Before Europeans discovered the country, Chile was inhabited by several tribes of Native Americans, including the Incas in the north and the Araucans in the south. In 1520, Ferdinand Magellan became the first European to see Chile. In 1540, Pedro de Valdivia, a Spanish conquistador, came to Chile and founded several cities despite the resistance of the Araucans. One of these cities was Santiago, which is currently the capital of Chile and the largest city. In 1553, the Native Americans led several successful uprisings against the Spanish conquerors, during which Valdivia was killed. Most of the cities he founded were devastated. This led to almost 100 years of war. Eventually, the Spanish came to dominate. But even after that, fighting and conflicts continued for many years.
In 1808, when Spain was invaded by Napoleon, the Chileans saw an opportunity for independence. September 18, 1810 Chile declared independence, starting a long war. Chile was able to defeat Spain and Bernardo O "Higgins became the first leader of Chile. There were many changes in the country that were caused by coups due to civil wars, although not as strong as in other Latin American countries. Despite these problems, the government contributed Chile became the most economically developed country in South America In 1879, the Chilean military seized the Bolivian port of Antofagasta, claiming the land was theirs, leading to a war with Bolivia. the world's largest nitrate and copper mines.
Salvador Allende Gossens, a Marxist, was elected president in 1970 and set the country's politics on the path of communism. This move led to political and economic disaster. The unrest caused by his rule (which was exacerbated by the US government) eventually led to a military coup. September 11, 1973 Augusto Pinochet Ugarte became the dictator of Chile. Pinochet immediately suspended the constitution, imposed strict censorship, banned all political parties, and dissolved the Congress. During his tenure as leader, the country was in a state of extreme and tight military control of the people. Thousands of residents were arrested, executed, exiled or imprisoned, while at the same time many people simply disappeared. But, Pinochet's government also improved the Chilean economy and education. Chile's literacy rate has become one of the highest in Latin America. Because of this, the people of Chile were divided in their opinions about his rule. In 1989, Pinochet allowed the people to vote for a new president and allowed the government to return. After that, the Congress became much stronger and the power of the president was drastically reduced. Meanwhile, the Chilean economy flourished and industry grew. Unfortunately, when World War I broke out in 1914, nitrate exports collapsed, leading to great unrest in Chile. In 1925 a new constitution was drawn up. However, the depression of the 1930s led to an economic collapse in Chile. It also led to political instability and government changes. Stability was restored in 1932 when Arturo Alessandri became president of Chile.
In the 1990s, Chile experienced rapid economic growth that continued into the early years of the 21st century. Poverty is on the decline in Chile today. The country is now a stable democracy. Chile is a republic with a stable government and economy. Incumbent President Michelle Bachelet is Chile's first female president. The legislative branch consists of the Chamber of Deputies and the Senate. The highest court in the country is the Supreme Court. Chile has a great future. Today the population of the country is 17 million people.
The official name is the Republic of Chile (Republica de Chile).
Located in the southwest of South America. The area is 756.945 km2, the population is 15.499 million people. (2002 estimate). The official language is Spanish. The capital is Santiago (Santiago de Chile) (4.7 million, 1998). Public holiday - Independence Day September 18 (since 1818). The monetary unit is the peso (equal to 100 centavos).
Chile includes: a number of coastal islands and archipelagos (the largest of them are Chiloe, Hannover, Santa Ines), the western part of the island of Tierra del Fuego, the island of Sala y Gomez, and Easter Island in the Pacific Ocean.
Member of the UN (since 1949) and its specialized organizations, non-permanent member of the UN Security Council (in 1996-97 and since 2003), member of the OAS, LAI (since 1981), Leningrad NPP (since 1975), associate member of MERCOSUR (since 1996), APEC (since 1994), etc., signed an agreement on cooperation with the EU (1996).
The territory of Chile occupies a narrow strip of land with a width of 15 to 355 km, stretched almost along the 72 ° west longitude along the Pacific coast from 17 ° 10' south latitude to 56 ° 30' south latitude.
It is washed by the waters of the Pacific Ocean, numerous straits, including the Magellan, which separates the island of Tierra del Fuego from the mainland. Chile is separated from Antarctica by the Drake Passage. From the south to the northern border of Chile, the Humboldt Current (Peruvian Current) runs along its coast. The length of the borders is 6171 km. It borders with Peru in the north, and with Bolivia and Argentina in the east.
Chile is characterized by longitudinal relief elements: the Main Cordillera of the Andes in the east, the Coastal Cordillera in the west, and the fertile Central (Longitudinal) Valley sandwiched between them. The highest peak is Ojos del Salado (6880 m).
Chile ranks 1st among industrialized and developing countries in terms of copper reserves (over 97 million tons) and saltpeter, 2nd (after the USA) in molybdenum reserves and 3rd (after Iraq and the USA) in sulfur reserves. Molybdenum reserves amount to 2500 thousand tons. There are reserves of gold, silver, rare earth elements, lithium, iron, coal, natural gas. Oil and gas fields are located on Tierra del Fuego (oil - 51 million tons, gas - 70 billion m3). Oil reserves, however, do not fully meet the needs of the country itself. Coal deposits (Lota, Coronel, etc.) are located near the city of Concepción (total reserves 3.9 billion tons). Coal is predominantly brown, of low quality.
Almost all the rivers of Chile belong to the Pacific Ocean, are mainly fed by the snows of the Andes and play an important role in irrigation and as sources of hydropower. The largest river in central Chile is the Bio Bio. The largest lakes are Llanquihue and Ranco. The Patagonian lakes are located in the eastern foothills of the Andes and cross the state border with Argentina. Therefore, most of the lakes here have both Chilean and Argentine names, for example, O'Higgins (Argentinean San Martin), General Carrera (Argentinean Buenos Aires), etc.
There are three regions in Chile: the northern one (17°-28° south latitude) is located in the tropical zone, has a desert climate and vegetation; central (up to 42 ° south latitude) - in the subtropical zone with a Mediterranean type of climate and vegetation up to 38 ° south latitude and then humid subtropical; southern - from 42 ° south latitude, is characterized by a temperate climate.
The flora of Chile is very diverse: semi-desert zones with a predominance of cactus and cereal-acacia, in the Andes - high mountain steppes. To the south on the Coastal Cordillera - park forests of southern beech, and above - mountain meadows. To the south of 36 ° south latitude, evergreen and mixed forests of southern beeches and conifers (araucaria, alerse, etc.) predominate. Plantations of eucalyptus and pine trees are typical for the central and southern zones.
The fauna of Chile is as diverse as the climatic zones.
For highland areas, llamas, chinchillas, cougars are characteristic, from birds - condor, black partridge. In semi-deserts - rodents (curoro, tuco-tuco), marsupials (Chilean opossum). In the forests of the Patagonian Andes - deer, skunks, otters, nutria, cougars. There are parrots and hummingbirds. In the steppes of Patagonia - guanaco llamas, Nandu ostriches, flamingos, swans in the reservoirs. On the Pacific coast - seals, sea leopards, penguins.
Population growth in 1995-2000 was 1.2%, and by 2002 it had dropped to 1.09%. The population of Chile in 2003 was 15.8 million people. Birth rate 16.46%, average life expectancy: 72 years for men, 78 years for women (2002).
Sex and age structure of the population: 0-14 years - 28.5% (men 51%, women 49%), 15-34 years - 32.2% (men 49.8%, women 50.2%), 35-49 years - 20.5%, 50-64 years old - 11.6%, 65 years and older - 7.2% (men 41%, women 59). The average population density is 19 people. per 1 km2. Urban population 84.7%, rural 15.3%.
