians, Vyatkas, Cossacks, Siberians and others.
The first information about the settlers of Altai goes back to ancient times. Their history is closely connected with the history of Central Asia and its state formations. From the turn of the 3rd and 2nd centuries. BC. and until the end of the 1st century. AD they were under the political domination of the Huns, who formed a powerful alliance of hordes and tribes in the steppes of Northern Mongolia. From II to IV centuries. Altai lived under the influence of the Syanbis. From the end of the 4th to the middle of the 6th century. The Altai tribes were subjugated by the Rourans, who inhabited Eastern Mongolia and Western Manchuria.
With the fall in 552 During the reign of the Rourans in Central Asia, a new temporary military-administrative association emerged - the Turkic Kaganate - with its center in Altai. But soon he moves from here to Mongolia, to the valley of the river. Orkhon. By the 70s. The territory of the Kaganate expands, its borders reach west to the Amu Darya, to the Caucasus and the Aral Sea in Eastern Europe and to the Greater Khingan Range in the east. The rule of the Kaganate also spread widely: from China to the borders of Iran and Byzantium. Sogdiana and the Bulgarian-Khazar tribes that lived between the Volga and the Sea of Azov were subordinate to him. China and Byzantium were forced to recognize his political power. However, the situation soon changed. Under the blows of civil strife and from the outside, the Kaganate collapsed in 588. to Western (with a center in Semirechye) and Eastern (with a center in Mongolia). But they didn't last long.
In 630 The Eastern Turks were enslaved by China in 659. the same fate befell their Western relatives. However, the first did not accept defeat. In 682 They raise an uprising under the leadership of Khan (Kagan) Ilteres (Gudulu - in Chinese) and free themselves from the Chinese yoke. This is how the Second Turkic Khaganate entered the arena, which existed there for more than 50 years.
But constant confrontation with the Uighurs and internal strife undermined the foundations of the state and it fell in 745. under the blows of the Uyghurs, to whom dominance in the eastern part of Central Asia passed. Their rise is associated with the name of Khan Peilo. Having achieved victory over the Turks, he moved his headquarters from the south to the north - between the Orkhon and the spurs of Altai - and established close ties with China. Peilo's successors, having annexed Southern Siberia and other lands, turned the Uyghur Khanate into a powerful political entity, which even China had to reckon with, every now and then resorting to the help of its northern neighbor to resolve its internal affairs.
In the late 80s and early 90s. There was a decline in Uyghur hegemony. It was due to two reasons: internal strife and foreign invasions, mainly by Tibetans. Having strengthened, they began in 755. attack on the Uyghurs. Natural disasters of the late 30s also played an important role in the death of their state. IX century
The final fall of the Khanate was predetermined by the defeat that was inflicted on it in 840. Yenisei Kyrgyz. It was from this moment that their dominion began to assert itself in the eastern part of Central Asia. From subject tribes, incl. and Altai, the Kyrgyz levied tribute on furs (squirrels and sables) and iron products.
But their reign was short-lived. At the beginning of the 10th century. it goes to the Kytays (Kara-Kitays) or Khitans. In the middle of the 11th century. their possessions extended to Altai. Oral folk art Altaians have preserved the legend of that time. One of them tells about the conquest of the Altai people by the Kytays and their removal from Altai. The remains of irrigation systems and ferry crossings, preserved in different places of the region, also remind us of that era. By the end of the 12th century. the power of the invaders weakened and the Mongol-speaking Naiman, who lived between the Khangai and Altai mountains and partly in the spurs of Altai, entered the political arena of Central Asia. The Altai tribes that fell within their sphere of influence were subject to traditional tribute.
The Mongols put an end to Naiman rule. Having defeated in 1204 their rivals, they subjugated a vast territory, the western border of which extended to the Irtysh. The inhabitants of Altai found themselves in the darkness of the noyon of Khorcha, a longtime associate of Genghis Khan. After his death (in 1227) Mongol Empire was divided into two parts. Altai came to Dzhuchiev Ulus and remained there until the end of the 13th century. At the beginning of the 14th century. The Ulus of Jochi (the eldest son of Genghis Khan) splits - as a result of internecine wars - into two parts. The Altai tribes found themselves as part of the White Horde, and 100 years later (by the beginning of the 15th century) after its collapse - as part of the Siberian Khanate.
In the middle of the 15th century, as a result of feudal wars and political intrigues, the population of Altai fell into the sphere of influence of the Western Mongols or Oirots (the latter, starting from the 30s of the 17th century, were better known as the Dzungars). It was under their dominance until 1756. those. until the southern Altaians (Altai-Kizhi, Teleuts, Telengits) entered Russia. Unlike the latter, the northern Altaians (Kumandins, Tubalars, Chelkans) became subjects of the Russian state much earlier. By the end of the seventeenth century. over a hundred of their volosts, uluses and ails were under the high hand of the white king and paid yasak tax to his treasury.
The entry of the Altaians into Russia provided them with protection from foreign attacks and saved them from physical destruction by the Qing troops. It created conditions for their further economic and cultural development on a qualitatively new basis.
From 1922 to 1947, the Altai Republic was called the Oirot Autonomous Region, from 1948 to 1990 - the Gorno-Altai Autonomous Region, on July 3, 1991, the region was transformed into the Gorno-Altai Republic within the Russian Federation, and in May 1992 it was renamed the Republic Altai.
The Altai Republic, as a subject of the Russian Federation, has its own Constitution, adopted on June 7, 1997, state symbols - the flag and coat of arms.
The official languages in the republic are equal to Russian and Altai.
(Materials from the book: Tourist areas of the USSR. Altai Territory. M.: Profizdat, 1987.)
The Altai region and its natural resources were known in Russia long before it became part of the Russian state. However, knowledge about the distant outskirts for a long time remained very scarce, often legendary.
At the beginning of the 17th century, the southeast of Western Siberia found itself in the sphere of economic development. The pioneers were attracted here by the reserves of table salt in the lakes. In 1613, the Cossack ataman Bartasha Stanislavov came with a fishing crew of several hundred people to the Yamyshevsky lakes (they stretch in a chain from the Irtysh towards the present-day Petukhovsky lakes in the Klyuchevsky district).
On the other side of the region, in the upper reaches of the Tom, near the Kuznetsk fortress, attention was drawn to the possibilities of iron ore mining.
In 1626, a new salt expedition led by Groza Ivanov and Dmitry Cherkasov visited the lakes of the western part of the Kulunda steppes. Was compiled geographical description surroundings.
Both the flat part and the mountains become the object of further study. The hikes were carried out systematically. In 1632, a detachment of servicemen from Tomsk climbed the Ob to the latitude of Barnaul, the following year a detachment of Cossacks led by the boyar’s son Peter Sabansky from Kuznetsk walked along Lake Teletskoye. Ataman Pyotr Dorofeev also visited there in 1639. These trips provided the first information about natural features North-Eastern Altai, about the life of the local population.
A few years later, a new detachment under the command of Pyotr Sobansky came to the lake and spent the winter there. The replies indicated places suitable for settlement. In 1673, a large military fishing expedition passed through almost the entire region. It included ore explorer Fedka (Silver), who delivered ore from the Teletskoye Lake region to Moscow.
The pioneer industrialists, operating over a vast area for decades, could not get together and thus form a true picture of the places they were exploring. But their replies fell into central cities- Tomsk, Tobolsk, Moscow. The government needed to have a general idea of Siberia in order to organize the management and development of the eastern lands. In 1667, the Tobolsk governor P.I. Godunov drew up a drawing of the whole of Siberia. In the 80s a new General Drawing of Siberia was drawn up.
S.U. Remezov collected especially large and generalized information. His Drawing Book of Siberia (early 18th century) contains many geographical names of the Altai region that have survived to this day, including 23 rivers and 4 lakes. Of these, such as Chumysh, Kasmala, Chesnokovka, Barnaulka, Alei, Charysh, Anuy, Nenya, Maima, Baigol, Bekhtemir. Lots of other useful information is given. For example, mineral deposits are indicated and approximate distances are indicated.
According to our modern ideas Such maps were primitive, not to scale, without correct orientation of the cardinal directions, and without a mathematical basis.
The first real map of the Altai Territory was compiled by surveyor Pyotr Chichagov. He worked as part of the military search expedition of Guard Major I. Likharev, which passed along the Upper Irtysh in 1719-1720. Another map of his (1729), executed with exceptional accuracy, correctly depicts the entire situation of Altai, the outlines of Lake Teletskoye have a relatively regular shape, in the upper reaches of the river. Alleys are located in active mines.
From this period begins a new period in the study of the Altai region - research by scientists. The explorations of explorers can no longer satisfy the need for knowledge of the region, although they continued to play a noticeable role.
In 1734, an expedition of the Academy of Sciences under the leadership of I.G. Gmelin and G.F. Miller visited the region. It included S.P.Krashennikov (future academician) and surveyor A.Ivanov. Along the route of the expedition, A. Ivanov made astronomical measurements of the Omsk, Yamyshov and Semipalatinsk fortresses, the Kolyvanovo-Voskresensky plant and the Kuznetsk fortress. This is how the geographic location of the main points of the Altai Territory was determined for the second time.
In 1745, by decree of the Senate, an expedition was organized to explore the northeastern part of Altai - the upper reaches of the Biya, Lake Teletskoye, the area between the Chulyshman and Bashkaus rivers. It was headed by the explorer and ore explorer Pyotr Shelygin. This expedition can be considered the last expedition of the period of explorers, discoverers and the first local (local history) expedition.
Based on the results, the cartographer and draftsman P. Startsev compiled a Land Map of the Kuznetsk District. The map and the journal note contain a lot of valuable geographical information, a dense river network is mapped, minerals are described, there is data on the fauna, on the possibility of economic use of the land not only along the route of 1745, but throughout the entire region.
In connection with the transfer of factories to the department of the Tsar's Cabinet, new extensive research was undertaken. So, in 1760, the government issued a decree on the occupation in Siberia of places from the Ust-Kamenogorsk fortress along the river. Bukhtarma and further to Lake Teletskoye. Five expeditions were sent over two years. Their routes covered thousands of miles of untrodden places. The upper reaches of the Irtysh, Bukhtarma, Kan, Katun, Central Altai, its northern ranges, Lake Teletskoye, Biya - this is the main area of extensive research.
Expeditions of the 60s were truly comprehensive both in the selection of specialist managers and in the results achieved. They included Major General Petrulin, charge master Ivan Denisov, doctor Yakov Keesing, second major Polivanov, ore explorer D.F. Golovin, ore explorer I. Chuporshnev, Major Aiden, surveyor Pimen Popov.
The reports of the leaders contained a lot of new data about the natural resources of Altai, flora and fauna. Previously unknown places were mapped, dozens of mineral deposits were discovered, mountain steppes were discovered - Kanskaya, Yaboganskaya, Abayskaya, roads were outlined, and places for settlement were identified.
The expedition reports contained interesting facts in geography, they provide brief meteorological reports, indicate the distances from one point to another, the depths of rivers, and describe the difficulties of crossings in mountainous areas.
In the 70-90s. In the 18th century, the region was studied by prominent scientists and mining specialists, among them P.S. Pallas, I.M. Renovants, I.F. German. They created general works on the geology of Altai, the history of mining, and paid a lot of attention to the economic state of the Kolyvano-Voskresensk factories.
In 1788, by order of Catherine II, the Cabinet organized expeditions to the mines of various porphyries and other stones and ores.
The leaders of the search parties were exclusively local mining specialists: P.T. Shangin, F. Ridder, B. Kluge, Lindenthal and others. The research covered a vast territory, although the main attention was still paid to the search for minerals in the mountains. The search party of P.I. Shangin indicated 145 points of deposits of ornamental stones, and the main one was Korgonskoe.
As a result of the work of the search parties in 1786, knowledge about the nature of the Altai region expanded even more. Local mining specialists and ore explorers, through the discovery of new deposits of polymetallic ores, provided a raw material base for the work of the Kolyvano-Voskresensky (Altai) mining and metallurgical complex.
The leader of one of these parties, Pyotr Ivanovia Shangin, belongs to the galaxy of major researchers.
A unique result of the achievements of researchers of the 18th century was the map of 1816, compiled by L. Pansner from the latest private maps of the Barnaul mining archive. It outlines a large hydrographic network in the right bank valley of the Irtysh, Bukhtarma and especially along the Ob. The territories where the mines are located and where the routes of the search parties passed were marked in detail. However, the territory between the Ob and Chumysh rivers remained almost a blank spot, as well as the vast plain from the foothills through the entire Kulunda and Baraba (with the exception of the Barnaul Kulunda forest, which had been well surveyed by that time). Almost the entire Altai Mountains remained unexplored.
Great achievements in the study of the Altai region belong to Grigory Ivanovich Spassky (1783 - 1864). He studied the history and geography of Altai, described the deposits of many minerals, and collected great information about the animal world (in particular, about the distribution of the tiger in Altai). In addition, G.I. Spassky conducted extensive archaeological research.
Extensive research in the Altai region was carried out by local specialists A.A. Bunge, P.A. Slovtsov, A.I. Kulibin, F.V. Gebler, V.V. Radlov, S.I. Gulyaev.
V.V. Gebler was responsible for the discovery of the first glaciers of Altai on Mount Belukha in 1835. The glacier he discovered now bears his name. Gebler's research served as an important milestone in the study of the process of shrinking Altai glaciers over 150 years.
