). This also includes authors from the Russian diaspora, whose work is also considered in line with modernism ( cm. LITERATURE OF RUSSIAN ABROAD). There is another approach, which seeks to consider the entire border era as a single whole, in the complex interrelation of not only different literary movements, but also all phenomena cultural life this period (art, philosophy, religious and political movements). This idea of the “Silver Age” has been widespread in recent decades both in Western and domestic science.
The boundaries of the designated period are defined differently by different researchers. Most scientists date the beginning of the “Silver Age” to the 1890s, some to the 1880s. Disagreements regarding its final boundary are great (from 1913–1915 to the mid-20th century). However, the view is gradually gaining ground that the “Silver Age” came to an end in the early 1920s.
In modern usage, the expression "Silver Age" or not evaluative nature, or carries a touch of poeticization (silver as a noble metal, lunar silver, special spirituality). The initial use of the term was rather negative, because the silver age, which comes after the golden age, implies decline, degradation, decadence. This idea goes back to antiquity, to Hesiod and Ovid, who built the cycles of human history in accordance with the succession of generations of gods (under the titan Krone-Saturn there was a golden age, under his son Zeus-Jupiter the silver age began). The metaphor of the “golden age” as a happy time for humanity, when eternal spring reigned and the earth itself bore fruit, received new development in European culture, starting with the Renaissance (primarily in pastoral literature). Therefore, the expression “Silver Age” was supposed to indicate a decrease in the quality of the phenomenon, its regression. With this understanding, Russian literature of the Silver Age (modernism) was contrasted with the “golden age” of Pushkin and his contemporaries as “classical” literature.
R. Ivanov-Razumnik and V. Piast, who were the first to use the expression “silver age”, did not contrast it with Pushkin’s “golden age”, but highlighted it in the literature of the early 20th century. two poetic periods (the "golden age", powerful and talented poets; and the "silver age", poets of less power and less importance). For Piast, the “Silver Age” is primarily a chronological concept, although the sequence of periods correlates with a certain decrease in the poetic level. On the contrary, Ivanov-Razumnik uses it as evaluative. For him, the “silver age” is a decline in the “creative wave”, the main signs of which are “self-sufficient technology, a decrease in spiritual take-off with a seeming increase in the technical level and brilliance of form.”
N. Otsup, the popularizer of the term, also used it in different senses. In an article in 1933, he defined the Silver Age not so much chronologically as qualitatively, as a special type of creativity.
Subsequently, the concept of “Silver Age” became poetic and lost its negative connotation. It was reinterpreted as a figurative, poetic designation of an era marked by a special type of creativity, a special tonality of poetry, with a touch of high tragedy and refined sophistication. The expression “Silver Age” replaced analytical terms and provoked debate about the unity or contradictory nature of the processes of the early 20th century.
The phenomenon that the term “Silver Age” denotes was an unprecedented cultural upsurge, a tension of creative forces that came in Russia after the populist period, marked by positivism and a utilitarian approach to life and art. The “decay of populism” in the 1880s was accompanied by a general mood of decline, “the end of the century.” In the 1890s, overcoming the crisis began. Having organically accepted the influence of European modernism (primarily symbolism), Russian culture created its own versions of “new art”, which marked the birth of a different cultural consciousness.
Despite all the differences in poetics and creative attitudes, the modernist movements that emerged in the late 19th and early 20th centuries came from the same ideological root and had many common features. “What united the young Symbolists was not a common program... but the same decisiveness of denial and rejection of the past, “no” thrown in the face of their fathers,” he wrote in his Memoirs A. Bely. This definition can be extended to the entire set of trends that emerged at that time. In contrast to the idea of the “usefulness of art,” they asserted the artist’s inner freedom, his chosenness, even messianism, and the transformative role of art in relation to life. N. Berdyaev, who called this phenomenon “Russian cultural renaissance” (or “Russian spiritual renaissance”), described it this way: “Now we can definitely say that the beginning of the 20th century was marked in our country by a renaissance of spiritual culture, a philosophical and literary-aesthetic renaissance, an aggravation of religious and mystical sensitivity. Never before has Russian culture reached such refinement as at that time.” Unlike critics who preferred the expression “Silver Age,” Berdyaev did not contrast the beginning of the 20th century. Pushkin’s era, but brought them closer: “There was a similarity with the romantic and idealistic movement of the early 19th century.” He expressed the general feeling of a turning point, of transition, which reigned at the turn of the 19th–20th centuries: “A spiritual crisis was taking place among the Russian intelligentsia, the most cultural, the most educated and gifted, a transition was taking place to a different type of culture, perhaps closer to the first half 19th century than the second. This spiritual crisis was associated with the decomposition of the integrity of the revolutionary intellectual worldview, oriented exclusively socially, it was a break with Russian “enlightenment”, with positivism in the broad sense of the word, it was a proclamation of rights to the “otherworldly”. It was liberation human soul from the oppression of sociality, the liberation of creative forces from the oppression of utilitarianism.”