In terms of education, Chile is one of the first places in Latin America. Competently 93% of the population.
The population was mainly formed as a result of mixing of local Indians with immigrants from Europe. The Indian population is 666.3 thousand people. (2000). It includes Aymara, Atakameno, Quechua, Kolya (northern Chile), Mapuche (Araucans) - center and south, Kavashkar and Jaamana (south), Rapanui on Easter Island. The Mapuche make up 85.6% of the total Indian population. Quechua and Aymara are represented in small groups (together 8.2 thousand people).
The Indian population in the country has significantly decreased in recent years: for example, in 1970 its share in the total number of inhabitants of Chile was 8%, at the beginning. 21 century - 4.4%.
The majority of Chile's population (89%) belongs to the Roman Catholic Church. An influential group is made up of Protestants (approx. 11%).
In 1535, Spanish conquerors led by Diego de Almagro invaded Chile. Due to the fierce resistance of the Indians, the Spaniards did not advance further than the Maule River. In the future, Pedro de Valdivia undertook a more successful expedition, and on February 12, 1541, he laid the first city in the present territory of Chile - Santiago. July 14, 1810 began the war for the independence of Chile from the Spanish crown. On September 18, 1810, the National Government Junta was established. The Chileans, under the banner of Bernardo O'Higgins, defeated the Spanish army at the Battle of Chacabuco (1817). Chile's independence was proclaimed on February 12, 1818. The first Constitution of Chile was adopted in 1833 with the participation of Diego Portales, leader of the moderate wing of the conservatives. Favorable conditions for the further development of the country were created by Chile's victory in the Pacific War of 1879-83 with Peru and Bolivia. The northern regions rich in saltpeter deposits came under Chile's control.
Attempts at deep reforms were made by H.M. Balmaceda. His attempt to nationalize the saltpeter industry, which was in the hands of British companies, caused a sharp rebuff from the conservative opposition. In January 1891 rebels from the saltpeter northern provinces entered the capital. Balmaceda shot himself. The reign of Arturo Alessandri (1920-25) saw the restoration of strong presidential power. The new Constitution adopted in 1925 endowed the president with almost unlimited powers. However, the real power in the country was concentrated in the hands of Minister of War C. Ibanes, who in 1927 established a personal dictatorship (1927-31). Democratic organizations were banned in the country, the saltpeter industry was placed under the control of the United States.
In 1932, as a result of a coup d'état, a group of officers proclaimed Chile a socialist republic. A Provisional Junta was created, councils of workers' deputies were formed, the central bank was nationalized, and Americans' privileges in the saltpeter industry were abolished. However, the socialist republic lasted only 12 days. The dictatorship of Colonel K. Davila was established in the country. But already in September 1932, as a result of a new military coup, the dictatorship, which had existed for 100 days, was overthrown. Arturo Alessandri won the election. The situation in the country has stabilized.
During the second reign of A. Alessandri (1932-38), the government's passions were manifested in the development of ties with Germany. In contrast, in Chile, in 1936, the Popular Front was created, which included the radical, socialist, and communist parties. Trade union organizations of the country united in the Confederation of Workers of Chile, which joined the Popular Front. Popular Front candidate Pedro Aguirre Cerda won the 1938 presidential election. His government (1938-41) expanded democratic freedoms and took action against pro-fascist groups. Of particular importance was the creation in 1939 of the Production Development Corporation (CORFO), which led to the formation of the state sector of the economy. After the death of Aguirre Cerda in 1941, J. Rios (1942-46), a candidate from the broad coalition of the Democratic Alliance, won the presidency, whose program largely continued the course of the Popular Front.
The Rios government hesitated to join the anti-fascist coalition, seeking to use the benefits of neutrality (Chile declared war on the Axis powers only in February 1945). In the presidential elections of 1946, the candidate from the Democratic Alliance, the radical R. Gonzalez Videla, won. His reign (1946-52) was characterized by the inclusion of representatives of left-wing parties in the government. The appearance of three ministers from the Communist Party caused concern for the centrists and the right. As a result, Videla eliminated the Communists from the government and on October 21, 1947 announced the severance of diplomatic relations with the USSR (which were established at the beginning of his reign).
In 1952-58, the presidency was again taken by C. Ibanez, whose rule bore national-reformist features. In 1953, at a congress of Chilean trade unions, the United Workers' Center (UTC) was created, which united the vast majority of workers and employees.
In 1958 Jorge Alessandri, a representative of industrial and financial circles, became president of Chile. He was replaced in 1964 by the Christian Democrat Eduardo Frei Montalva, who countered the line of the radical left revolutionaries with the slogan "Revolution in freedom." In 1964 diplomatic relations with the USSR were restored.
The hopes of a significant part of the country's citizens for a quick solution to the cardinal problems contributed to the victory in the elections on September 4, 1970 of the candidate from the bloc of communists, socialists and other leftist forces of Popular Unity Salvador Allende. His government (1970-73) declared its goal to create the prerequisites for building a socialist society. The main natural resources, most banks, and key industries were nationalized. However, the aggravated internal problems, the unwinding spiral of hyperinflation, the shortage of essential goods, the opposition of large owners led to the most acute opposition of social forces.
Under these conditions, on September 11, 1973, the army elite under the leadership of General A. Pinochet carried out a coup d'état, during which President S. Allende died. The military-dictatorial regime (1973-90) abolished the existing legislation and banned the activities of political parties. In 1980, a new Constitution was adopted in Chile, which significantly strengthened the powers of the executive branch. In a referendum on October 5, 1988, the majority of Chileans voted for the restoration of democracy. On December 14, 1989, the first presidential elections were held after a long break. The victory was won by the candidate of the United Parties for Democracy Christian Democrat Patricio Aylvin (1989-93). He was replaced by candidates from the same bloc, first the Christian Democrat Eduardo Frei Ruiz-Tagle (1993-99) and then the socialist Ricardo Lagos (since 2000). These three governments have consistently carried out the democratization process in Chile.
Chile is a unitary presidential democratic republic. The Constitution, adopted in 1980, was reformed in 1989, important partial changes were also made in 1991, 1994, 1996. The process of bringing the Constitution in line with the needs of modern society continues.
Since 1974, an administrative division has been introduced in Chile, according to which the country is divided into 40 provinces, which are included in 13 regions: Tarapaca, Antofagasta, Atacama, Coquimbo, Valparaiso, Libertador General Bernardo O'Higgins, Maule, Bio-Bio, Araucania, Los Lagos, Aisén del General Carlos Ibáñez del Campo, Magallanes and Chilean Antarctica, Metropolitan Region (Santiago).
The largest cities in Chile (1998, thousand people): Santiago, Concepcion (368.4), Viña del Mar (334.8), Valparaiso (284.1), Temuco (260.1), Antofagasta (246.0) .
Government in Chile is divided into three independent branches: executive, legislative and judicial.
The head of state is the president, who is also the head of the executive branch.
The supreme body of executive power is the cabinet of ministers, which is formed by the president of the country and occupies a dependent position in relation to the president. The cabinet consists of 21 ministers.
The highest legislative body is the National Congress, which consists of the Senate (46 senators) and the Chamber of Deputies (120 deputies).
The president is elected by direct, universal and secret suffrage for a term of 6 years and cannot run 2 times in a row. Deputies of the Congress are elected for 4 years, senators - for 8 years. The Senate also has an institution of appointed and life senators.