At the beginning of the 19th century, the Altai region continued to be a field of research for visiting scientists, travelers, and foreigners. In 1826, an expedition was organized by professor of botany K.F. Ledebur (it included A. Bunge and K. Meyer). In 1829, Altai was visited by the greatest German scientist A. Humboldt. German geologist Bernhard Cotta studied Altai in 1868.
A wide geological expedition worked in Altai in 1834. It was led by geologist G.P. Helmersen. He visited Lake Teletskoye, as well as the area of the upper reaches of the Uba, Ulba and Koksa rivers. In his works, he gave a general geological description of the Teletskoye Lake region, detailed mineralogy of the constituent rocks of the surrounding ridges, and compiled a special geological map of the lake.
One of the largest expeditions of the 19th century. there was an expedition by Pyotr Aleksandrovich Chikhachev. She arrived in Altai in 1842, worked here for more than six months and turned out to be the most productive in the entire previous history of geographical discoveries in Altai.
Numerous expedition routes covered the entire Southern Siberia. P'tr Chikhachev discovered a number of mineral deposits, gave an orthographic division of the mountainous country, and created a complete geological outline of Altai. Based on the information presented to him and his own observations, he compiled a detailed and most complete geological map of the southeast of Western Siberia and a geographical map of his route.
For the services of P.A. Chikhachev to the fatherland, one of the Altai ridges is named after him.
Detailed geological and mineralogical studies of the mines of the Altai Territory were carried out by G.S. Karelin, a member of the Moscow Society of Natural Scientists, and G.E. Shurovsky, a professor at Moscow University, in 1844, and surveyed the Zmeinogorsk Territory and Rudny Altai in 1856 and 1857. P.P. Semenov (Tyan-Shansky).
Local historian Stepan Ivanovich Gulyaev (1806-1888) made a great contribution to the study of Altai. He studied individual remote places of the region, explored mineral springs, collected an excellent collection of minerals and paleontological finds. S.I. Gulyaev studied the possibilities of local natural resources with the aim of their industrial development.
In 1891, the Society of Lovers of Altai Research arose in Barnaul, which a few years later switched to the charter of the Geographical Society. Representatives of the local intelligentsia, political exiles, democratically minded teachers, land surveyors, and competent prospectors were united by the idea of knowing their region, the idea of emancipating its productive forces, putting them at the service of Russia.
Dmitry Ivanovich Zverev (1862-1924) was one of the initiators of the creation of the Altai Research Amateur Society. He created a network of meteorological stations, systematized data on the impact of weather and climate changes on agricultural yields by zone, and compiled agricultural reviews in the region over a number of years.
Another local researcher, prominent soil scientist I.P. Vydrin, together with Z.I. Rostovsky in the 90s. conducted several expeditions with the aim of zoning the Altai Okrug based on soil differences.
Beginning in 1902 and for several years, ornithologist and doctor Andrei Petrovich Velizhanin made a number of expeditions to the right bank of the Irtysh, to the Kulundinskaya steppe, and in the vicinity of Barnaul.
The remarkable researcher, scientist and public figure Viktor Ivanovich Vereshchagin (1871 - 1956) dedicated his life to studying the nature of the region. He was recruited to Barnaul as a teacher of natural history at a real school. He began to study the outskirts of the city, make long-distance excursions, and then expedition trips, becoming one of the founders of children's (school) tourism in Altai. Since 1901, V.I. Vereshchagin has been making scientific trips to various regions of the Altai Territory and adjacent territories. He explored in more detail the Chuya steppe, the Mountain Kolyvna, the Narrow steppe, the steppes of the Priobsky plateau, and traveled extensively through the Rudny Altai, the sources of the Katun, Bashkaus, and Chulyshman.
The scientific and local history activities of V.I. Vereshchagin especially developed in Soviet times. He was awarded (without defense) the academic degree of Candidate of Biological Sciences.
General geographical research in Altai was carried out by prominent scientists and public figures, such as G.N. Potanin, N.M. Yadrintsev, V.V. Sapozhnikov. They visited many areas of the region, but studied the Altai Mountains in more detail.
For many years, G.N. Potanin, a prominent Russian scientist, geographer, ethnographer, researcher of Mongolia, China, and Siberia, studied and collected Altai folklore. His activities served further development Russian-Altai cultural and literary connections.
The largest researcher of Altai was Professor of Tomsk University Vasily Vasilyevich Sapozhnikov (1861 - 1924), naturalist scientist, student of K.A. Timiryazev. He began research in the Altai Mountains in 1895 and continued it with short interruptions until 1911.
V.V. Sapozhnikov studied the entire Altai Mountains, was the first to establish the presence of traces of ancient glaciation here, discovered, in essence, the modern glaciation of Altai, described and photographed all large glaciers, determined the heights of many mountain peaks, including Belukha. The scientist devoted a lot of effort to studying the nature of the mountainous territories adjacent to Altai, and discovered the largest glaciation site in the Tabyn-Bogdo-Ola massif. V.V. Sapozhnikov created the first truly tourist guide to Altai, which has not yet been surpassed in detail and accuracy of route descriptions.
On July 26, 1914, the most interesting local event in the history of exploration of the region took place: on this day, the brothers Boris and Mikhail Tronov made a direct ascent to the top of Belukha. The previously inaccessible peak was conquered.
We meet many glorious names in the history of the study of the Altai region in the early years of the twentieth century: V.A. Obruchev, G.I. Grane, B.A. Keller, P.P. Pilipenko, P.G. Ignatov, P.P Sushkin, P.N. Krylov, V.I. Vernadsky, A.E. Fersman and others.
P.P. Sushkin is a leading specialist in ornithology and zoogeography of Siberia, academician of the USSR Academy of Sciences. In 1912 - 1914 he traveled around the region to little-explored places in the North-Eastern and Central Altai.
From 1891 to 1925 P.N. Krylov made five trips around Altai. A number of his works are recognized as classics.
In the first decades of the twentieth century. Academician V.I. Vernadsky comes to Altai with a research program. A most talented natural scientist, he had enormous knowledge in mineralogy and crystallography, studied the chemical composition of the earth's crust, ocean and atmosphere, became the founder of geochemistry, biogeochemistry, radiogeology, the doctrine of the biosphere and noosphere - the sphere of the mind. V.I. Vernadsky worked a lot on the history of exploration of Siberia and Altai.
Academician A.E. Fersman, a famous Soviet mineralogist and geochemist, one of the remarkable students and followers of V.I. Vernadsky, came with him. During a tour of the Altai mines in 1916, A.E. Fersman collected the richest collections of ores and stones, the collection for the Zmeinogorsk mine was especially complete.
Extensive research in Altai has enriched science with new information. One of the most interesting regions of our country, Altai, continues to attract the attention of scientists and local historians.
The settlement of the Upper Ob region and the Altai foothills by Russians began in the 2nd half of the 17th century.
Russian people - Novgorod ushkuiniki - crossed the Urals to Siberia, merchants went for the rich fur here back in the 12th - 13th centuries. But only at the beginning of the 16th century, after Ermak’s victorious campaign in 1681, the Russians managed to open the road here and military men rushed to Siberia to expand the possessions of the Russian Tsar. The development of Altai went faster after the Beloyarsk (1717) and Bikatun (1718) fortresses were built to protect against the warlike Dzungar nomads.
The protracted Northern War with Sweden deprived Russia of the opportunity to export copper from this country, necessary for the manufacture of cannons, minting coins, and casting bells. The government of Peter I had to seriously think about developing its own natural resources. For this purpose, search parties were equipped. Altai has long been known as a metal mining region, as evidenced by the so-called Chud mines. The father and son Kostylevs are rightfully considered the discoverers of ore deposits in Altai. The largest Ural breeder Akinfiy Demidov took advantage of these discoveries. In addition to rich ores, Altai was famous for its dense pine forests and numerous rivers. Thus, there were all conditions for the creation of a mining industry. On September 21, 1729, the first-born of Altai metallurgy, the Kolyvano-Voskresensky plant, went into operation.
In 1730, envoys of the famous Ural factory owner A.N. Demidov, busy looking for a convenient place to build a new, larger plant, chose the mouth of the river. Barnaulki. Altai attracted Akinfiy Demidov not only because of copper. Demidov secretly minted a silver coin from Altai silver in the tower of his Nevyansk plant in the Urals. The result of the activities of Akinfiy Demidov and his clerks in Altai was the creation here of a feudal mining industry based on the serf labor of assigned peasants and artisans.
Rumors about Demidov's smelting of silver reached St. Petersburg and Empress Elizaveta Petrovna sent a commission from Brigadier Beer to Altai. Based on the results of her activities, a decree was issued on May 1, 1747, which transferred Altai to the personal property of the Russian tsars.
In the 18th - first half of the 19th centuries, 90% of Russian silver was smelted in Altai. Gold was also smelted. The Barnaul silver smelter was rightfully considered the largest; it operated 13 smelting furnaces, producing about 450 pounds of silver annually. Therefore, it is no coincidence that Barnaul in a short time in 1771, from a small factory settlement, became a mountain city - one of the largest in Siberia. The term mountain city is logical: all spheres of life in Barnaul were subordinated to mining production. Russian history knows only two mountain cities - Yekaterinburg and Barnaul. Shortly before the revolution, a bridge was built across the Ob River and a railway line was built, which determined the rapid development of its young neighbor, the city of Novosibirsk.
By the 2nd half of the 18th century, the Altai mountain district was formed - this is a huge territory. It included the Altai Territory, Novosibirsk and Kemerovo regions, part of the Tomsk and East Kazakhstan regions.
The reigning monarch was the owner of Altai factories, mines, lands and forests; their main management was carried out by the so-called Cabinet, located in St. Petersburg. The backbone of the local administration consisted of mountain officers. But main role non-commissioned officers and technicians played in production, from whose ranks came talented craftsmen and inventors I.I. Polzunov, K.D. Frolov, P.M. Zalesov, M.S. Laulin.
In the first half of the 19th century, Altai ranked first in Russia in the production of silver, second in copper, third in gold, becoming the second industrial region in the east of the country after the Urals. The famous statesman and reformer M.M. Speransky, appointed by the Siberian governor, visited Altai in the 20s of the 19th century and came to the conclusion: Nature itself destined this region for a strong population and for the richest products of agriculture, trade and industry. But it is impossible to expect the latter under the present structure. He considered it expedient to replace serf workers and assigned peasants with hired workers and attract settlers to the lands of Altai. But for many decades the Tsar’s Cabinet did not agree to even small concessions that could undermine its monopoly position.
Even after the reforms of the 60s and 70s of the 19th century, feudal remnants remained in Altai to a greater extent than in the center of the country and other regions of Siberia. The ownership of the mountain district by the kings remained intact, and this determined many features of the development of Altai in the post-reform period.
The mining industry, which was the main branch of the district's economy, entered a period of crisis after 1861. From the beginning of the 70s, the unprofitability of factories began to increase uncontrollably, and by the end of the century, almost all of them were closed.
In the private industry of post-reform Altai, gold mining was most developed. The largest companies in the gold mining industry were the Altai gold mining business and the South Altai gold mining business. By the end of the century, 70 mines were operating and up to 100 pounds of gold were mined annually.
In the second half of the 19th century, the private manufacturing industry began to develop, which was represented by flour and grain mills, distilleries, sheepskin and sheepskin workshops. Black sheepskin short fur coats made in Barnaul were famous throughout Russia. Gradually, agriculture becomes the basis of the Altai economy. Along with the cultivation of grain crops (wheat, oats, rye), potato plantings expanded, and beekeeping received significant development. At the beginning of the twentieth century, dairy farming and butter production came to the fore. Altai oil was exported to Western European countries.
At the end of the 19th century, a section of the Siberian Railway passed through the northern part of the district; by 1915, the Altai Railway was built, connecting Novonikolaevsk, Barnaul and Semipalatinsk. Water transport also improved.
The land reform carried out by Stolypin gave impetus to the resettlement movement to Altai, which generally contributed to the economic growth of the region. In 1917 - 1919 established in Altai Soviet authority. In July 1917, the Altai province was formed with its center in Barnaul, which existed until 1925. From 1925 to 1937, the territory of Altai was part of the West Siberian Territory, and in 1937 the Altai Territory was formed. In 1922, the Oirot Autonomous Region was formed as part of the Altai Territory, which in 1948 was renamed the Gorno-Altai Autonomous Region. In 1990, at a session of the Gorno-Altai Council of People's Deputies, a declaration on state sovereignty was adopted. In May 1992, the Gorno-Altai region was again renamed the Altai Republic.
Today it is a sovereign democratic state, which is a subject of the Russian Federation, but at the same time endowed with all the necessary powers and authority on its own territory.
By the beginning of the 1930s, the collectivization of peasant farms was largely completed. The NEP no longer existed by this time. On economic development Altai province in the late 20s was affected by the completion of the construction of the Turkestan-Siberian railway. The Barnaul melange plant is being built specifically for processing Central Asian cotton. Elevators were built in Barnaul, Biysk, Kamen-na-Obi, sugar factories in Biysk and Aleysk, and meat processing plants in Biysk, Rubtsovsk and Pospelikha. Metalworking and production grew rapidly building materials, the transport network was improved. By the end of the 30s, Altai turned into one of the large agrarian-industrial regions of Siberia.
During the years of the Great Patriotic War The Altai Territory received more than 100 evacuated enterprises from the western regions of the country, including 24 factories of national importance. This fundamentally changed the economic appearance of Altai, giving a powerful impetus to the development of its industry. At the same time, the region remained one of the main breadbaskets of the country, being a major producer of bread, meat, butter, honey, wool and other agricultural products.
The first post-war decade was a period of massive development of new equipment and technology. The growth rate of the region's industry was six times higher than the Union average. By the beginning of the 60s, more than 80% of tractor plows were produced in Altai, over 30% freight cars and steam boilers produced by this time in the RSFSR. While industry was making a qualitative leap, agriculture continued to develop using extensive methods. The main problem for Altai remained the grain problem. A temporary way out of the situation was provided by the development of virgin and fallow lands, which later resulted in the loss of cultivated areas as a result of soil erosion. Under these conditions, the intensification of agricultural production and its transformation into a complex closely connected with processing industries has become inevitable.
In the 70-80s, there was a transition from separately operating enterprises and industries to the formation of territorial production complexes: agricultural-industrial hubs, production and production-scientific associations. Rubtsovsko-Loktevsky, Slavgorod-Blagoveshchensky, Zarinsko-Sorokinsky, Barnaul-Novoaltaysky, Aleisky, Kamensky, Biysky agro-industrial complexes were created with centers in large cities.
The city of Barnaul is the administrative center of the Altai Territory. Located on the left bank of the Ob at the confluence of the Barnaulka River and the Ob. The territory it occupies is 320 km2, where 654.7 thousand people live.
The city was founded in 1730. Since the middle of the 18th century it has been developing as a mining settlement. In 1796, by Decree of Catherine II, Barnaul received the status of a mountain city. After the closure of the silver smelter in 1893, the following industries began to develop: sheepskin and fur, leather, leather, candle, brick and brewing industries. In 1915, a railway was built, which played a huge role in the development of the economy of the city and region. In the 50s and 60s of the 20th century, the chemical industry began to develop. Currently, Barnaul is a large industrial, cultural and transport center of Siberia. The South Siberian and Turkestan-Siberian railways, highways pass through it, and there is a river port.
It is the second largest industrial center of the Altai Territory. Founded in 1709 by Decree of Peter I. 238.2 thousand people live in Biysk. This is a major educational and cultural center of the region. There is a port on the Biya River that provides cargo delivery in a northwest direction, including access to the Arctic Ocean. The Turkestan-Siberian Railway railway line passes through the city, connecting Eastern and Western Siberia with the countries of Central Asia and Kazakhstan. There are many roads leading from the city to different directions, including Western Mongolia and Northwestern China. For example, the famous Chuisky tract, which starts from Biysk and ends in Mongolia, in the village of Tsaganur. In the city's industry, the main sectors are: chemical energy, mechanical engineering and metalworking, light, food, processing and woodworking. The greatest development has been achieved in the printing and medical industries and the production of building materials.
In the central part of the Altai Mountains there are the Katunsky, North Chuysky and South Chuysky ridges (or, in local words, squirrels). These ridges have a pronounced alpine appearance - peaks covered with eternal snow and glaciers, large, steep slopes cut by river gorges; they bear about 70% of all Altai glaciers.
In the northern part of Central Altai, east of the Katunsky ridge beyond the river valley. Argut is located in the North Chuysky ridge. It extends from northwest to southeast for 140 km, with a width in the western part of 50 km, gradually narrowing towards the east to 20 - 25 km. Bounded on the west by the deep Argut valley. The southern and southeastern border of the region are the valleys of the Karagem and Chagan-Uzun rivers.
The ridge reaches its greatest height in the central part, known as the Bish-Iirdu mountain node, in which the main glaciation of the ridge is concentrated. The average height of the ridge here is about 3600 m, and a number of peaks exceed 4000 m (Maashey-bashi - 4173 m, Aktru - 4075 m, Kurkure - 3988 m).
The passes of the ridge are diverse, but they have one pattern - the northern and northeastern slopes of the passes are steeper, the takeoffs are higher. Difficulty categories of passes are up to 3B; the defining nature of the most serious passes is snow and ice. The height of the snow line on the northern slopes is about 2900 m, on the southern slopes - 3100 m and higher.
The orography of the ridge is complex and consists of several approximately parallel ridges with a general west-east direction. They got their names from tourists: Chuisky, Shavlinsky, Karagemsky.
Chuisky is located between the Chuya and Shavly rivers, stretching 60 km in the latitudinal direction from the confluence of the Chuya and Katun to the Eshtykol plateau. The heights of the ridge grow from west to east, the highest point is 2925 m. There are trails along many river valleys and along the watershed. The watershed is swampy in places.
The Shavlinsky ridge is located between the Shavly and Yungur valleys. Near Argut its height is about 2500 m, to the east it rises, and behind the right tributary of the Yungur, the Kurunda River, glaciation appears on the ridge. Forests grow only in river valleys. The most difficult passes are located in the eastern part of the ridge, which encircles the Shavlinsky mountain lakes like a horseshoe.
The average height of the Karagem ridge, which is the watershed of the Yungur and Karagem, is 3400 m along its entire length. The ridge is covered by small glaciers, the area of which increases towards the center of the node.
All ridges converge into one node in the area of the Skazka and Krasavitsa peaks, located at the source of the river. Shawly. Further to the east, the ridge represents a complex system of ridges with developed valley glaciers and a number of northern and southern spurs 20 - 25 km long. The greatest glaciation is in the upper reaches of the Aktru, Maashey, Shavla rivers, and on the southeastern slopes - at the sources of the Dzhelo and Karagem rivers.
The eastern end of the ridge is closed by the interesting peak Dome of Three Lakes, crowned by a glacier, behind which the ridge gradually degenerates, vast, sometimes swampy, open spaces appear, the forest disappears - the Kurai steppe begins.
The glaciation of the western margin of the ridge is represented almost exclusively by small glaciers. At the same time, the slopes of the Yungur-Karagem watershed bear only scattered, isolated glaciers, associated either with high peaks or with deep cirques.
As you move towards the center of the ridge, the size of the glaciers increases, and ravine-valley and valley glaciers appear. And the center of the ridge itself - the Bish-Iirdu node, which represents a complex system of ridges, has significant valley glaciers. These are Bol.Maashey (length 6.5 km, area 12.8 sq. km), Dzhelo (4.0; 7.3), Lev.Karagem (4.0; 6.6), Lev.Aktru (6, 5; 5.2), Pr. Aktru (5.0; 4.0). Bol. Maashey descends the lowest - 2,200 m.
In the eastern part of the ridge there are individual small glaciers. According to the height of the snow line, the glaciers of the southern slope end higher than the glaciers of the northern one. The largest glaciers of the ridge occupy cirque-shaped basins, bounded by the line of the main ridge and its spurs, with which extensive firn fields are associated. The large vertical dissection of the relief with abundant nutrition also determined the large vertical extent of the glaciers.
The southern chain of Central Altai is limited from the east by the South Chuya Range. It is separated from the eastern part of the Katunsky ridge by the Argut gorges, from the North Chuya ridge by the Karagema valley, from the south by the valley of the Dzhazator river, and from the east by the Chuya river and its tributaries.
The main watershed ridge stretches from west to east for 120 km, eight large spurs extend from it to the north, serving as watersheds for the Kara-Ayra and tributaries of the rivers Oshtu-Ayra and M. Kara-Ayra, Kalynagach, At-bashi, carrying their waters to the north in Chuya. The southern slopes of the ridge are cut through by the rivers Ongulu, Bara with its tributaries, Mangat with its tributaries and other right tributaries of the Dzhazator and Argut rivers.
The main glaciation is in the central part of the ridge from the Kara-Ayra River to Elangash. It is distinguished by a sharply dissected relief with heights of up to 3700 m. On the flanks of the central part of the ridge rise the peaks Iiktu (3936 m) and Tymomu (3960 m). The main glaciers are Kara-Ayry, Taldurinsky, Sofia, Yadrintseva.
Sculptural landforms created by ancient glaciation have been almost completely destroyed by weathering and river erosion. Traces of the accumulative activity of glaciers (moraines, rock glaciers) are widely represented in the valleys.
In total, there are more than 220 glaciers on the South Chuya Ridge, most of them are located on the northern slopes. Closer to the eastern part of the ridge, the relief becomes calmer, the saddles are more pronounced and smoothed.
The defining passes of the region are categories 1B and 2A; there are several passes of 2B and one 3A difficulty category. The passes are located mainly in the main ridge and in the northern spurs. In the North Chuysky ridge, and in terms of the possibilities for mountain trekking, this area is still inferior to the Katunsky and North Chuysky.
The entire ridge is characterized by the following features. Firstly, the southern slopes are steeper than the northern ones and have shorter spurs. Secondly, glaciation on the southern slope is much less than on the northern one. Thirdly, the ridge is very poor in timber vegetation, concentrated only in the valleys of the Dzhazator River and the tributaries of the Karagem, Taldura and Chagan-Uzun. Fourthly, the climate of the region is much drier and more contrasting than in the Katunsky and North Chuysky ranges.
The snow line rises from west to east from 2900 to 3100 m; on the southern slopes it is 100-150 m higher.
The main part of the glaciers, characterized by large morphological differences, is located on the northern slopes of the ridge. The central place is occupied by the glaciers Bol. Taldurinsky (8.5 km; 34.9 sq. km), Sofia (10; 24), Yadrintseva (4.5; 9.2). The basis of the glaciers is made up of vast firn fields merging with each other. However, the weakened nutrition compared to the North Chuya Ridge does not allow significant glacial tongues to develop here. All of them end quite high (2,350-2,650 m).
The Katunsky ridge, the highest of the Altai ridges, got its name from the Katun River, which originates from its southern slopes. The Katun, as it were, covers the ridge from the south, west and north. The eastern border of the ridge is the Katun tributary - Argut. The ridge stretches from west to east for more than 150 km with a width of up to 60 km, breaks off to the north 800 m with the Akkem wall to the plateau of the same name and the icefall and throughout its entire length does not fall below 2600 m, reaching a height of 4506 m in the Belukha massif.
In the Katunsky ridge there are three glaciation nodes: Western Katunsky, Belukha massif and Eastern Katunsky. And according to this, the ridge is usually divided into three parts: western, central and eastern, with borders along the Upper and Lower Kuragan and Kulagash-Orochagan.
Such a fairly uniform distribution of glaciation along the ridge with its increased concentration in three nodes is a characteristic feature that is unique nowhere else in Altai.
The western part of the ridge, which can conventionally be called Multinskaya, extends for about 50 km, on three sides it is limited by the bend of the upper Katun, which receives all the watercourses of this section of the ridge. Spurs of all directions meet in the area of the Multinskie Lakes, forming an intricate orographic knot with a very complex orientation. From here the main watershed line goes almost south and then turns due east. The Multinsky node has an average altitude of about 3000 m (the highest point is 3208 m). There are about 150 glaciers with a glaciated area of about 80 sq. km. These glaciers feed numerous tributaries of the Katun, which fan out from the ridge to the south, west and north. The western part of the Multinsky junction is very accessible, the upper reaches of the rivers here are relatively easy to pass and in many places are connected by paths; most of the passes are uncategorized.
The central and eastern parts of this node are inaccessible without special equipment and mountain training. Currently, more than 50 passes are known here. The defining passes are 1B and 2A difficulty categories, the most serious are 2B difficulty categories.
Starting from the upper reaches of the Upper and Lower Kuragan, the ridge rises and after about 25 km reaches its maximum in the Belukha massif - 4506 m. Here, for almost a 15-kilometer section, the altitudes do not fall below 4000 m, here is the main glaciation center of the Katunsky Range and its most powerful glaciers - Sapozhnikov, Radzevich, Tronov brothers, Berelsky. In this 40-kilometer section, the ridge has three significant branches to the north: Kucherlinsko-Kuraganskoye, Kucherlinsko-Akkemskoye and Akkemsko-Argutskoye, which also bear significant glaciation.
About 170 glaciers with an area of about 150 sq. km are concentrated in the central part of the ridge. Numerous tributaries of the Katun and Bereli begin from them; beautiful waterfalls are often found on the rivers. There are known waterfalls on the rivers Tegeek, Tekelyu, Kurkura, B. Kokkol, Kapchal and the Rossypnom stream, the largest of them are up to 40-60 m.
In the main watershed, which has an almost latitudinal direction here, about 25 passes and their connections are currently known, including those with the highest category of difficulty - 3B. In the side spurs the passes are categorized from 1A-1B to 3A difficulty categories.
Almost all of the river valleys in the central section of the ridge have good trails, which makes approaches to the passes easier.
On the last 20-kilometer stretch of the main ridge, the third glaciation site is located - Kulagashsky. Maximum height the ridge here is 3883 m. There are more than 70 glaciers in the unit with an area of over 40 sq. km. In this part of the ridge there are passes from 1B to 3A of difficulty category, there are fewer trails and they are worse, the approaches are less convenient.
The snow line of the Katunsky ridge rises from west to east from 2500 to 2900 m on the northern side and from 2700 to 3100 m on the southern side. The tongues of valley glaciers descend to 2000-2200 m. The northern slopes are more populated.
Location: sources of the Katun and Belaya Bereli rivers, Katon-Karagay district of the East Kazakhstan region.
Brief description: The highest peak of Altai and Siberia (the eastern peak has a height of 4506 m, the western one - 4400 m) - Belukha, the heart of Altai, is located in the northeast of Eastern Kazakhstan on the border of Kazakhstan and Russia. The slopes of its double-headed peak are covered with eternal snow and glaciers (Berelsky, Katunsky, etc.) over an area of about 70 sq. km, falling almost like a vertical wall to the north to the Akkem glacier and gradually decreasing to the south, towards the Katunsky glacier.