The heads of the provinces are intendants (governors). They are appointed by the president of the country for a period of 6 years and can be removed by the head of state.
The oldest political party in Chile. - Radical Party founded in 1863.
In the beginning. 1988 parties and movements of a wide ideological spectrum opposed to the military government joined the coalition of the United Parties for Democracy (OPD). The victory won by this association in a popular plebiscite on March 5, 1988, opened the way for democratic changes in the country. The OPD includes: the Christian Democratic Party (CDP), the Socialist Party of Chile (CHP), the Party for Democracy (PD), the Social Democratic Radical Party (SDRP).
The Christian Democratic Party was founded in 1957. The organizer and ideologist of the party was E. Frei Montalva. CDA leaders were elected presidents in 1964 (E. Frey), in 1989 (P. Aylvin), in 1993 (E. Frey Ruiz-Tagle).
Forerunner of the Socialist Party of Chile. The organizations created by the utopian socialists F. Bilbao and S. Arcos in 1850 became organizations. Recabarrena. In 1922 the party was transformed into the Communist Party. Organizations that were not members of the Communist Party united, creating the Socialist Party of Chile in 1933. The HRC has been repeatedly represented in the country's government and in Congress. In 1970, party leader S. Allende became president of the country. In 1988, the HRC became part of the OPD. In the elections of 1999-2000, the leader of the Socialists R. Lagos, as a representative of the UPD, became the winner and took the presidency.
The Party for Democracy was organized in 1987 and is a kind of conglomerate of parties and movements. The leaders of the socialists took part in the creation of the party, incl. R. Lagos. The party is allowed dual membership. Party members hold prominent positions in Congress and government.
The right-wing parties of Chile enter the Union for the sake of Chile. The coalition was founded in 1993. The association includes the National Renewal Party and the Independent Democratic Union.
The National Renewal Party is a right-wing opposition party to democratic forces. Created in 1988. Representatives of the National Renewal Party are members of the Senate and the Chamber of Deputies.
The Independent Democratic Union was founded in 1989. A more radical right-wing party than its coalition ally. The union took shape organizationally already in 1983, while other parties did not have the right to legal activity. This was due to the significant contribution from the members of the organization to the implementation of the policy of the junta.
The most representative association of business circles in the country is the Association of Entrepreneurs in Industry (SOFOFA), St. 2500 members.
In foreign policy, Chile adheres to the principles of open democracy, Chile advocates the non-proliferation of nuclear weapons, promotes integration and peace at the regional level, enhances dialogue and strengthens solidarity in the region. Chile supports the establishment of ALCA. On the world stage, Chile sees its priorities in contacts with the EU and with the countries of the Asia-Pacific region.
The armed forces of Chile trace their history from the troops created in this region in 1603 by order of the Spanish crown. These first military associations in South America became the basis of the Chilean national army, formed on December 2, 1810 by order of Bernardo O'Higgins. By his own order, the first military school was opened in 1817, and a naval squadron of Chile was created, designed to ensure Chile's hegemony in the Pacific Ocean.
The modern structure of the Chilean army: Ground forces, aviation, fleet, tank units, special forces of mountain troops, civil defense troops, carabinieri corps, as well as the Antarctic military base.
The number of Armed forces in con. 20th century amounted to approx. 91 thousand people, incl. in the Ground Forces - 51 thousand (and 50 thousand reservists), in the Navy - approx. 25 thousand, in the Air Force - 13.4 thousand. In 1996, the corps of paramilitary police units numbered 31.2 thousand people. Spending on the Armed Forces in 1999 was 3.1% of GDP.
Chile is one of the most stable and dynamically developing countries in Latin America. The basis of Chile's success in the economic sphere is the optimal combination of liberalization and openness of the economy, on the one hand, and effective state regulation, on the other. Structural transformations carried out during the years of the military regime and continued by democratic governments in the 1990s, along with prudent macroeconomic policies, ensure the relative stability and efficiency of the Chilean economy. In 1990-2001, the annual economic growth rate was 6.3%, which doubled the size of GDP to 66.5 billion US dollars (per capita - 4333 US dollars). After a slight economic downturn in 1999 (-1.0%), caused by the consequences of the Asian crisis in 1998, there is an increase in GDP compared to the previous year: 4.4% in 2000, 2.8% in 2001, 2.1% in 2002. Inflation for 1990-2002 decreased from 27.3 to 2.8%. The number of people employed in the economy in 2002 amounted to 5.5 million people, unemployment in 1990-2002 did not exceed 10% of the economically active population (the lowest figure in 1997 was 6.1%).
In 2001, agriculture and fisheries accounted for 5.6% of GDP, mining - 8.4%, manufacturing - 15.7%, construction - 8.1%, energy and water supply - 10.8%, transport and communications - 3.3%, for other types of services - 45.1%. 13.0% of the economically active population is employed in agriculture, 14.0% in industry and energy, 8.0% in construction, and 65.0% in the service sector. Employment in the informal sector is estimated at 23%.
The basis of the mining industry in Chile is the mining and processing of copper, in terms of which the country ranks first in the world - 32% of world production. In 2001, copper production amounted to 4.7 million tons (1.6 million tons, 1990). The state company Codelco provides more than 30% of the copper mined in the country, the rest is accounted for by 20 leading foreign companies developing new deposits. The largest of them - Escondida - belongs to an international consortium, which includes companies from Australia, Great Britain and Japan. Copper export earnings exceed 10% of GDP. Iron ore (8.8 million tons, 2001), gold, silver, non-metallic ores (lithium, molybdenum, etc.) are being mined. In the 1990s up to 1/3 of foreign direct investment (about $12 billion) received by the country was directed to the implementation of investment projects in the mining industry.
rapidly in the 1990s. the manufacturing industry, and especially export-oriented industries, developed. In 1990-2001, the share of food, beverages and tobacco increased from 25 to 32%, as well as chemical products (fertilizers, paints and varnishes, plastics) - from 10 to 14%. In 2001, textile and clothing accounted for 4% of the value of the manufacturing industry, mechanical engineering - 5%, and other industries - 45%. In 1990-2001, the volume of production almost doubled - up to 10.7 billion US dollars. The number of employees was 780 thousand people. (2002). Up to 50% of manufactured products are exported. The main part of export earnings comes from agribusiness (production of wine, drinks, dried, frozen and canned fruits and vegetables) - more than 20%, chemical, woodworking and pulp and paper industries. Thanks to the use of the latest technologies and the influx of foreign entrepreneurial capital, in less than 10 years, Chile has managed to become one of the world's top five wine exporters. The amount of foreign direct investment in the manufacturing industry at stake. 2000 was $5.7 billion. A significant role in the development of export industries was played by the state policy to stimulate domestic private investment (including the provision of tax and other benefits), the implementation of programs to support small and medium-sized businesses producing non-traditional export goods, and assistance in promoting Chilean goods to foreign markets.
Electricity production is 42.3 billion kWh (2002). 46% of electricity is generated by hydroelectric power plants, 27% by coal-fired thermal power plants, approx. 22% falls on turbine and gas and approx. 3% for diesel power plants. In terms of energy consumption per capita, Chile leads among Latin American countries - 2406 kWh (2000). Until ser. 1990s the production and distribution of electricity was concentrated in the hands of private national capital. Thanks to early privatization (2nd half of the 1980s) and the accumulated managerial experience, Chilean entrepreneurs became active participants in the denationalization programs of the electric power industry in other countries of the region. Accelerated into the 2nd floor. In the 1990s, the process of transnationalization of the basic services sector in Latin American countries led not only to the displacement of Chile from regional markets, but also to the transition of the country's largest energy companies under the control of foreign capital (mainly Spanish). The total volume of foreign investments in the industry in 1995-2000 exceeded 8 billion US dollars.