The depression between the peaks, called the Belukha Saddle (4000 m), also drops steeply to the north to the Akkem glacier and more gently descends to the south to the river. Katun.
The following rivers originate from here: Katun, Berel, Akkem, Argut, etc.
PHOTO 1: Mount Belukha. View of the Akkem wall from ver. Urusvati; peaks from left to right: Delone, Eastern Belukha, Western Belukha (taken from a message on the Agni Yoga and the Roerichs forum, message dated 01/06/02)
At the same time, according to many legends, this is a sacred mountain. Here, according to Buddhist legends, the legendary transcendental land of the gods Shambhala was located and from here the great Buddha - Gautama came to India. According to other beliefs, an energy bridge connects Belukha with Everest. Here is the navel of the Earth, also energetically connected with the Cosmos, giving people a charge of vigor and health.
The formation of the Belukhinsky horst (raised areas of the earth's crust) dates back to the early Quaternary time (1.5 million years ago).
Belukha is composed of Cambrian metamorphosed formations, sand-shale composition and sedimentary-volcanogenic deposits of Devonian age. They are represented by metamorphic schists, basic and intermediate volcanic rocks, jasper quartzites, sandstones and conglomerates. The northern part of the Belukha massif is composed of rocks of the Kaledin intrusive cycle, represented by Silurian plagiogranites and granodiorites.
Mount Belukha is one of the main glacial centers of the Altai Mountains. In the river basins associated with Belukha, there are 162 glaciers with a total area of 146 square kilometers. The main ones are Akkemsky (Rodeevich), Sapozhnikova at the source of the river. Iedygema, Bolshoy Berelsky, Katunsky (Geblera), Black, feeding the river. Rassypnaya, Brothers Tronov.
In the Belukha area, erosional and accumulative landforms are widely represented:
· punishments (huge circus-shaped depressions);
· troughs (trough-shaped valleys processed by a glacier);
· Carlings (pyramid-shaped mountain peaks);
· ram's foreheads (bedrock smoothed and polished by a glacier);
· terraces, moraines (clastic material rocks, falling onto the glacier and transported by glaciers to its tongue);
· fluvioglacial deposits (fluvio-glacial deposits).
A weather station is located 10 kilometers north of the city of Belukha on the northwestern shore of Lower Akkem Lake.
The climate diversity of the Belukha region is determined by significant absolute altitudes, relief, glaciers, and hydrography, which leads to rapid changes in meteorological elements (temperature, humidity, cloudiness, wind speed and direction).
The Belukha region is characterized by foehn phenomena, when warm, dry winds blow from the mountains into the valleys. The greatest amount of precipitation falls in summer, with the maximum occurring in July. Above 3000-3200 m above sea level, precipitation falls in solid form. Above 2700-3000 m above sea level, stable snow cover lasts all year round.
The altitudinal zonation of the Belukha region, the steepness and exposure of the slope determine the nature of the flora and fauna. Among the minerals found: rhodonite, lead, tungsten, molybdenum, copper, etc.
The most favorable time for hiking to Belukha and climbing its peaks is the second half of July and the beginning of August. The shortest way to Belukha from the village. Tungur along the right bank of the Katun, then up the river. Akkem (or through the village of Kucherla, along the path through the pass 1513 meters, to the Akkem river). From the mouth of the river Akkem to Lower Akkem Lake, about 30 km.
Scientific, cultural and practical value: Mount Belukha, like a powerful magnet, annually attracts thousands of tourists. These are climbers striving to reach its peaks, mountain tourists traveling within its borders, raftsmen rushing along the Katun, Berel and Bukhtarma, and followers of N.K. Roerich.
Every year the flow of tourists increases. Many take through routes: from Russia to Kazakhstan and from Kazakhstan to Russia. Belukha is so popular among residents of the CIS and Baltic countries that almost every serious tourist considers it their duty to visit Altai and Belukha.
Directly below Belukha on the southern side there is Lake Ezevoe, where a base camp is equipped. From here, from this base camp, you can begin the mountaineering ascent to Eastern Belukha (4506 m), the simplest, safest and classic way, from the Katunsky glacier through the saddle between the Eastern and Western peaks of the Belukha massif.
In mid-August 1999, when the end of the world was expected, about 1 thousand people a day walked along the Kucherlinskaya trail to Belukha. From Russia, several hundred (up to a thousand) Roerich tourists visit Belukha annually (from the Kazakh side). They are joined by tourists from Italy, Germany, and Austria.
Anyone who has seen Belukha at least once will be filled with its divine sparkling double-headed peak for the rest of their lives. The beluga whale is a symbol of Altai.
Modern environmental management and the state of protected areas: Belukha is located in a remote, inaccessible area that has no population. Only in the summer, on the Russian side during the tourist season, there are rare cordons of the Katunsky Nature Reserve.
Nature management - educational and sports recreation (mountaineering and tourism) and pilgrimage to holy places, although they are limited in scale (2-3 thousand people) and time, but recently it has been increasing significantly. The trend and growing pattern will continue in the coming years.
The first information about the city of Belukha dates back to the end of the 18th century. In 1836, Belukha was explored by Doctor of Medicine F. Gebler, who attempted to climb Belukha and visually determine its height. Gebler collected a collection of medicinal plants, and discovered the Katunsky and Berelsky glaciers.
Since 1895, Tomsk University professor V.V. Sapozhnikov has been studying the city of Belukha and modern glaciation of the Altai Mountains.
In 1897, he discovered and described the Akkem and Iedygem glaciers, and the absolute heights of the Eastern and Western peaks of Belukha were determined with sufficient accuracy.
The origin of tourism in Altai dates back to the first decade of our century. These were mainly educational excursions organized by teachers. The Tomsk Real School took several such excursions to Mount Belukha. Of course, these were the first signs of modern sports tourism, its origins.
In 1907, an attempt was made to climb Belukha, which ended unsuccessfully. The group included two grandsons of the famous naturalist F. Gebler and their three friends.
In 1909, the Englishman Turner tried to climb Belukha in winter from the northern side. This event, reckless at that time, ended in vain.
Since the beginning of the 20th century, the Tronov brothers - Mikhail Vladimirovich and Boris Vladimirovich, who compiled the first catalog of glaciers, have been conducting a detailed survey of Altai, studying the glaciers of the Altai Mountains, and the glaciers of Belukha. In 1914, they made the first ascent to the highest peak of Altai and all of Siberia - the snow-white Belukha massif (45O6 m) - the heart of Altai. They began the climb on July 25 with two guides. The next day at 5 o'clock in the morning they climbed along the Gebler glacier to the saddle, where the guides remained. Then the Tronovs climbed together and at 15:30 they were at the top.
In 1925, the Society for the Study of the Urals, Siberia and the Far East organized the first tourist expedition to Altai, which, consisting of 19 people, went from the village of M. Krasnoyarka in Eastern Kazakhstan along the route Chingistai - Uryl - Berel - Rakhmanov Springs - Mount Belukha and back.
A year later, two more attempts were made to conquer Belukha. The first involved two Leningrad climbers who worked on the geological expedition of N.N. Padurov. One of them was B.N. Delone - later an academician, Honored Master of Sports in mountaineering. The climbers reached a height of 4100 m, but were forced to return due to a large ice collapse.
Another group that tried to climb Belukha from the south included the future academician E.I. Tamm. But the weather, which deteriorated at the very beginning, forced the climbers to interrupt the ascent.
Belukha was conquered for the second time only in 1933 by a group led by V. Abalakov, who completed the route in unfavorable weather in five days.
In 1935, the slopes of Belukha became the arena of the First All-Siberian Alpiniad. In total, 43 people climbed to the eastern peak of Belukha and 41 people reached the saddle.
In February 1936, students from Novosibirsk were the first to reach the top of Belukha in winter. In the same year, two groups of climbers climbed the western peak.
In 1937, five ascents to the summit were made. In 1938, one group visited Belukha, after which the area did not see tourists for almost a decade and a half.
Only in 1952 did tourists and climbers resume travel to Altai after the All-Union Central Council of Trade Unions alpiniad took place in the Belukha area.
V.A. Obruchev, P.P. Pilipenko, G. Grane studied the geology of the Belukha region. Botanical research in the area of Belukha was carried out by Tomsk University professor P.N. Krylov and geographer V.I. Vereshchagin.
The village of Verkhniy Uimon is one of the oldest villages in the Ust-Koksinsky district, it is about 300 years old. There are two museums in the village: Local History Museum. N.K. Roerich and the Museum of Old Believers. The Museum of Local Lore has three large exhibitions: the first is dedicated to the history of the village, the second - archaeological finds and household items of the Altai people, the third - the Roerich expedition in 1926. to Altai. In the vicinity of Upper Uimon there are ancient burial grounds.
Ust-Koksinsky district (the regional center is the village of Ust-Koksa), located near Mount Belukha, lakes Talmenye, Multinskoye and Akkemskoye.
Geographically, it is located in the very south of Russia, bordering on Kazakhstan, and through the territory of the Kosh-Agach region - on Mongolia and China. The area of the district is 12952 sq. km. District center is s. Ust-Koksa.
From Ust-Koksa the route begins through the Old Believer villages of the Uimon Valley (Multa, Tikhonkaya, Verkhniy Uimon, Gagarka). Cultural tourism in the area includes visiting the local history museum. N.K. Roerich and the Museum of Old Believers in Upper Uimon. Archaeological monuments of the area include a stone woman (20 km from Tungur, downstream of the Katun River; access is difficult), an excavated mound (III century BC - 1st century AD) in the area of the village of Katanda, rock paintings at right bank of the Kucherla River.
The region is home to 80% of all Altai glaciers, which give rise to numerous rivers that form the cleanest and largest river in Altai - the Katun. The flora and fauna of the area is rich and diverse. More than 1,500 plant species, most of which are valuable medicinal raw materials, concentrated in the region. Due to the special geological structure of the earth's crust, all plants have increased biological activity.
The Ust-Koksa region, according to numerous environmental studies, remains the territory that is the cleanest and most untouched by modern civilization. It is in the Ust-Koksinsky district that one of the country’s 23 biosphere reserves, the only natural park of the Altai Republic, two natural world heritage sites out of five that the Altai Republic has, and many unique natural monuments are located.
Altai is a meeting place of three world religions: Christianity, Islam and Buddhism. Here we note the phenomenon of the special impact of mountain ranges on the human psyche. The religious and ascetic practice of the Old Believers, who came here in search of a better life and settled forever, played a major role in the formation of the spiritual culture of these places. Old Believers from the Kerzhenets monasteries, hiding from the reforms of Peter the Great, found their homeland here. The Old Believers developed a unique way of life that has survived to this day. It is especially pronounced in the villages of Verkhniy Uimon and Multa. The Kirzhaks seem withdrawn; they practically do not communicate with the laity, i.e. ordinary people, living in their own separate little world. At the same time, they always shelter and feed the guest, although they have special dishes for guests.
The national park being created in the Ust-Koksinsky district includes a large territory with diverse natural conditions.
The entire southern part of the park is occupied by the Katunsky Ridge. Based on three glaciers - the West Katunsky, the Belukha massif and the East Katunsky - the ridge is usually divided into three parts: western, central and eastern. The park includes the western and almost the entire central part of the ridge.
From the west and southwest, the national park is limited by the heavily forested slopes of the Kholzun and Listvyaga ridges, with a high point of 2793 m. The northern border of the park is the southern and southwestern slopes of the Terektinsky ridge (highest point 2783 m).
The Katun River and its main tributary, the Koksa River, flowing through the valley, divide it into three steppes - Abai, Uimon and Katanda. The Abay steppe is the valley of the Koksa River and the southern floodplain of the Abay River, with an elevation above 1000 m. The Uimon steppe lies below the horizontal level of 1000 m, has a width of 12 - 15 km and a length of about 30 km. The Katanda steppe, separated from the Uimon steppe by a spur of the Terektinsky ridge, occupies an area of approximately 18 square kilometers.
Mountain lakes and a dense network of rivers - the Katun and its numerous tributaries: Okol, Multa, Akgan, Kuragan, Akkem, Kucherla, flowing down the northern slope of the Katun Range; left tributaries running from the Terektinsky ridge - Bashtala, Kastakhta, Chendek, Margala, etc.
Taimenye is considered the most beautiful among the lakes of the Altai Mountains. The upper part of the lake comes close to the Katunsky granite massif with snow-covered peaks. Not far from it there is a group of Multinsky lakes, the most accessible of all the high-mountain lakes of the Katunsky Range, connected by a short but stormy channel. The lakes are surrounded by rocky mountains with rocky outcrops, forested slopes and snowy peaks - these natural contrasts give the mountain lakes their unique appearance.
In the upper reaches of the Kucherla River lies Kucherlinskoye Lake with its inaccessible shores steeply sloping down to the water, and in the upper reaches of the Akkem River lies Akkemskoye Lake, in whose muddy white water Belukha is reflected on a clear day.