Agriculture plays a relatively smaller role in Chile's economy compared to neighboring Latin American countries. The bulk of income from agriculture (about 60%) comes from fruits and livestock products. at the highest rate in the 1990s. increased production of grapes, vegetables and flowers. Thanks to the modernization and improvement of technical equipment, the number of people employed in agriculture and fisheries is decreasing (5.5 million people in 2002). Agricultural land occupies 3.8 million hectares (including 1.9 million hectares cultivated), natural pastures - 20.6 million hectares, forests - 15.6 million hectares. In 2002, it was grown (million tons): wheat 1.8, potatoes 1.3, tomatoes 1.2, grapes 1.7, apples 1.1. Chile is the largest producer and exporter of fruits in the Southern Hemisphere (grapes, kiwi and apples). Fresh fruit accounts for 8% of the country's total export value and St. 77% agricultural (2002).
In 2002 there were 4 million head of cattle, 2.7 million pigs, approx. 5 million sheep. Livestock production amounted to: poultry meat - 402 thousand tons, beef - 214 thousand tons, pork - 312 thousand tons, cow's milk - 2.2 million tons. Chile is a net exporter of poultry and pork, imports beef and dry milk.
Fishing is one of the most dynamic sectors of the Chilean economy. The annual catch of fish and seafood in 1996-2001 was 3.8-4.0 million tons (3rd place in the world after China and Peru). In addition to traditional sea fishing, which provides 60% of production and 40% of exports of fish products (mainly fishmeal, frozen and chilled fish), in the 1990s. In Chile, artificial breeding of salmon was mastered. In terms of production and export of these products, the country ranks second in the world, second only to Norway. For 11 years, the production capacity in this industry has increased 8 times, exports have increased from 122 million US dollars in 1990 to 969 million US dollars in 2001.
Road transport provides the bulk of transportation within the country. The length of highways is 80 thousand km, of which 19.4% are asphalted. The fleet includes 130 thousand trucks and more than 1.9 million cars. The length of railways is 4.8 thousand km. One third of it is used to transport goods, mainly copper (from mining sites to ports). Further development of road and rail transport is associated with the transfer of roads for reconstruction to private companies on a concession basis. Of great importance is maritime transport, which provides 95% of the total foreign trade turnover. OK. 80% of the volume of loading and unloading operations (23 million tons in 2000) falls on four main ports - Antofagasta, Valparaiso, San Antonio and San Vicente (47 ports in total). The company's own merchant fleet consists of 85 vessels capable of carrying more than 2.7 million tons of cargo. The ten largest ports are subject to privatization by 2005 (on a concession basis). There are 3 international and 32 national airports. The transportation of passengers for 1990-2000 increased 3 times - up to 5.3 million people. The volume of cargo transportation in 2000 amounted to 1.3 million tkm (5 times more than in 1990).
Chile has one of the most developed telephone systems in Latin America. In 1990-2000, the number of fixed telephone lines per 100 inhabitants increased from 5.3 to 21.1. In 2001, there were 3.3 million fixed telephone lines and 3.2 million mobile subscribers in the country. For every 1,000 inhabitants, there are 342 mobile communication devices, 106.5 personal computers, 288 televisions and 759 radios. Chile has 625,000 Internet users (2000), the highest figure in Latin America. From Ser. 1980s the country's telecommunications systems are in the hands of private capital. The main telephone operator is Telefonika STS Chile, controlled by Spanish capital.
The number of foreign tourists who visited Chile in 2002, 1.4 million people. (compared to 1.7 million in 2000). The main part of foreign tourists (up to 50% in some years) falls on Argentina, among Europeans the list is headed by Germans, Spaniards and French. Due to the crisis in Argentina, the flow of tourists from this country has dropped sharply - from 860 thousand people. in 2000 to 515 thousand in 2002. On average, a foreign tourist spends 11 days in the country and spends approx. $60 per day. Chile has approx. 1800 hotels with a total number of beds for 105 thousand people. Seventeen hotels are classified as five-star (12 are located in Santiago and 3 - in the area of the Valle Nevado ski resort high in the mountains). The country's annual income from tourism exceeds $1 million.
The current economic and social policy of the Chilean government is aimed at ensuring macroeconomic stability, stimulating domestic private savings and investment, achieving sustainable economic growth while strengthening the social component of reforms. Largely due to the professionalism of the country's leadership, the high manageability of the economy and the reliability of the credit and financial system, Chile managed to "compensate" the negative impact of the Asian crisis, global and regional financial shocks. 1990s Despite a sharp deterioration in the terms of foreign trade and a reduction in the inflow of foreign capital, the Chilean economy managed to get out of recession in a fairly short time. Chile's economic growth potential is directly dependent on the dynamics of exports and on the country's ability to compete in world markets. The main task is to move to a new stage of production diversification based on the introduction of the latest technologies, expanding the export of goods with higher added value, developing new sectors of the economy using management experience gained in the production of salmon and wine. This implies active state assistance to the private sector in conducting research, establishing market relations and in creating seed capital. A prerequisite for Chile to reach a new level of economic development is to improve the quality of education and training, raise the living standards of the population, and eradicate poverty and destitution. The public sector produces approx. 9% of GDP (copper, oil and oil refining industries, metallurgy and banking). By 2005, it is planned to complete the sale of infrastructure facilities (water supply, construction and operation of roads, etc.) to private companies on a concession basis.
According to a law of 1989, the Central Bank of Chile has autonomy and independence from the executive branch. In the 1990s in conditions of an excess supply of external resources, the Central Bank applied a system for regulating the inflow of foreign capital (a mechanism for the mandatory deposit of 30% of incoming funds with the Central Bank). In 1998-2001, taking into account the changed situation in the world financial markets, most of the restrictions on the movement of capital were lifted; the exchange rate policy was adjusted. In 1999, the Central Bank abandoned the currency corridor system, switching to a floating exchange rate of the national currency. In 2000-02, measures were taken to stimulate investment activity in the country, including lowering the refinancing rate and restructuring the debt of small and medium-sized enterprises.
In terms of the level of development and reliability of the credit and financial system, Chile leads among the countries of Latin America. During 1990-2002, the capital of commercial banks increased by 1.7 times (up to 5 billion US dollars), assets almost doubled and amounted to 63 billion US dollars (96% of GDP). As a result of mergers and acquisitions, the number of credit institutions decreased from 40 to 26 in 1990-2002. There are 8 national commercial banks, 1 state bank, 16 foreign banks and 1 credit society. In 1995-2002, the share of foreign banks in the credit portfolio of the Chilean banking system increased from 14 to 45%. The first position is occupied by the Spanish bank "Santander-Chile". In the Moody's rating, which determines the level of stability of the banking systems of 75 countries, Chile in 1999 was in 15th place, ahead of the three countries of the "Big Seven". In the 1990s the total assets of non-banking financial institutions increased 5.7 times ($54 billion, or more than 80% of GDP in 2001). The main institutional investors in the Chilean capital market are pension fund management companies (AFP) and insurance companies. Chile is a pioneer in the creation of a private pension system (1980), which allows the funds accumulated in individual accounts to be profitably placed on the domestic and foreign financial markets. On horseback In 2001, the volume of funds accumulated by the funds amounted to 36 billion US dollars, which is comparable to the size of deposits in the banking system. The main financial instruments operated by the AFP are the obligations of the Central Bank of Chile and mortgage bonds. AFP has been actively involved in the privatization process, investing more than $4.6 billion in shares of leading energy and telephone companies. The annual turnover of shares on the stock exchange of Santiago de Chile in 2002 amounted to 8.4% of GDP. Listing passed 254 companies and banks, compared with 1990, the volume of market capitalization increased by 3.5 times - up to 47.6 billion US dollars (85.4% of GDP in 2002). The share of bonds in the total exchange turnover exceeds 95%.