PHOTO 2: Akkem Lake (
IN THE SECOND HALF OF THE XIX - BEGINNING OF THE XX centuries
"YYY" 1 P ° COMPARISON with Feudal-serfdom, presented side effects of education of the population. Implementation of the "peasantry and in the ppom1,enn" USK ° RIVSHEE in st. R a n The development of capitalism in agriculture and with terrible "° ShShaL0 POT Re6ness "literate farmers, workers and employees. In the 60s of the 19th century, the question arose of expanding the network of schools, first of all
LiG ™G -~which-G document could-
“PT with the predominance of humanities, and real,
Where more attention was paid to mathematics and science. Formally, the school in Russia became classless, i.e. Representatives of all segments of the population had the right to study. But the lack of educational institutions, the poverty of the masses and the reactionary policies of the tsarist government created the preconditions for the preservation of feudal traditions (primarily class) in the education system and doomed the children of peasants and workers to illiteracy. Thus, expressing the interests of the aristocrats, the Minister of Public Education, Count I.D. Delyanov issued a circular on June 18, 1887, which ordered not to admit “children of coachmen, laundresses, small shopkeepers, etc.” to the gymnasium. This legal act, known as the “circular on cook’s children,” closed the way to gymnasiums for representatives of workers and children from low-income families and meant a deviation from the “Charter of gymnasiums and pro-gymnasiums,” approved on November 19, 1864 by V.I. Lenin rightly noted: the era of reforms of the 60s. “left the peasant poor, downtrodden, ignorant, subordinate to the feudal landowners in court, in administration, and in school...” (24).
At the time of the mentioned reforms, Altai remained one of the culturally backward outskirts of the country. Issues of education were resolved extremely slowly here. For example, for ten years there have been talks about opening a women's gymnasium in Barnaul. And only when the wife of a mining engineer, E. Preobrazhenskaya, donated her house for the pro-gymnasium, it was possible to open it in 1877. This first secondary educational institution in Altai at that time included a preparatory department (26 students) and a first grade (24 students) . It was intended to educate children of privileged classes. In the 1879/80 academic year, out of 82 students at the pro-gymnasium, there were 66 from noble families, 6 from clergy, 8 from merchants and bourgeois families, and 2 from others. There were not a single student from peasant families. There was a fee for studying at the pro-gymnasium.
And yet, in the post-reform period, there has been a noticeable increase in the number of primary schools, primarily in cities. By 1889, in comparison with the previous period, the number of schools increased from 16 to 226. An idea of the types of schools is given in Table. 1.
Table I
Number of primary schools in Altai and the number of students in them (1889) (2, 31, 74)
| № | Types of schools (colleges) | Number of schools | Number of students (persons 1 |
| 1 | Urban | 22 | 1S74 |
| 2 | Gornozavodskie | 11 | 376 |
| 3 | Cossacks | 8 | 236 |
| 4 | Tsrkovno-parish | 89 | 1755 |
| RniiocTHbie | 66 | 2059 |
|
| Miggnpnerskie | 27 | 623 |
|
| Chyagtnye | 3 | 91 |
|
| TOTAL | 226 | 7014 |
City ™sh.sha - primary schools of an advanced type, transformed according to the Regulations of May 31, 1872 from district schools. Their goal is to give children artisans.
Small employees and traders have advanced primary education and some misch, -mvh applied knowledge. City schools accepted children no younger than seven years of age. The school studied: the law of God, reading, writing, the Russian language, church-Noahite reading, arithmetic, practical geometry, geography and national history, information from general history and geography, natural history and physics drawing, drawing, gymnastics. Students (boys) mastered the skills of working with wood and metal. G.u. were divided into 1-grade, 2-, 3- and 4-grade. The duration of study in any of them was 6 years. In 2-grade G.u. The duration of the 1st “class” course was 4 years, and the 2nd - 2 years. In the 3rd grade - the course of each of the “classes” lasted for 2 years, and in the 4th grade - the course of the 1st and 2nd “classes” lasted 2 years each, and the 3rd and 4th - one year each . At first, each “class” had only one teacher. Then subject teachers began working with senior schoolchildren. Graduates of G.U. the right to enroll in lower vocational schools or 1- and 2-year pedagogical courses was granted. Junior classes (departments) gradually lost their popularity and closed. In 1912 G.u. were transformed into higher primary schools (36).
With the abolition of serfdom, mining production lost cheap labor and began to decline. One after another, mines and factories were closed in the area. The need to train young people with a mining specialization in Otpata. Therefore, in 1879, mining schools were transferred to the jurisdiction of the Ministry of Public Education. However, as we see from the table, they were still working in the 80s. Then they were transformed into two-year rural and urban schools, devoid of a practical bias.
Altai Cossack schools are village and village primary educational institutions intended for Cossacks of the Siberian troops. The duration of study in them was set arbitrarily by the atamans - from 2 to 4 years. The specificity of their work was increased attention To military training students, in instilling respect for the traditions and customs of the Russian Cossacks, in instilling in the younger generation a sense of patriotism. In 1916, these schools, in solving a number of administrative, educational and pedagogical issues, came under the control of the Ministry of Public Education.
Church-parochial schools are the most widespread primary educational institutions run by parishes. We must give them their due - they played a big role in the spread of literacy. In 1884, the “Rules on Parish Schools” were approved. According to this document, two types of central schools were created: one-class (two-year) and two-class (four-year). In class rooms they studied: the law of God, church singing, reading, writing and basic information on arithmetic. In two-grade central schools, in addition, students were armed with information “from the history of the church and the fatherland.” At the beginning of the 20th century. The period of study at the Central School of Education has increased: in one-class schools up to 3 years, in two-class schools - up to 5 years.
In Altai, all rural schools, opened by decision of the Synod in 1838, functioned as central schools. These later included the so-called jubilee schools in the district. They were called anniversary because they were established to commemorate the 150th anniversary of the Altai Okrug. According to Order No. 19 of the Ministry of the Imperial Court dated April 30, 1897, 400 rubles were allocated for the construction of each of 30 school buildings in Pereset villages. Timber was sold free of charge. In addition, for ten years, the estimates of the Altai District prescribed that 360 rubles be allocated annually for each anniversary school. for teachers' salaries and 40 rubles.
"*inwil.DWI4 \iy\JJ) Etc.
KvneifA TTJ.ZI TsPSh NS last role was played by charity. Eg. K S ne U A.B. Sokolov built one parochial school at his own expense (
Work January 14, 1890) Yeshebalin I" ROUGH~" 3apt4HoC "
hour ™ Biiska Kiyskaya - 70 Kvnni.i u-, ™ ShebalinSK0 "30 children started classes at the school,
SHETPALI TRAINING BOOKS REYASTVS ° YAERZHALI "
school technical staff,
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Local historian V. Shipilov (Altai
Ш1Ш in s Stapo Tk "CHT ° IN BIYSKY uezle with 1Ш p ° 1885 6yl " open
ObGskoy" Ts b~rV H0№ "T bf.shki", in the village of Krasny Yar, the village of N'ovo-Obinskaya, in Sychevsky and Bystry Istok, in the village of Verkh-Anuyskaya, in the village. Kokshi. This became possible thanks to patronage and great general support and assistance from pit schools.
Volost schools in Altai are primary schools that gave peasant children basic knowledge and prepared them for work in rural administrations. In Tsentraz-non Russia, according to the Decree of 1830, one was opened per volost and was maintained through a special collection of funds from the peasants; according to the new Regulations in the 60s, such fees were recognized as optional. As a result, high schools, having lost a source of funding, began to close almost everywhere. As the table below shows, V. sh. in the Altai district in the 80s. the number of students exceeded even parochial schools; they enjoyed the support of the peasantry.
Missionary schools are primary educational institutions opened in Russia by missionary organizations in national regions with the aim of spreading Christianity and training missionaries from among the local population. Such schools were created by the Altai Spiritual Mission in Gorny Altai. They were given the task of preaching Christianity among the children of the Altai. The first of them was opened in 1856 in the village. Washing. Soon they began to be created in other villages: in Black Anui (1858) Paspaul (1860). Ongudaye (1861), Kebezeni (1867), etc. According to the 1897 census, there were already 30 primary schools in Gorny Altai, with 601 students (74). Of these, 25 were missionaries, in which 474 boys and 166 girls studied (18, p. 361).
In order to train teachers to work in missionary schools, a catechist school was opened in Biysk in IS83.
The relatively rapid growth in the number of schools in Altai in the second half of the 19th century. and even at the beginning of the 20th century. is explained by a number of reasons.
After the abolition of serfdom, which entailed the liberation of assigned peasants and artisans, hired labor became widespread in the district, as in other regions of the country. Capitalist relations are strengthening and trade is developing widely. Thanks to the construction of the Siberian Railway, Altai was drawn into the all-Russian and world market. In cities and large villages, various kinds of industrial enterprises appeared - wine-vodka, leather, boot-felling, sheepskin-fur-fur factories, cheese-making, butter-making, sawmills, woodworking, etc. Many private craft workshops appeared, and handicraft production developed. Therefore, the need for competent workers and specialists increased every year.
The peasant reform affected the intensity of resettlement of residents of European Russia to Siberia, in particular to Altai. In 1862, 432 thousand people lived in the district, and in 1897 - 1326 thousand. In the next two decades, the population here doubled (1897 - 1 3 million 1916 - 2.6 million people) (78, t 1, pp. 125 and 128). Migrants from more culturally developed areas of the country became champions of changes in the cause of education.
It should be noted that in the second half of the 19th - early 20th centuries. The tsarist government began exiling its political opponents to Altai. Although Altai was not the main region of Siberian exile, the number of political exiles in this territory was significant. For example, in the 80-90s. XIX century Quite a few populists were sent to Altai. During this period, 6 such exiles lived in Novokuznetsk, 19 in Biysk, 28 in Barnaul. In addition, the lila, under the secret supervision of the police, lived in Kolyvan and Zmeinogorsk (78, vol. 1, p. 163).
Among the exiles was the liberal populist V.K. Shtilke. On his initiative, the Society for the Care of Primary Education was created in Barnaul in 1884. Members of the community carried out a widespread campaign to raise funds for the construction of schools. Thanks to the selfless activity of Vasily Konstantinovich himself and other enthusiastic members of the society, Nagornaya (1883) and Zaichanskaya (1895) primary schools were opened in the city, both in areas where the poorest segments of the population of Barnaul lived. Schools were free not only of education, but also of textbooks , and some children from the poorest families received free breakfasts, shoes and clothes. During these times, free libraries were created. By 1896, the number of students in these educational institutions* was approximately 400 people. In 1897, at both schools, the society established Sunday schools for adults, in which up to two hundred people took courses annually. Later, members of the society initiated the opening of summer playgrounds and a public gymnasium. The first teacher at the Nagornaya school was A. A. Yufereva, the wife of a political exile. Sunday school classes were taught by P.E. Semyanov, A.F. Veronsky, YP. Shmakov, who became members of the RSDLP in 1905
A strong blow to the remnants of serfdom in 1905-1907. caused by the first Russian revolution. According to V.I. Lenin, tsarism was forced to rapidly destroy the remnants of the lobourgeois. patriarchal life in Russia, as a result of which its bourgeois development began to move “remarkably quickly” (25).
The development of public education in the province was greatly influenced by workers’ speeches demanding to expand the network of schools and improve the organization of education in them. Exiled Social Democrats, whose flow intensified in the 90s, played a major role in awakening the consciousness of the people. XIX century and especially after the revolution of 1905-1907. Despite their supervised status, they carried out political and mass agitation work among the working people, educated them, often becoming teachers in unofficially organized “free schools.”
Many peasants also showed a conscious desire for knowledge. During the years of the revolution, the number of “verdicts” from peasant communities to create new schools increased noticeably. In the name of the inspector of public schools of only one of the inspection districts of the Barnaul district by January 1. In 1911, 51 “verdicts” were received from various rural societies that petitioned for the opening of new schools. By that time, in this - 2nd inspectorate district - there were already 188 schools, of which 65 were departments of the Ministry of Internal Affairs and 123 - MNP (32).
By the end of the 19th century. There was a significant expansion of the network of schools in Barnaul and Biysk.
At that time in Barnaul there were more than 20 elementary schools, including: a parish school, opened in 1860, a city school (1865), a two-year women's parish school (1868 from 1902 - Aleksandrovskoe), an elementary parish men's school (1S77), a two-year men's school city school (1880), four-year city school (1880), men's parish school (1894), mining, Nagornaya and Zaichanskaya schools, etc. In addition, a women's gymnasium worked here.
Due to the closure by the beginning of the 90s. Most of the mining mines and factories raised the question of the fate of the Barnaul Mining School and the opening of a men's secondary school (real school) on its basis. Its structure at the time of its transformation into a real school (1897) was as follows: the first three classes corresponded to the course of district schools, and the last three were suitable for the type of lower technological uchichish with mining specialization (73.11).
„,„!!!T 0С° of the reorganization of the Barnaul district school into a secondary educational institution. Uh!. BC AND ™ ROYASKAYA Duma repented: “The region is entering the right economic
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However, the problem of school education in the district during the period under review was not resolved satisfactorily. The 1897 census revealed a depressing picture. 9.1% were literate in the Barnaul district (in Barnaul - 34.5%), in Biys-kom - 8.3% (Biysk - 27.7%), in Zmeinogorsk district - 9.0% (in Zmeinogorsk - 17.7F) (46). The literacy rate of the rural population was: for men - 14.4, for women - only 2.7%. It was somewhat higher in the cities: in Barnaul, about 45% of men were literate, and 24% of women were literate; in Biysk there are about 40 such men. Women - about 16%. Moreover, by the time of the census, the majority of those who were literate had only completed primary school or had learned to read and write outside of school.
There were 79 people with higher education in Barnaul, 17 in Biysk. Those with secondary education were 842 and 297, respectively (29 thousand people lived in Barnaul at that time, 17 thousand in Biysk). Moreover, representatives of the nobility had higher and secondary education , officials, clergy and merchants.
The situation with training people was even worse in rural areas of the district. At the end of the 19th century. in entire regions of Altai no persons were found who had ever attended school. So in the Charysh district that existed at that time, about 800 people lived, and not a single one of them was literate. In the Western region, out of 6,500 residents, only 6 people were considered literate (12).
Literacy was especially low among the local population of the Altai Mountains. Co
According to the census in 1897, 41,983 people lived here, including 4,635 resettled
people from European and Siberian provinces. Only 14S0 people turned out to be literate
century, or 3 5%. If we subtract 414 literate immigrants from the above amount, then
the literacy rate of the local population decreases to 2.3 and (74, p. 7). _
The elementary schools of the Altai Mountains were not able to educate all the children. For example, in 1896, 32 people attended the Chemal school, although at the same time 120 boys and girls of school age were not enrolled in education. There were about 120 school-age children in Shebalin. 92 of them did not attend school. Similar picture
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This had a terrible impact on the financial situation of teachers and the school. Because of the low level of pay for teachers, it was difficult to find suitable pedagogical personnel to work in primary schools.
A survey of 114 elementary schools conducted by Tl894 showed that only 48-6% of the teachers in them had an education of 7 grades or higher; More than half of the number of mentors did not have training for junior high school, not to mention pedagogical education (31).
Vili! against one of these teachers, a report was received from one village to the district authorities: “The teacher misses 2/3 of lessons, sits in class only for half an hour, is lazy, careless, does not know either the teaching methodology or the subject itself, is incapable and inexperienced in teaching.”
Such teachers were by no means an unfortunate exception. In Gorny Altai, school mentors, as a rule, were graduates of the Biysk Catechist School. But often classes were taught by random people. For example, in 1897, the Chergin school was taught by a reserve corporal who had once studied in primary school. In Shebalino, he taught a Biysk mish-mash “expelled from the second grade of the city school” (18. p. 361).
The improvement of education in the district was also hampered by the fact that many poor peasants could not send their children to school due to the lack of workers on the farm.
Some officials also hampered the development of schooling in Altai. For example, the opinion of the peace mediator of the Altai Okrug was that he does not yet recognize the people as “capable and in need of literacy” and that he decisively refuses the initiative to “establish schools” and does not recognize existing ones.
Even in Barnaul, primary schools eked out a miserable existence. Here is what the archpriest of the Barnaul Cathedral wrote about this to the City Council: “In Barnaul there are six parochial schools: Cathedral, Bogorodskaya, Znamenskaya, two Pokrovsky (male and female) and at the Charitable Society. All of the schools listed have their own buildings and staff. The teaching staff of these schools receive support from the treasury in the amount of 420 rubles. in year. This modest salary, given the high cost of city life, barely satisfies the necessary needs of those who use a ready-made apartment at the school... As for those who live in private apartments, they are in a very difficult situation.” Further, the archpriest points out that there is not enough money to repair school buildings and purchase educational visual aids. He asks the government for an appropriation for the school, “in order to conduct the school year normally... The government, in response to the archpriest’s petition, recommends that he “resort to searching for individuals who could donate non-burdensome amounts to the school” (56, 18, p. 362) .
The ministerial schools were in the same, if not worse, situation.
Although the local bourgeoisie was not interested in the broad development of public education, it nevertheless sought from the authorities that the children of workers receive the minimum knowledge necessary to improve the economy of Altai. This minimum was extremely necessary to increase labor productivity and ensure high profits for entrepreneurs.
“To learn simple literacy, which is as necessary as air” - this seemingly progressive statement expressed the general aspiration of the bourgeoisie (9). It is no coincidence that the Barnaul City Duma in 1909 conducted a census of school-age children and *° ° INTRODUCTION all| ° o6 »»« in ™kind, the implementation of which nose sGG MVerity 0 During *«™ . It is appropriate to note that the universal boss
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At the same time, the task was set - “to get a worker with a right eye and a deft hand,” which entrepreneurs needed. The tasks of improving the quality of education, mental and spiritual development of the child’s personality were ignored.
Although in Altai at the beginning of the 20th century. It was not possible to introduce universal primary education, but it still developed. In the 1913/14 school year. There were 808 primary schools here. In addition, there were 5 seven-year and 6 secondary schools. The schools had 52,069 students and 1,212 teachers (30).
In Barnaul, the network of primary schools continued to expand, and new types of educational institutions emerged. In 1912, city schools were transformed into higher primary schools - male, female and mixed. They consisted of four classes with a one-year course each. They accepted graduates of three-year primary schools, i.e. completed a course of study at the first, elementary level of school. As of 1916, twenty city parochial schools with a student population of 2,759 functioned in the district center. (1479 boys and 1280 girls): two male and two female higher primary schools with the number of students
- 93.50 KbFEDERAL EDUCATION AGENCY
Biysk Technological Institute (branch)
state educational institution of higher education
vocational education
"Altai State Technical University named after. I.I. Polzunova
(BTI Alt GTU)
Department of Humanities
Cultural development of Altai in the 19th – early 20th centuries
Completed
Shmoilov D. P.
student of IITT-84 group
Checked:
Kosachev V.G.
Biysk – 2009
The history of the development of culture at various stages of the formation of statehood knows ups and downs, grinds down prejudices to hone its best qualities. The process of purifying ideas not only on a global or national scale, but also in various localities of our vast state. The culture of Altai in this regard is a grain of the huge cultural mass of the country, but this grain serves as a contribution without which people living and living in Siberia and Altai cannot exist.
The Russian Empire could not help but include an extreme diversity of regional cultural traditions; the immensity of the territory turned its individual parts, including the vast Siberia, into closed cultural organisms. In assessing the originality of Siberian culture, contradictory trends are clearly visible, the roots of which go back to the 19th century. In the 50-60s, when the Russian advance beyond the Urals was gaining momentum, various aspects of colonization were widely discussed on the pages of periodicals, while government structures, liberals, and democrats were unanimous in the statement: “Siberia is the same Rus' »
As in previous years, the process of cultural development proceeded at a slow pace. The frequent change of reigning persons in the country only hindered cultural development. During the period under review, Russia was ruled until 1796 by Catherine II, then Paul I, Alexander I, Nicholas I and Alexander II.
The last years of the reign of Catherine II were characterized by the strengthening of serfdom. However, in 1786, in the field of education, the Charter on public schools was promulgated; the new provincial division of Russia provided opportunities for cultural development in the regions of the country. Catherine II herself was actively involved in literary activities.
During his short reign, Paul I released some political prisoners, which temporarily weakened the cultural reaction. The Catherine and Mariinsky Institutes were founded in St. Petersburg, and the department of institutions of the Empress Maria was opened. At the same time, the strictest censorship was introduced, private printing houses were closed, the import of foreign books was prohibited, and emergency measures were introduced to persecute progressive social thought.
Alexander I began with moderate liberal reforms, which were prepared by a secret committee. The Secret Expedition introduced by Paul I was destroyed, the emperor gave the lower class - merchants, petty bourgeois and state-owned peasants the right to buy uninhabited lands, issued a Decree on free cultivators, which allowed peasants to be freed from serfdom with the land through transactions with landowners.
In 1802, the Commission of Schools was approved with regulations on the organization of educational institutions. Schools, parish and provincial gymnasiums, institutes, and lyceums were founded. However, after the victorious war with Napoleon, the situation changed. The right of landowners to exile serfs without trial to Siberia was restored, and military settlements hated by the people were created. Advanced science and culture were persecuted. Various religious organizations flourished.
The reign of Nicholas I was the peak of absolute monarchy in its military-bureaucratic form. Barracks rules prevailed in all institutions, gymnasiums, and universities.
Alexander II began with a long-recognized evil - serfdom. In addition to its abolition, the first state reforms were carried out to please the bourgeoisie. Universities received self-government under the charter of 1863. Women's education was transformed on a broad basis: higher courses for women in university programs emerged. The press became much freer than before, and provincial newspapers began to develop.
In the struggle against routine and conservatism, advanced culture increasingly took possession of the consciousness of broad sections of the Russian people and exerted an increasing influence on all other peoples of Russia. This makes it possible to evaluate the culture of Siberia in a higher range. Public education and health care received further development. In education, theological, military and vocational educational institutions were replaced by comprehensive schools. Special schools began to be based on general education disciplines. A Mining School operated in Barnaul, training mining masters. It studied the fundamentals of metallurgy, mineralogy and other special disciplines. Schools for the children of workers appeared at some distilleries, where exiled settlers were teachers. On the basis of soldier and Cossack schools, military orphan departments appeared, in which by 1820 there were more than 7 thousand people. Here children were taught literacy, arithmetic, geometry, flute playing, drumming and military affairs. Some Cossack schools in the villages turned into rural ones.
According to the new school reform of 1803-1804. Russia was divided into 6 educational districts headed by universities. Siberia became part of the Kazan educational district. After Tobolsk and Irkutsk in 1838, the third gymnasium was opened in Tomsk. If gymnasiums and district schools were provided with buildings and equipment at the expense of the state, then parish schools, which were most accessible to a wide range of people, were completely transferred to the local community for maintenance. In the first quarter of the 19th century, school education did not have a clear class character. But in 1860 in Western Siberia, the children of nobles, officials, clergy and merchants made up 85% of all students in gymnasiums, 32% of students in district schools and only 13% of students in parish schools. The remaining share in these educational institutions are the children of peasants, Cossacks, townspeople and other urban inhabitants. The class character of the school stands out clearly.
Among the Siberian teachers there were wonderful teachers, enthusiasts of their work: I.P. Mendeleev (father of the great chemist), poet P.P. Ershov, naturalist S.S. Shchukin, geographer R.K. Maak and others. In Western Siberia in 1817 there were 4 city parish schools, in 1830 their number increased to 7, by 1840 to 9, and by 1855 to 15. The bulk of Siberia was illiterate and this was reflected in cultural development. Only the Buryats and Tatars had their own written language. Most peoples widely used pictography. And the role of Christian missionaries in educating the local population is great. Among the missionaries there were many enlightened people who sincerely sought to benefit the people.
This was the missionary Makari Glukharev who worked in Altai. For the Altai Turks, he created a special national writing system based on the Russian alphabet. Glukharev adhered to liberal-bourgeois views and was associated with individual Decembrists. He was not alone in his cultural vocation, and knowledge of the Russian language was spreading among the peoples of Siberia and many were already mastering Russian literacy.
Healthcare in Siberia also took new steps. If in the first half of the 18th century hospitals appeared in Siberia in military units and at some factories, then in 1783 and 1784. The first civilian hospitals were opened in Tobolsk and Irkutsk; in 1807, a hospital was opened in Tomsk, created at the expense of the merchant Chupalov. In 1822 in the Tomsk province there were 6 hospitals, hospitals were created at some factories. In the Altai mountain district, the entire medical service was united under the leadership of the chief physician.
In 1851, there were already 18 hospitals in the cities of Western Siberia. However, there were very few medical workers. Cholera, smallpox, anthrax, and measles often led to epidemics. The indigenous non-Russian population of Siberia found themselves in the worst sanitary and hygienic living conditions.
The study of its natural resources, geography, ethnic characteristics, and history was of great importance for the cultural development of Siberia. The time under consideration in this direction has given new pages to Siberian studies. The study proceeded in two directions: by sea and by land. At the same time, not only representatives of central Russia, but the Siberians themselves sought to get to know their region, its nature, wealth, and population.
At the beginning of the 19th century, Altai mining master P.M. Zalesov developed the design of the first Russian turbine, at the Barnaul plant S.V. Litvinov designed an air duct machine. Technical thinkers did not always find support, but they enriched the development of production. And these were not only technical achievements, but they enriched cultural life.
The development of literature, theater and art in Siberia was already influenced by the fact that during the period under review the leading people of Russia knew about it and found a lot of beauty and wonder in its wide open spaces. However, it should be noted that even then there were two opposing directions in assessments of Siberia. Some saw Russia's growth in the development of Siberia, while others doubted and saw it as a waste of effort and money. That is probably why Russian people were wary of Siberia, especially when Siberia was increasingly turning into places of exile for undesirable people.
We talked about the role of the clergy in the development of culture. For Biysk this was of particular importance. Brick began to be made in the city in 1785, and with it stone buildings began to appear. The earliest was the new stone Assumption Cathedral. Near the city upstream of the Biya, a monastic women's community appeared in 1813, which later turned into the St. Nicholas Convent.
Since 1828, the positions of the clergy have expanded. By decree of Tsar Nicholas I, the Altai Orthodox mission was approved in the city, the archimandrite of which was Father Macarius, highly erudite and cultured for his time. That year he turned 36, and he was full of strength to introduce the peoples of Altai to Orthodoxy.
The period of historical development under consideration is associated with changes in the economy and culture, which were influenced by the abolition of serfdom and subsequent bourgeois reforms in Russia. This was the time of the reigns of Alexander II, Alexander III and Nicholas II. The reforms carried out by Alexander II had a profound moral impact on society. According to the charter of 1863, universities received self-government. Women's education was transformed on a broad basis: higher courses for women in university programs emerged. The zemstvo and city councils took primary public education into their own hands and put public schools on solid ground. The press, according to the temporary law of 1865, became much freer than before, and provincial newspapers began to develop.