Chile's public finance policy aims to ensure fiscal balance while increasing social spending and public investment. In 1987-98 the budget was reduced to a positive balance. The decline in copper export earnings and the need for measures to stimulate business activity and address social problems have affected the state of public finances. The budget deficit of the central government as a percentage of GDP was: 1.4% in 1999, 0.3% in 2001, 0.8% in 2002. In 2000-02, tax revenues were provided by St. 75% of budget revenues, and their ratio to GDP exceeded 17%. Government domestic debt (excluding Treasury commitments to the Central Bank) declined from 22% to 9.6% of GDP in 1990-2001. State and state-guaranteed external debt at stake. 2001 amounted to 5.5 billion US dollars (8.4% of GDP), the cost of its maintenance - 8% of current budget revenues.
The volume of foreign trade in goods and services in 2001 exceeded 68% of GDP. Export of goods amounted to 17.4 billion US dollars, import - 17.2 billion US dollars. St. 47% of exports are manufactured products, 39% - copper, approx. 9% - for agricultural, forestry and fishery products. at the highest rate in the 1990s. the export of finished industrial products grew (3 times in 1990-2001). Imports are dominated by raw materials and semi-finished products - 61% (including fuel and oil products - 15%), machinery and equipment (21%). The most important partners (2002,%): in terms of export - the USA (20.7), Japan (11.0), China (7.2), Mexico (5.2), Italy (4.9); imports - Argentina (18.1), USA (15.2), Brazil (9.6), China (6.9), Germany (4.4). There is a unified customs duty on all types of imported goods, the amount of which decreased from 11% in 1991-98 to 6% in 2003.
In 1999-2002, Chile continued to lead among Latin American countries in terms of the reliability of business operations, which takes into account the degree of investment risk in the country, and had one of the best "A-" credit ratings among developing countries. The total volume of foreign direct investment in 1990-2001 amounted to approx. 46 billion US dollars (net inflow in 1999 - 9.2 billion dollars). A significant part of the funds that came into the country in 1996-2001 went to the acquisition of controlling stakes in Chilean companies operating in the field of energy supply, telecommunications and sanitation, as well as financial institutions. The share of foreign direct investment in Chile's total investment in fixed assets was 32.6% (2001).
The implementation of programs in the field of housing construction, education and healthcare, high rates of economic growth made it possible to improve the living standards of the population: the proportion of people living below the poverty line decreased from 40% at the beginning. 1990s up to 17% in 1998. The minimum wage is $1,781 per year (1999). The poorest 20% of Chileans account for 3.2% of total income, while the richest 20% account for 45.4%. The gap in income levels between them is 15.2 times. Since 2003, the country has been implementing a program aimed at supporting the poorest part of the population, which is financed from the budget.
The modern system of education in Chile is being built in accordance with the Uniform Constitutional Law on Education (1990). Compulsory is 9 years of education (for children 6-14 years old). Secondary education has a duration of 4 years and is divided into humanitarian and technical. Higher professional education is provided by universities, institutes and technical training centers (the latter provide higher professional qualifications in 4-5 semesters). In 2000, total spending on education was 3.8% of GDP. Literacy among the population over 15 years old was 95.4%, 2.5 million students were enrolled in primary education, and approx. 1 million people The coverage of youth with higher education was at the level of 42%. Approx. 0.5 million students. Among state universities, the leading place is occupied by the University of Chile (founded in 1738 as the Royal University of San Felipe, reorganized in 1843, 20 thousand students) and the University of Santiago de Chile (founded in 1947 as the State Technical University, reorganized in 1981, 20 thousand students ). Among the private institutions of higher learning, the largest is the Pontifical Catholic University of Chile (founded in 1888, with 17,000 students).
Universities are the main base for the development of science and technology in Chile: in 2001, out of 7.2 thousand people employed in this area, 70.3% worked in university research centers and laboratories. St. 1.5 thousand Chilean engineers and specialists conduct research in the field of technology. In 2001, spending on the development of national science amounted to 0.57% of GDP, of which 64% was financed from the budget, 23% was accounted for by enterprises and corporations, and the remaining 13% came from other national and foreign sources. In supporting the research activities of universities, the role of the state is even higher - 94.2% of the total expenditure in 2001. The National Commission for Research in Science and Technology (established in 1967) is responsible for the development and implementation of state policy in this area. Within the framework of the commission, special funds and programs operate, the task of which is to ensure the effective distribution of financial resources, develop infrastructure and optimize the use of scientific personnel. An important role is given to modernizing and strengthening the national system of science and technology, stimulating public and private investment, incl. by concluding relevant agreements with ministries, enterprises, the Armed Forces and other institutions. The Chilean Academy of Sciences (established in 1964) and five other academies - medicine, arts and social sciences, politics and morality, and linguistics and history - are united within the Institute of Chile. In 1968, a national award for outstanding achievements in the field of science was established. In 2001 there were 18 independent academic centers in the country, St. 40 scientific industry centers, 6 research groups and 24 institutes (on the basis of 26 universities), 16 state research institutes (at the ministries of mining, economy, etc.).
The history of Chilean literature is traced back to the epic poem Araucana (1569-89) by Alonso de Ercilla y Zuñiga.
In the 20th century popularity is gained by such recognized authors as Jose Manuel Vergara, Baltasar Castro, Volodya Teitelboim, Jose Donoso, Isabel Allende, and others. The poets Pablo Neruda (in 1945) and Gabriela Mistral (in 1971) became Nobel Prize winners in literature. Symbols of all Spanish-language poetry of the 20th century. also became Vicente Huidobro and Nicanor Parra.
In 1857, the Municipal Opera and Ballet Theater was opened in Santiago. In 1917-18, the troupe of Anna Pavlova performed in this theater. The Municipal Ballet of Chile and the National Ballet enjoy well-deserved fame on the world stage. World fame won contemporary Chilean composers Sergio Ortega, Enrique Soro and Juan Orrego.
The folklore music of Chile enjoys great popularity in the world, especially the New Song movement, created in the 60s and 70s. on the basis of national traditions by young musicians (Victor Jara, Isabel and Angel Parra, Roberto Rivera, etc.). One of the founders of this movement is Violeta Parra, called the Great Folklorist of Chile.
Before the Spanish invasion, about 500 thousand Indians lived on the lands of modern Chile. Almost all the tribes came from the same language family. The tribes of Northern Chile were engaged in fishing and agriculture. In the 15th century they fell under the dominion of the growing civilization of the Chinca, and then the Quechua, who later formed the Inca Empire. The empire tried to conquer the tribes of Southern Chile, but failed. Nomadic Araucan tribes lived here. They were engaged in hunting, fishing, trade and quite often attacked the lands of their neighbors.
The Spanish conquest began in 1536 - 1537, when an associate of F. Pizarro - D. Almagro, together with a detachment of conquistadors, began searching for the lands of "Otro Peru" ("Other Peru"). Finding neither high civilization nor gold, the Spaniards returned. Until 1540-1541 no new attempts to conquer the lands were made.
In 1541, instead of the deceased Almagro, the campaign of conquest was headed by P. Valdivia. On February 12, 1541, Santiago was founded. Over the next 20 years, a small Spanish colony led a difficult existence, constantly repulsing the attacks of the Indians. In 1550, Concepcion was founded, and a new campaign was prepared for the southern lands. But in 1553, the Araucan uprising began, frustrating plans for the further conquest of South America. Armed resistance lasted until the 1880s. Concepcion was located in the South of Chile, the Northern lands ended at the city of La Serena. The extreme southern lands of Chile were annexed to the Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata in 1776.
At the end of the 16th century the coast of the country was repeatedly attacked by English and then Dutch pirates. Chile did not have deposits of precious metals, the climate was harsh, and the colony for a long time remained the most unpromising Spanish possession in South America. At the end of the 16th century the number of settlers did not exceed 5 thousand people. Most of them were forced to run small farms on their own. The power of the Catholic Church and the captain-general were limitless. Spain constantly subsidized the colony for the maintenance of the army fighting on the Araucanian border and government officials.
After 1600, an increase in the number of marriages between Spanish settlers and Indians became noticeable. By the end of colonial rule, the number of mestizos and creoles was 450 thousand people, with a total population of 500 thousand people. Most of the inhabitants were concentrated in the Aconcagua and Longitudinal valleys. The level of education was very low: only in 1758 the Royal University of San Felippe was opened in Santiago. The lack of contact with the outside world only increased the isolation of the country. Despite the isolation of the country, the events taking place in the late 18th - early 19th centuries. in Europe and America (the French Revolution, the independence of the British colonies in America, the uprising in Haiti) caused a lively response among the Chileans. In 1808, Napoleon's troops invaded Spain, communication with the metropolis was lost. On September 18, 1810, representatives of the Chilean nobility accepted the resignation of the captain-general and created a government council - the junta. In October 1813, Spain regained control of the colony by force of arms.
Detachments of Bernardo O'Higgins, with the support of the Argentine rebels, began the struggle for the independence of Chile. On February 12, 1817, the Chileans defeated the Spanish troops in the battle of Chacabuco. By the end of 1818, the Chilean fleet had completed the liberation of the country, clearing the coast of Spanish ships. B. O'Higg became the first president. The Chilean aristocracy was forced to put up with the power of the first president, fearing the invasion of the Spaniards from Peru, outbreaks of royalist guerrilla uprisings and Spanish garrisons remaining in some cities. But several lean years and general unrest in 1823 caused the resignation of B. O'Higgins.
From 1823 to 1830 there was a change of about 30 governments. Political and economic chaos grew in the country, lawlessness grew. In 1829, as a result of a military coup, a junta led by H. T. Ovalle came to power. Over the next 30 years, a fairly stable political system developed in Chile, in 1833 a constitution was adopted that was in force until 1925, a strong centralized government collaborated with representatives of large landowners who controlled parliament. The authority of the government was only strengthened during the successful war with the Bolivian-Peruvian federation (1836 - 1839). In the field of economy, steps were taken to strengthen the national economy: the port of Valparaiso was built for trade with the outside world. The discovery of gold deposits in California (1848) and Australia (1853) increased the demand for Chilean grain, and Chilean copper and silver were more and more readily bought in Europe. A national university was opened, scientists from Great Britain, France and the USA were invited to work. The growth of prosperity led to the emergence of a new class - free entrepreneurs. They increasingly spoke of the need to reform Chilean society. The edge of their criticism was directed against the Catholic Church, which actively interfered in state affairs.
The period after 1860 was called the "liberal republic", and many political parties and movements arose in the country, declaring the need for a peaceful transfer of power to the new government. Since 1872, the liberals began to dominate the political life of the country, the influence of the church was reduced. The new political elite willingly sent their children to study in Europe. The country began to rapidly move closer to the main trading partner - Great Britain. The British began to build railways, modernize ports, and invest in Chilean industry. The growth in imports led to a permanent devaluation of the Chilean peso and a deficit in the foreign trade balance.
The need to improve the economic situation prompted the Chilean oligarchy to seize the saltpeter deposits belonging to Bolivia and start a new war. Unclearly marked borders in the area of the Bolivian city of Antofagasta and the Peruvian city of Arica, the recent repressions in these places against the Chileans who worked in the mines, became a pretext for starting hostilities. The period from 1879 to 1883 was called the "Pacific War". Chile defeated the troops of Bolivia and Peru and annexed these areas. The war unexpectedly caused a serious resonance in Europe and America. The European superpowers, fighting for the redivision of the world, were alarmed by the appearance of a threat to their interests in Latin America. With the mediation of Germany, Chile gained a foothold in the new lands (to date, Bolivia does not recognize the seizure of lands and demands their return). The war only worsened the financial situation of the country. During a short civil war, President Balmaceda (1886 - 1891), who sought to strengthen the role of the state in the economy, was overthrown. The Chilean oligarchs decided to liquidate the presidential republic and create a parliamentary-type republic. Henceforth, no centralized authority was to interfere in the affairs of big capital. The government was accountable to the parliament, where the factions that soon emerged became the prototypes of new political parties.
In 1888, the liberals formed the Radical Party, representing the interests of the middle class. In 1887, the Democratic Party was formed, speaking on behalf of the artisans and part of the workers. The spread of Marxist ideology caused the creation first of the Socialist, and after its collapse, of the new Workers' Socialist Party, which in 1922 became the Communist Party of Chile. The growth of radical sentiments among Chilean workers and artisans was explained by the deteriorating economic situation in Chile. The traditional Conservative and Liberal parties represented the interests of the top economic elite of the country, not interested in reforms. Meanwhile, loans coming from Great Britain and, after 1916, from the United States, were not enough even to pay government expenses. The budget deficit led to 10% annual inflation and the depreciation of the national currency. Agricultural production froze in place and farmers were unable to increase the production of grain and meat. Industrial development began to lag behind due to lack of investment. Worldwide depression of the 1930s led to a reduction in foreign trade operations, a further increase in the budget deficit and gave rise to a government crisis.
From June to September 1932, the Socialist Party was in power, proclaiming Chile a socialist republic. By the end of 1932, constitutional legality was restored in the country, the new president, A. A. Palma, eased social tension in the country and restored the national industry in small volumes.
In 1942 Chile declared war on Germany, Italy and Japan. The Second World War and the Korean War caused the country's economic recovery, as the demand for copper ore increased dramatically around the world. With the onset of the Cold War, Chile moved closer to the United States. American investments in the national economy have increased from 414 million dollars. in 1945 to 540 million dollars. in 1950. In 1952, the United States provided a loan in the amount of 312 million dollars. In the period from 1940 to 1952, the population of the country increased from 5 million people. to 6.35 million people, the percentage of the urban population increased. In 1949 the right to vote was given to women.
In the late 1950s - early 1960s. an attempt was made to reform the economy, the role of the state was reduced. Since 1964, the Christian Democrats have defeated the Marxists in presidential elections. In 1967, an agrarian reform was carried out. By 1970, about 5 million acres of land had been confiscated. In the 1970 elections, the socialist Salvador Allende came to power. In his program, he promised the continuation and strengthening of agrarian reform, the nationalization of copper mines owned by American companies. An unbalanced economic policy, a boycott by foreign investors, a lack of resources for the simultaneous implementation of agrarian reform and the rise of heavy industries caused a serious economic crisis. Right-wing parties, representatives of big business and even centrists began to support anti-government sentiments in the armed forces.