The bourgeois era placed higher demands on the literacy of the population than before. The development of capitalism in agriculture and industry determined the need for competent employees and workers. In the 60s 19th century. The issue of expanding the network of schools, primarily primary ones, became acute. The progressive public demanded universal primary education. The government was forced to embark on educational reforms that affected primary, secondary and higher schools. The expansion of the network of primary schools was facilitated by the “Regulations on Primary Public Schools” of 1864. In the same year, a new charter for gymnasiums - secondary educational institutions - was approved. They could be classical, with a predominance of humanities, and real, in which more attention was paid to mathematics and natural science. Formally, the school in Russia became classless, that is, representatives of all classes could study. But the lack of educational institutions, the poverty of the masses and the reactionary policies of the tsarist government preserved the feudal tradition in the education system (primarily class) and doomed the children of peasants and workers to illiteracy.
In the pre-reform era, there was not a single secondary or incomplete secondary school in Altai. There were only 16 primary schools in the entire district. After 1861, Altai remained one of the culturally backward outskirts of the country. Issues of education were resolved extremely slowly. For example, for 10 years there have been talks about opening a girls' gymnasium in Barnaul. And only when the wife of a mining engineer, E. Preobrazhenskaya, donated a house for the gymnasium, it was possible to open it in 1877. The first women's gymnasium in Altai at that time had a preparatory department (26 students) and a first grade (24 students). Education in it was paid, it was intended to educate children of privileged classes. So, in the 1879/80 academic year, out of 82 students, there were 66 from noble families, 6 from the clergy, 8 from merchants and bourgeois families, and 2 from others. There were not a single student from peasant families. Throughout the post-reform period, correspondence continued between various authorities (Cabinet, Tomsk administration, Barnaul City Duma, etc.) about the opening of a men's gymnasium in Barnaul. A positive solution to the issue was thwarted due to the lack of a building and funds; residents of the city never received a gymnasium in the 19th century.
The leading intelligentsia, among whom there were many political exiles, played a major role in the spread of literacy. So among the exiles was the liberal populist V. K. Shtilke. On his initiative, the Society for the Care of Primary Education was organized in Barnaul in 1884. Members of the community carried out a widespread campaign to raise funds for the construction of schools. Thanks to the activities of the society, the Nagornaya school was opened in Barnaul in 1885, and the Zaychanskaya school in 1891, both in areas where the poor lived. In schools, not only education was free, but also textbooks, and some children from the poorest families received free breakfasts, shoes and clothes. Free libraries were created at these schools. By 1896, the number of students in them reached 400. In 1897, Sunday schools for adults were also organized at the schools of the Care Society, in which up to 200 people took courses annually.
Description of work
The Russian Empire could not help but include an extreme diversity of regional cultural traditions; the immensity of the territory turned its individual parts, including the vast Siberia, into closed cultural organisms. In assessing the originality of Siberian culture, contradictory trends are clearly visible, the roots of which go back to the 19th century. In the 50-60s, when the Russian advance beyond the Urals was gaining momentum, various aspects of colonization were widely discussed on the pages of periodicals, while government structures, liberals, and democrats were unanimous in the statement: “Siberia is the same Rus' »
The content of the work
INTRODUCTION 3
1. The beginning of culture (first half of the 19th century) 4
2. Culture. The formation of capitalism. (Second half of the 19th century). 8
2.1 Literacy development in Altai. 9
2.2 Study of Altai. eleven
2.3. Development of architecture of Altai. 12
3. Culture. The period of construction of socialism. (Early 20th century). 13
CONCLUSION 16
LIST OF REFERENCES USED 17
It is extremely difficult to write about Altai. A lot has been written about this region. Altai is a well-known part of our territory and a land of mysteries, legends, a land of not only centuries-old, but also thousands of years of history. Altai has long been a unique junction of civilizations: historical, cultural, archaeological. Many cultures and peoples formed around Altai, which subsequently influenced the fate of other territories.
On the territory of the Altai Territory and the Altai Republic there are 3 large archaeological areas: Gorny Altai, Upper Ob, Altai Foothills. Most of the archaeological sites of Altai are confined to river valleys, as well as extensions of intermountain basins, which are traditionally called steppes (Tvnyinskaya, Kanskaya, Abaiskaya, Uimonskaya, Kuraiskaya, Chuyskaya, Ulaganskaya). It was in these places, convenient for living and living, that people have settled since ancient times, and the most important events of Altai history took place here.
The first people settled in the valleys of Altai many hundreds of thousands of years ago, as evidenced by the world-famous Ulalinskaya site, discovered in Gorno-Altaisk. During excavations at the Ulalinskaya site, primitive stone tools were found made from blanks obtained using fire technology, i.e. by heating and rapidly cooling the stones. Ulala finds date back to the Lower Paleolithic period, some of them are more than a million years old. To more later periods Stone Age includes materials from excavations of the cave sites of Denisova and Ust-Kanskaya caves. It is in these natural closed complexes, unaffected external influences, archaeologists excavated interesting monuments with a well-traceable sequence of cultural layers.
It is assumed that ancient people led a nomadic lifestyle. They lived in camps located in strategically convenient places. The closed caves were most likely used as a shelter during nomadic migrations.
Chalcolithic, transition period from the Stone Age to the Bronze Age, characterized by the use of bronze tools along with stone tools, is represented in the Altai Mountains by the Afanasyevskaya archaeological culture (end of the 4th millennium BC - first quarter of the 2nd millennium BC). The culture received its name from Afanasyevskaya Mountain (near the Batenya River in the Krasnoyarsk Territory), where the first burial ground of this era was explored in 1920. In Altai, the captive Afanasyevites settled from Lake Teletskoye (along the Biya River) and the middle reaches of the Katun in the south to the latitude of Barnaul in the north.
The formation of the Afanasyevskaya culture is associated with the resettlement of early pastoral tribes of proto-Europeans, who were engaged in transhumance cattle breeding, to Altai. Copper and bronze began to be used in the production of weapons, tools, household items and jewelry. It has not yet been possible to determine the ethnicity of the Afanasyevites; we can only talk about their racial affiliation. Anthropologists claim that these people were very tall (average height 1.8 m). According to skull reconstructions, these were elite Caucasians. It has been established that on the basis of the Afanasyevskaya culture, the Scythian-Siberian cultural and historical community later appeared.
The Afanasyevites conducted complex farming, giving preference to pasture cattle breeding. They liked to settle in wide open river valleys. Afanasyevsky monuments are represented by the burial grounds and settlements of Balyktuyul, Elo, Kara-Tenesh, Tenga, Bolshoi Tolgoek, Aragol, Kurota, etc.
Funeral monuments are enclosures in which there were oval or rectangular grave pits with a ceiling. The pits contained single or paired burials; the deceased were laid on their sides or backs, usually with their legs bent and their heads to the northeast or southwest. Often the bones of the buried were painted with ocher. Among the grave goods found in the burial grounds were ceramic vessels, incense burners, vases, tools and decorations. The ceramics are decorated with a comb stamp design.
In the 1st millennium BC. A culture of the Scythian type appears in Altai, giving world history a number of unique art monuments.
Scythians, ancient nomadic tribes of Eastern Europe and Western Asia, settled at the end of the 7th-2nd centuries. BC. in the Black Sea region and on the shores of the Caspian Sea. The origin of these tribes, which probably belonged to the Indo-European group, is still not fully understood. It is known that Scythian warriors fought with Persia, attacked Greek colonies in the Black Sea region, and there are references to Scythian mercenaries in the armies of these states. The Scythian time in Altai is associated primarily with the Pazyryk archaeological culture of early nomads (VII-II centuries BC). The main occupation of the nomadic tribe of Pazyryk warriors was hunting.
The Pazyryk people knew and loved nature, they were excellent artists: they depicted leopards, eagles, deer, and painted fantastic animals. Dozens of such tribes appeared in the steppes of Eurasia, creating a culture that was called Scythian-Siberian, after the name of the most famous tribe. After the defeat of the Scythian state by the Goths, the Scythians disappeared among other tribes, presumably making their contribution to the formation of the Slavic ethnos.
Mounds of the Pazyryk period have been identified in many regions of Altai (Ulagansky, Ongudaysky, Ust-Koksinsky, Charyshsky, etc.). There are both large and small mounds, and, as a rule, small mounds are the burials of ordinary nomads. Large mounds, the most interesting from a historical point of view, are usually extended in a chain in the north-south direction. Under the stone embankments in the pits there are log houses with wooden floors or stone boxes. In terms of the wealth of inventory (metal coins, knives, daggers, mirrors, bone products, jewelry, horse harnesses) and internal design, they differ sharply from small mounds.
These are the burials of tribal nobility. In the mounds with permafrost, objects made of wood, leather, felt, and fabrics were preserved. The Pazyryk mounds were first explored in the Pazyryk tract on the Bolshoi Ulagan River, where a chain of five large mounds was discovered. In 1993, on the Ukok plateau, archaeologists from the Novosibirsk Institute of Archeology and Ethnography made a unique discovery of the embalmed body of a young noble woman. In addition to burial grounds, the Early Iron Age includes settlements, memorial and ritual structures, numerous menhirs (stone steles), “deer stones,” and petroglyphs.
Kurgan burial grounds of the Shibin period (from the name of the Shibe tract in the valley of the Ursul River) were discovered along the Katanda, Berep, Karakol, Kurota, Kurai, Yakonur, and Peschanaya rivers. In size and structure they are similar to the Pazyryk mounds. They contain things of Chinese origin, and in the rich mounds there are quite a lot of gold things.
A group of writings from Central Altai, made using the dotted printing method, in which the entire image is filled with dimples and dots, also belongs to the era of the early nomads.
Traces of gold mines from distant times have been found. In addition to gold mining, highly specialized cattle breeding (horse breeding, sheep breeding), and hunting for ungulates and fur-bearing animals developed.
In the 3rd century. BC. The Pazyryk culture was replaced by the Hunno-Sarmatian culture. By the end of the 3rd century. BC. The tribal union of the Xiongnu, the ancestors of the Huns who later conquered the European peoples, created the first early class state in Central Asia. Over the past 20 years, about two dozen monuments of this period have been discovered and studied in Gorny Altai. These include the burial grounds of Ust-Edigan, Chendek, Upper Uimon, Bely Bom, Bikv, Airydash, etc., as well as settlements, settlements, sanctuaries: Yustyd, Bertek, Maima, Kucherla, etc. The cultural and ethnic affiliation of these monuments has not yet been established. Perhaps the Pazyryk culture did not disappear without a trace, but was transformed into a Hunnic type culture. The continuity of the two cultures is evidenced by the similarity of the funeral rites. In addition, in one of the Hunnic-type burials on the middle Katun, a complex of things of Scythian culture was found, and in one of the Pazyryk mounds - bow guards of the Hunnic type.
The monuments of the 1st millennium of the settled tribes of the Upper Ob have been well studied. There are Verkhneobskaya (II-VIII centuries) and Srostkinskaya (9th-10th centuries) cultures.
The first archaeological expeditions to study the Scythians took place under Peter the Great in the 18th century. It was at this time that the king’s friend, the famous scientist from Amsterdam Nicolae Cornelisson Witsen, received from his Russian friends ancient Roman coins, a Chinese mirror and some other curiosities found in Siberian mounds. Among these items, the most interesting were four dozen gold items, such as very finely crafted necklaces, belt plates, and various ornaments depicting animals. All of them dated back to the times of the Scythians.
It all began on October 29, 1715, when representatives of the highest aristocracy presented Tsarina Catherine, on the occasion of the birth of Tsarevich Peter, with “luxurious gold items from Siberian burials, as well as one hundred thousand rubles in specie,” which belonged to the richest entrepreneur and founder of the first Ural factories, Nikita Demidov. Later, in 1793-1830, engineer and passionate collector P.K. Frolov, founder of the Barnaul Museum, collected a large number of antiquities discovered in Altai during mining operations, but especially during secret archaeological excavations.
The best items from Frolov's collection are now in the Hermitage, and the rest of the collection is kept in the Historical Museum in Moscow. Two exhibits ended up in museums in Stockholm.
Based on the finds made in the Lazyryk mounds, one can judge the remarkable art of the Altai nomads. Wooden sculptures and bas-reliefs, geometric patterns, silhouettes and polychrome drawings - all techniques are often combined in one work. Among the images of animals, the most common are the horse, camel and deer. Of all animals, the Eastern Scythians gave a special place to the deer, because it was this animal, according to their ideas, that delivered souls to the afterlife.
Among the finds made in the mounds, there are few metal objects, but there is every reason to assume that there were much more of them and that they were varied: bronze figurines depicting animals and birds, cast, openwork and chased bas-reliefs made of copper, bronze, silver and gold . Craftsmen who worked with metal resorted to the same means of expression that they used in working with wood.
Of the samples coming from the southwest, unique fabrics and carpets are of exceptional interest because they are the oldest evidence of the existence of weaving and the art of carpet making in the Middle East. Altai nomads also borrowed some mythical motifs from Persia. One of them is a griffin, which later became a favorite subject of local art.
In the Altai Mountains, various archaeological monuments of the 6th-10th centuries dating back to the Turkic time were discovered, in which the connection between the Hunno-Sarmatian and Turkic periods of the history of Altai is clearly visible. During this period, the transition took place from the Indo-European inhabitants of Altai to the ancient Turks, the ancestors of modern Altaians, Turks and Mongols.