On September 11, 1973, a military coup was carried out. S. Allende was killed. Power passed to a military junta, consisting of three generals and an admiral, led by General Augusto Pinochet Ugarte. Political parties were dissolved, communists and socialists were outlawed. According to the new constitution of 1980, the reign of A. Pinochet was extended for another 8 years. In 1975, the junta invited academic economists from Chicago to the country to carry out economic reforms. A complete restructuring of the entire national economy was carried out. During the reign of A. Pinochet, Chile took first place in Latin America in terms of GDP growth, the social gap in society was reduced, the educational level was raised, and the economy was diversified. At the same time, about 3,100 people were killed during the repressions, and concentration camps were created.
After the transformation of the country from the Latin American "tiger", the need for a military dictatorship disappeared. With the mediation of the church and under pressure from the United States, free parliamentary and presidential elections were held in the country. A. Pinochet voluntarily resigned as president and retained the post of senator for life and commander in chief. The Christian Democrat candidate became the new president of Chile. In 1998, during a visit to Great Britain, General A. Pinochet was arrested at the insistence of the Spanish court (during the repressions in Chile, several Spanish citizens suffered).
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State. Device: Presidential Republic. The highest legislative body yavl. National Congress, consisting of 2 chambers: the Senate and the Chamber of Deputies; the highest executive body yavl. A Cabinet of Ministers headed by a President who, beginning in 2006, is elected by popular vote for a 4-year term, non-renewable. The current president is (Spanish: Sebastián Piñera Echenique). For a complete list of Chilean presidents, see.
In territorial and administrative terms, the state is divided into 15 regions (Regions).
State. Language: The official language of Chile is Spanish. Many Spanish-speaking residents continue to communicate with each other in German and Araucano, by the way, most Chileans speak English quite well. They also speak the Mapudungun language (Mapuche language), Aymara (in the northern region of the country) and Rapa Nui (in the area of the Polynesian Easter Island).
P.S. Chileans speak Spanish very quickly and incomprehensibly, often swallowing the last letters of words, they also like to include the English-style ending "s" in the plural. In addition, slang terms and expressions are often used in everyday life, which even native speakers of traditional Spanish do not understand without explanation.
Religion : The dominant religion is Catholicism: more than 70% of the population are adherents of the Roman Catholic Church. In addition to Catholics, there are quite influential groups of Protestants (about 15% of the population), there are also believers who profess Judaism (1.06%), Mormons (0.92%) and representatives of other religions. 4.4% of Chileans identify as atheists.
Currency : State currency: (CLP).
Favorite sports games: Football is practically everything in Chile. Every local resident is simply obliged to have his favorite football team (in 60% of cases it is Universidad de Chile), sports such as rugby, tennis, running, cycling, etc. are also quite popular.
Santiago, Chile
The population of the state is about 18.05 million people, which are evenly distributed along the entire length of the country. The main concentration of the population was concentrated in the central regions: in the cities of Santiago, Concepcion, Valparaiso, Viña del Mar, Antofagasta, Temuco, etc.
Chileans of the 21st century consist of 3 main groups: Hispanic Chileans; immigrants and their descendants from America, Europe and Asia who arrived here in the 20th century; indigenous Indian peoples.
It is also necessary to mention the Polynesians - the Rapanui (Easter) - the indigenous inhabitants of the island. Easter.
The racial composition of the population of Chile is approximately as follows: about 25% of the inhabitants belong to the white race (descendants of Spaniards, Italians, Germans), almost 70% are mestizos - descendants of mixed marriages of Indians with whites, native Indians and make up about 6.6%.
The national composition of immigrants is very diverse, but Spaniards and Italians predominate. In recent decades, immigrants have mainly arrived here from neighboring countries: Argentina, Bolivia, Peru.
Most of the population of Chile is employed mainly in mining, agriculture and fishing.
Chileans have an average of 10 years of education, the country's illiteracy rate is one of the lowest on the entire continent (no more than 4%), while the country boasts two Nobel Prize winners in literature: (Spanish Gabriela Mistral) and (Spanish. Pablo Neruda). Life expectancy is 79 years, with low infant mortality (7.9%) and malnutrition.
The most characteristic physical attributes of the locals are rather dark skin tone, medium height (160 cm for women and 170 cm for men) and thick black hair.
Before the Spanish invasion, Chile was inhabited by numerous nomadic Indian tribes. The strongest and most influential were the Araucan or Mapuche tribes inhabiting the Central part. Being very independent and warlike, they were the only major Indian tribal association of Indians who did not submit to the Spanish crown. Only at the end of the XIX century. the Spanish conquistadors managed to push them into the southern forests and force them to submit.
The first attempt to conquer the country dates back to 1535, when the Spanish adelantado (Spanish: Diego de Almagro), an ally (Spanish: Francisco Pizarro) - the conqueror of Peru, led a military expedition, leading it through the glaciers of the Andes. The Spaniards reached the Central Valley of the country, but not finding treasures and meeting the desperate resistance of the Araucans, they returned to Peru.
In 1540, Pizarro sent his lieutenant (Spanish Pedro de Valdivia) to conquer Chile, who on February 12, 1541 founded the city of Santiago on the banks of the Mapocho River (Spanish Río Mapocho), making it the capital of the Spanish colony, in which about 1000 people lived. Spaniards. Then, moving further south, Valdivia founded several more cities, incl. (Spanish: Concepción) and Valdivia. In 1553, Pedro de Valdivia was captured and executed by Indians led by the Araucan leader Lautaro (Spanish Lautaro). Lautaro became the hero of Chilean legends and went down in history thanks to the heroic-epic poem "Araucan" by the Spanish conquistador and poet Alonso de Ercilla y Zúñiga (Spanish: Alonso de Ercilla y Zúñiga, 1533-1594)
There was too little gold in Chile to attract large numbers of settlers from Europe. The colonists were engaged in the cultivation of wheat; cattle ranches, vineyards and orchards also provided a good income. Gradually, the Spaniards penetrated south to the river. Bio-Bio and through the Andes chain to the east, to the territory of present-day Argentina. In 1778, the colony was given the status of captaincy general, the captain general was appointed personally by the king of Spain.
Despite territorial isolation, the country experienced a steady population growth. Many of the Catalans or Basques who settled here formed an influential class of aristocratic landowners, which to this day plays an important role in the political and cultural life of the state. Since, according to the laws, all trade was conducted through Peru, there were illegal contacts with English and Dutch smugglers who got here through the Strait of Magellan.
One adventure from the life of smugglers served as the basis for Defoe's novel about Robinson Crusoe: the case of the Scottish sailor Alexander Selkirk, thrown by a storm on the uninhabited islands of the Juan Fernandez archipelago. The flow of smuggling decreased somewhat when the country gained the right to trade with the rest of the Spanish colonies.
When Napoleon overthrew King Ferdinand VII in 1808, the country was still a Spanish colony. On July 14, 1810, the Chilean Creoles revolted, removing the Spanish protege and replacing the governor with a Creole aristocrat, and in September the National Government Junta was formed. After 4 years of rebellion and anarchy, the Peruvian viceroy has regained control of Chile, but she has already tasted the taste of freedom.
Chile includes various geographical zones: valleys, desert, fjords, glaciers, archipelagos and islands.
By latitude, the entire territory is divided into 3 regions, which differ sharply from each other in terms of relief structure and climatic conditions:
All rivers originate either in the Andes or in the Coastal Cordillera and flow into the Pacific Ocean. Most of the rivers are quite short. The most important rivers of the country include: Loa (Spanish Río Loa) - the longest (440 km) Chilean river, (Spanish Bío Bío, 380 km) - the second largest river, Elqui (Spanish Río Elqui, 170 km), etc. For more information about the rivers of Chile, see.
Most of the lakes, predominantly of tectonic-glacial origin, are located in the picturesque "Lakeland", in the valleys and foothills of the Andes in southern Chile. Buenos Aires or General Carrera (Spanish: Lago General Carrera, area 1.9 thousand km²), the largest lake of glacial origin, is located on the border of Chile and Argentina (the eastern part of the lake belongs to Argentina).
Lake Llanquihue (Spanish: Lago Llanquihue, area 840 km²), the second largest, is located entirely on Chilean territory. In the central part, there are high-altitude freshwater lakes and coastal salt lakes, into which sea waters penetrate during high tides. Salt is mined in coastal lakes, for example, in Lake Bucalemu (Spanish: el Lago Bucalemu) near Valparaiso. In the north of the country, virtually all lakes are endorheic and saline (the so-called "salars", Spanish Salar).
"Lakeland" in the foothills of the Andes
In addition to the main, continental part, the state includes several groups of coastal islands and islands that lie at a considerable distance from the mainland: the western part of the island "" (Spanish Isla Grande de Tierra del Fuego), Easter Island, the Juan Fernandez Archipelago, Wellington Island (Spanish Isla Wellington) and others. The islands of Chile have long attracted tourists from all over the world. For example, a Scottish sailor (Alexander Selkirk, 1676-1721), who became the prototype of the well-known Robinson, spent 4 years and 4 months (1704-1709) on a desert island (Spanish Isla Mas a Tierra, now the island of Robinson Crusoe). Easter Island is famous for its colossal stone figures erected by unknown masters of an ancient civilization.
About 9/10 of the country's inhabitants live in the area between the cities (Spanish: Puerto Montt) and Coquimbo (Spanish: Coquimbo), which is less than a third of the total area of the state. Most of the population is concentrated around the capital, where natural conditions favor the development of agriculture.
In Central Chile, north of the Bio-Bio River, almost 2/3 of the state's population lives. In most of the Central Valley (between the cities of Santiago (Spanish Santiago) and Concepción, the rural population density reaches 50 people / 1 km². In the Metropolitan area, the population density exceeds 355 people / 1 km².
Here are large cities (Santiago, Valparaiso, Concepción), where government offices, financial, scientific and educational centers are located. Most of the fertile arable land is concentrated here. The majority of industrial state enterprises are located in the capital and its environs. enterprises. The overpopulation of the central regions led, in particular, to the fact that immigrants began to settle in the forest areas south of Bio-Bio, which for a long time remained under the control of the Araucans - indigenous Indian tribes. The growth of such settlements accelerated significantly due to the fact that the government of the country began to implement a policy of supporting colonists employed in agriculture.
Night Santiago
The southern third of the state is sparsely populated, the existing population is mainly concentrated near the eastern part of the Strait of Magellan, in the area (Spanish Punta Arenas), the southernmost city of all the major cities on the planet. In 3 regions of Northern Chile (Tarapaca, Antofagasta and Atacama), whose area is about 1/3 of the territory, almost 7% of the population lives. The Atacama Desert region is inhabited by about 1 million people living in small mining and port towns. Most of the local population is made up of workers and specialists recruited under contract in Central Chile. Also in the northern regions live specialists from around the world working in copper mines.
Chile is a completely unique country in terms of climate and nature. It stretched from south to north along the entire South American continent. Such an unusual length allows the state to possess almost all natural and climatic zones existing on the globe, with the exception of only the humid tropics.
The north is characterized by the predominance of a tropical desert type of climate, here the average monthly temperatures range from +12 °C (mid-May-August) to +26 °C (December-mid-March). To the south, the climate becomes subtropical, with summer temperatures in the range of +22-24°C, and winter temperatures around +12-18°C. Similar weather on the islands of Easter and Juan Fernandez.
The central part is dominated by a temperate oceanic climate, the temperature there fluctuates from +3-15°C in winter to +25°C in summer. In the south, the climate is humid, subtropical, with heavy rainfall. In the north, in the Atacama Desert, there are places that have not seen a drop of rain for centuries. There are other areas in the Atacama where short rainfalls in winter cause an incredible burst of blooms in spring, a natural phenomenon known as the Blooming Desert. The coast of this part of the country is characterized by a temperate climate.
As the height above sea level increases, the daytime temperature rises, while the nighttime temperature drops. In the area, even in summer, nighttime temperatures can drop below 0°C. In summer, a natural phenomenon often occurs here, called "Bolivian winter", which is characterized by sudden severe thunderstorms with hail.
To the south, delightful Mediterranean landscapes prevail with a mild climate, dry warm summers and rainy winters: in summer (December-February) the average air temperature is + 28 ° C, in winter + 10 ° C. The coast is usually cloudy, humid and windy, and it can be colder here than in the hinterland.
Vast areas of this zone are covered with lush virgin forests. From May to August, the rainy season lasts in the interior of Chile, in the mountainous regions, precipitation, regardless of the season, falls more evenly, here the climate is rainy and cool. Strong winds often blow along the coast and in the Patagonian pampas. In the highland areas of the state it is much colder: in some places the temperature even in summer does not rise above + 3 ° C, and in winter it drops to -27 ° C.
The further south, the less rainfall and lower temperatures. The climate of the Antarctic part of Chile is polar, with frequent heavy snowfalls.
In the area of the Strait of Magellan and on the island of Tierra del Fuego, the climate is polar, in winter temperatures range from -16 to -4°C, in summer the temperature does not exceed +18°C. Here, even in summer, strong winds dominate, fogs and rains are not uncommon, and unpredictable sudden changes in the weather are observed. It is cold in the mountains and there is heavy rainfall.
On Easter Island and the islands of the Juan Fernandez archipelago, the climate is subtropical, mild, with moderate humidity, pleasant temperatures and little difference between the seasons.
Chile is one of the longest countries in the world, so the distance between northern and southern cities can reach several thousand kilometers. Thanks to a very long coastline, many cities are ports.
Viña del Mar
The vegetation of the country varies depending on the climatic zone. In the north, where the Atacama Desert is located, all kinds of cacti and thorns predominate. In Central Chile, there is a predominance of subtropical vegetation (evergreen forests and shrubs). In the south, the mountain slopes, turning into valleys, are covered with densely growing beech and coniferous forests, Chilean pines appear here. In the Central Plains, Copihue is found, a vibrant red flower with a bell-shaped calyx that has become the national flower. Further, the landscape gives way to the jungle, where beech, magnolia, laurel and several types of coniferous trees grow. Steppes overgrown with herbs lie in the extreme south.
The fauna of Chile is not as rich as in other countries of Latin America, since the Andes ranges, forming a natural barrier, prevent the natural migration of animals. Of the representatives of mammals, the most common here are: alpaca, llama, vicuña, deer of two species, guanaco, puma, wolf, chinchilla, otter, coypu, skunk.
Birds are represented quite widely, even ostriches are found here.
In the rivers and lakes, except for the introduced trout, there are almost no freshwater fish.
Due to the proximity of the Humboldt Current, coastal Pacific waters are rich in fish and other marine life, which in turn support a wide variety of waterfowl, including various penguin species. Whales are also found in abundance: about six (!) varieties of whales live off the coast.