In the VI century. The Turkic tribes united into the powerful First Turkic Khaganate, which included in its possessions lands from the Caucasus and Crimea in the west to China in the east. In 572, the First Turkic Khaganate split into the Western Khaganate, with its center in Semirechye, and the Eastern Khaganate, with its center in modern Mongolia. In 682, the Second Turkic Khaganate was formed, which lasted until 744, until the appearance of the Uyghur Khaganate in the steppes of Central Asia, under whose rule the population of Altai came to be. After the fall of the Uyghur Khaganate in 840, the Altai tribes found themselves subordinate to the Yenisei Kyrgyz, the ancestors of the modern Khakass, and became part of the Kyrgyz Khaganate. Since the 6th century. the ancient Turks began to penetrate into the forest-steppe and forest zones of the Ob region. The Ugric-Samoyedic tribes who lived here were partially pushed to the north, while another part of them assimilated with the ancient Turks. In this way, the cultural differences that existed for many centuries between the population of the Altai mountain and steppe zone and the inhabitants of the Upper Ob were smoothed out. Turkic archaeological sites are the most diverse and well preserved in the Altai Mountains. Among them are mounds and memorial complexes, runic writings. Burials in ground pits with a southern orientation with accompanying burials of horses are typical. The dead were provided with ritual food, usually lamb.
‘Stone women’ (kezer tash) are also associated with the rich mounds of Turkic times and stone enclosures. This group of monuments dates back to the VI-IX centuries. More than 30 sculptures were discovered in Altai. Many were found along the Chuya tract, seven in the Kurai steppe. Some of the sculptures were taken by expeditions to museums in Tomsk, Gorno-Altaisk, Moscow (State Historical Museum) and St. Petersburg (Museum of Anthropology and Ethnography). Some women nevertheless remained in their places. Despite the meagerness of their visual means, the stone sculptures of the ancient Turks that have survived to this day are surprisingly individual and similar to the ancient people who lived in Altai more than a thousand years ago.
In addition, the Keser sculptures also had a purely practical meaning: thus, according to the animistic ideas of the Turks, the soul of the deceased could be enclosed in stone by a shaman; that is, the deceased himself seemed to be present at his wake. Often the stone figures of kesers - ancient warriors - are called stone women. Unlike the Polovtsian stone sculptures, with which they are often compared, the Altai figures never depict women, but are the embodiment of the image of an ancient warrior. The first stone sculptures of women in a conventional manner depict a person’s face, made in the upper part of the stele.
As a rule, this is a man with wide cheekbones, slanted eyes, a mustache and beard; Some sculptures depict earrings placed in the ears, and smooth hryvnias and necklaces on the neck. Later figures of Turkic warriors also depict ceremonial vestments with weapons (saber and dagger) on a belt decorated with figured plaques. The number and composition of belt plaques served as insignia of military distinction. Sometimes clothing is also depicted: hats, robes with lapels on the chest and wide sleeves with cuffs. In the warrior’s right hand there is a bowl or goblet, the left is lowered onto the hilt of the saber. The most expressive figures of the Altai Turks are known in the valleys of Uzuntal, Kurai, Karakol, Argut and White Anui.
More than 3,000 enclosures of Turkic times are known in the Altai Mountains. They are quadrangular structures made of stone slabs. These are the foundations of a temple or a wooden frame building in the form of a dwelling (similar structures are still erected over the graves of Altai and Kazakhs in South-Eastern Altai). Engraved drawings of animals and people are often found on the slabs of Altai fences. The space around the fences was lined with large boulders or small pebbles carefully fitted to each other. The fence represented the last refuge of the soul of the deceased. A larch tree was placed in the center, and a horse was sacrificed; the so-called “gailga” was installed - the skin of a sacrificial animal stretched over inclined stakes.
To the east from the fences with statues stretch small, vertically placed stones - balbas. This name in modern archeology was given to rows of low stone columns located next to fences. However, there is no unity among scientists regarding the interpretation of this term. Previously, stone sculptures were called balbals, and a phonetic simplification of the word explained why sculptures of warriors were often called women. Previously, all researchers were unanimous in the fact that the Turks placed stone pillars - balbals - at the memorial structures of their warriors according to the number of enemies killed by the buried person. But the large number of balbals (several dozen, sometimes hundreds) at the memorial complexes of the ancient Turkic aristocracy makes archaeologists doubt this version: it is difficult to imagine that the Turkic kagans could kill hundreds of enemy warriors during their lifetime. In recent years, there has been widespread speculation that the number of stones corresponds to the number of relatives who took part in the funeral.
It is possible that the stones are symbolic hitching posts - an integral part of any nomad’s home. The balbal hitching post was a kind of sign of the presence (attention) of a certain person to the deceased. In addition, here one can draw a parallel between the Altai balbals and the wooden hitching posts-serge, revered by the Buryats and Yakuts. Also belonging to the cultural layer of Turkic times are numerous petroglyphs and writings - rock paintings and elements of Turkic runic writing. Petroglyphs are made using the technique of dot knockout or graffiti, i.e. drawn drawing.
As a rule, the drawings depict animals, horsemen, battle scenes and hunting scenes, birds and snakes, and fantastic creatures. The runic inscriptions on the stones are made with signs of the Orkhon-Yenisei alphabet. Some Turkic settlements have been preserved in the Altai Mountains. Most of them were located on mountain slopes, in ravines or at the foot of the mountains, which made it possible in case of military danger to withdraw to a neighboring valley. The most famous Turkic settlement was excavated at the mouth of the Bolshoi Yaloman River. According to researchers, it was a significant and large city of the Turks. Chinese chronicles characterize the Turks as skilled metallurgists, supplying iron and blacksmith products to their neighbors.
By the 10th century the population of Altai was a conglomerate of various Turkic tribes, the most powerful of which were the Kipchaks, one of the Telengit or Teleut tribes, the ancestors of the Cumans, known from ancient Russian chronicles. Until the 13th century. various tribes - including the Yenisei Kyrgyz, 
Kimaks, Kochans, Khitans, Naimans, etc. - formed more or less large and powerful powers, which included the peoples of Altai.
IN early XIII V. The Kyrgyz Kaganate was defeated by the troops of Genghis Khan. In 1207, the territory of Altai became part of the ulus of Genghis Khan's eldest son Jochi and, later, became part of the huge state of the Golden Horde, formed as a result of conquests, under the leadership of Jochi's eldest son Batu Khan. The territory of this state extended from the lower reaches of the Danube to the foothills of the Altai Mountains. Archaeological research shows that from that time in Altai there remained ruined settlements with traces of fires, and funerary monuments with poor grave goods reflect the sharp impoverishment of the population and the general decline of culture. The southern Altai tribes fled from devastation and internecine wars in the forest-steppe zones of the Ob region.
At this time, to the east of Altai, the tribes of the Western Mongols-Oirats, the immediate neighbors of the Altai population, began to strengthen. In 1635, the scattered Oirat tribes united into a single state - the Dzungar Khanate. Oirat feudal lords and Dzungar khans, as well as Teleut princes, forcibly collected tribute from the peoples of Altai. At this time, the southern and northern Altaians were clearly distinguished among the population of Altai. The southern ones belonged to the most Mongoloid Central Asian and South Siberian type (Tuvians, Buryats, Mongols). Northern Altaians belong to the Ural type and represent an ethnic substrate that included Turkic, Samoyed, Ket and Ugric elements.
Southern Altaians lived in the Altai Mountains: near Lake Teletskoye and along the Chulyshman River, in the valley of the Chui River, on the Katun. Northern Altaians inhabited the spurs of the Altai Mountains and the valley of the Biya River. In the 17th century The foundations of the economic activity of the Altai people were formed, which they are engaged in to the present day: hunting, cattle breeding. The first Russian settlers appeared in Altai only at the end of the 17th century. The development of Altai went faster after the construction of defensive fortresses and forts that protected from the attacks of the Dzungar khans.
At the beginning of the 18th century. Russia fought the Northern War with Sweden, which lasted for 20 long years. During this period, it became an urgent need to obtain their own metals, especially copper, for the manufacture of cannons. By decree of Peter I, search parties were equipped, ore explorers were encouraged, and a bonus was promised for the discovery of copper and silver ores.
The presence of metals in Altai was known due to the discovery of numerous Chud mines. Stepan and Yakov Kostylevs are considered the discoverers of ore deposits in Altai. But their discoveries were taken advantage of by another person who played an important role in the history of Altai, whose name is often given to an entire period in the history of the region.
We are talking about a large Ural breeder A.N. Demidov. In 1726, he received permission and a monopoly right to build factories and mines in Altai. For reconnaissance, Demidov sent his clerks and artisans from the Urals to Altai, who confirmed the rich content of the local ores and thereby accelerated the decision to build mines and factories. At the end of 1727, on a tributary of the Belaya River - Loktevka - construction began on a copper smelter (Kolyvano-Voskresensky), which opened 2 years later. In 1744, another Demidov plant, built at the mouth of the Barnaulka River, began operating - the Barnaul copper smelter.
Despite the cheap labor, copper smelting was unprofitable. Most likely, Demidov had a much greater business interest in the production of silver, which was more profitable and profitable. Demidov secretly minted silver coins from silver from the Altai Zmeinogorsk mine at his Ural factory. Most likely, rumors about this reached St. Petersburg, and Queen Elizabeth sent a commission to Altai to check. Further events developed rapidly.
In 1745 A. Demidov died. Elizabeth confiscated his possessions in Altai for her own benefit. From that moment on, the cabinet period began in the history of Altai. After the defeat of the Dzungar Khanate by the Chinese in 1756, the inhabitants of the Altai Mountains voluntarily became part of Russia. This event had an impact on all aspects of the life and activities of the Altai population.
Since 1747, Rudny Altai became the property of the Russian tsars, metallurgical and silver smelting industries developed rapidly, in 1762-1768. Another silver smelter was built in Pavlovsk. The main management of the factories belonged to the Tsar's Cabinet in St. Petersburg; real management was carried out by the office of the mining authorities, whose power extended to the entire local population, including merchants, townspeople and soldiers.
By the end of the 18th century, after rapid development, silver smelting production reduced its volumes. Zmeinogorsky reserves have dried up silver mine, silver smelting became less significant. After the abolition of serfdom in 1861, the mining industry finally entered a period of crisis. In the 1870s factories that once occupied a leading position in the economy became unprofitable. Altai silver could no longer compete with cheaper foreign ones. In 1893, the Barnaul, Pavlovsky, and Loktevsky factories were closed. At the end of the 19th century. Altai becomes a predominantly agricultural region, and private entrepreneurship, small factories and trade develop in cities.
After the abolition of serfdom, the influx of Russian settlers from the European part of Russia to Altai, who sought to go to Siberia in search of free land, increased. As a rule, settlers used progressive technologies and methods of farming, in particular improved tools and fertilizers, and bred new varieties of crops and breeds of livestock for Altai.
At the same time, the large cities of Altai - Barnaul, Biysk and Zmeinogorsk - turned into shopping centers. Barnaul and Biysk are becoming significant purchasing points for agricultural raw materials, especially wheat and flour. Trade fairs were regularly held in villages, and shops and stores operated in cities. Foreign trade with Mongolia and China was carried out through Biysk. In Altai at the end of the 19th century. Large merchant families and entire family clans were formed: the Sukhovs, Sychevs, Morozovs, Mashtakovs, Zhernakovs, etc. Large entrepreneurs and the business elite played an important role in economic and social life, were engaged in charity and philanthropy.
At the end of the 19th - beginning of the 20th centuries. Many Russian and foreign private companies operated here, incl. for textile trade - Vtorovykh, for the sale of sewing machines - Singer, for the sale of agricultural machinery - "International Company of Reaping Machines", in the gold industry - "Altai Gold Mining Business", "Thurn and Taxis", etc.
Soviet power, established in Altai in December 1917, fell at the end of the summer of 1918, as well as throughout Siberia, as a result of the uprising of the Czechoslovak military corps in large cities beyond the Urals. For some time, Socialist-Revolutionary-Menshevik authorities operated in the territory controlled by the White Czechs. Another coup took place on November 18, 1918, when a military dictatorship was established and Admiral A.V. Kolchak became the supreme ruler.
Soviet power in the region was established only by the end of 1919. In 1922, the Oirot Autonomous Region was formed (renamed Gorno-Altai in 1948). During the NEP, a layer of middle peasants emerged among the peasantry. Prosperous farms mainly belonged to old-timers and settlers of the last quarter of the 19th century. Cooperative traditions in Altai were very strong, the most respectable being butter-making cooperatives (in 1923 there were 586 butter and cheese factories). Trade was actively developing in the cities, urban and rural bazaars, markets, trading establishments, and department stores were being restored.
In 1928, I. Stalin announced a new course for the implementation of the grain procurement plan and the transition to mass collectivization. It was from Altai that brutal repressions of wealthy peasants began. In the 30s peasants who escaped repression were forced into collective farms, carrying out forced collectivization. In 1937, by resolution of the USSR Central Executive Committee of September 28, a new administrative entity was established - the Altai Territory.
During the Great Patriotic War, Altai received more than 100 evacuated enterprises from the western regions of Russia. On the basis of these factories, many large enterprises of Altai arose, which began work precisely during the difficult years of the war. Industrial production increased 1.6 times during the war period. Agricultural engineering and the chemical industry, which developed on the local raw material base, became promising industries.
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