Apocalyptic aspirations, a sense of crisis both in life and in art, were associated with the spread of the ideas of Schopenhauer, Nietzsche and Spengler in Russia, on the one hand, and with the anticipation of new revolutions, on the other. Some movements recorded a state of chaos associated with the awareness of the “end” (expressionism), while others called for renewal and hoped for a future that was already approaching. This focus on the future gave rise to the idea of a “new man”: the Nietzschean Superman and the androgyne of the Symbolists, the New Adam of the Acmeists, the “Futurist” of the Futurists ( cm. FUTURISM). At the same time, even within one direction, opposing aspirations coexisted: extreme individualism, aestheticism (in the decadent part of symbolism) and the preaching of the World Soul, new Dionysianism, conciliarism (among the “younger” symbolists). The search for truth, the ultimate meaning of existence, resulted in various forms of mysticism, and occultism, which was popular at the beginning of the 19th century, again came into fashion. A characteristic expression of these sentiments was the novel by V. Bryusov Fire Angel. Interest arose in Russian sectarianism (“Khlystovism” by N. Klyuev, individual motifs in the poetry of S. Yesenin, novel Silver Dove White). Turning inward, neo-romantic intoxication with the depths of the human “I” were combined with the rediscovery of the world in its sensually comprehended objectivity. A special trend at the turn of the century was new myth-making, also associated with the expectation of an emerging future, with the need to rethink human existence. The fusion of the everyday and the existential, everyday life and metaphysics is discernible in the works of writers of different directions.
At the same time, there was a universal desire to renew the artistic form and to master the language anew. The modernization of verse, begun by the experiments of the Symbolists, who introduced rare words and combinations into poetry, was brought to a poetic level by the Futurists. The symbolists, developing the legacy of Verlaine (“Music first!”) and Mallarmé (with his idea of inspiring a certain mood, “suggestive” poetry), were looking for a kind of “magic of words” in which their special, musical combination would correlate with a secret, inexpressible content . Bryusov described the birth of a symbolist work in this way: “Words lose their usual meaning, figures lose their specific meaning - what remains is a means of mastering the elements of the soul, giving them voluptuous-sweet combinations, which is what we call aesthetic pleasure.” Bely saw in the “embodied”, “living” (creative) word a saving principle that protects a person from death in the “era of general decline”: “from under the dust of a collapsing culture we call and conjure with the sounds of words”; “humanity is alive as long as the poetry of language exists” ( The magic of words, 1910). Picking up the thesis of the Symbolists about the importance of the word for the construction of life, the Moscow futurists “Budetlyans” proposed a radical approach to renewal linguistic means. They proclaimed the value of the “self-existent word”, “the real word beyond life and vital benefit”, the need for word creation, the creation of a new, “universal” language. V. Khlebnikov was looking for “the magic stone of transforming all Slavic words from one to another.” A. Kruchenykh wrote: “the greatest expressiveness is achieved through chopped words and their bizarre, cunning combinations (abstruse language), and this is precisely what distinguishes the language of rapid modernity. V. Mayakovsky, who reformed poetry not so much with the help of “zaumi” as through the introduction of colloquial words, neologisms, and expressive images, also sought to “bring the future closer with the help of poetry.” The Acmeists, with a different meaning, called for valuing “the word as such” - in its completeness, in the unity of its form and content, in its reality as a material, like a stone, becoming part of an architectural structure. Clarity of the poetic image, rejection of the vagueness and mysticism of the symbolists and futurist sound play, a “healthy” relationship between word and meaning - these were the demands of the Acmeists, who wanted to return poetry from the realm of pure experiment to harmony and life. Another variant of the creative program was presented by imagism. The focus on a bright, unexpected image and the “rhythm of images” was proclaimed by the Imagists in their Declarations(1919). The basis of their method was the creation of a metaphor by connecting incompatible concepts and objects that are remote in meaning, “image as an end in itself,” “image as theme and content.”
Poetic achievements were developed and continued in prose. The “stream of consciousness” technique, nonlinear storytelling, the use of leitmotifs and montage as principles of text organization, expressiveness and even illogicality of images characterize the prose works of symbolism and expressionism ( Petersburg White, Drops of blood And Little devil F. Sologub, prose by E. Gabrilovich and L. Andreev).
In their own way, writers who continued the tradition of realism (A. Chekhov, I. Bunin, A. Kuprin, I. Shmelev, B. Zaitsev, A. N. Tolstoy) and Marxist writers (M. Gorky) met the requirements for updating the artistic form. . Neorealism of the early 20th century. embraced the creative discoveries of the modernists. Comprehension of being through everyday life is the main feature of this direction. The theorist of the “new realists” V. Veresaev called on the theorist of the “new realists” to not just depict reality, but to listen “to the mysterious rhythm with which world life is full,” and to give contemporaries the necessary philosophy of life. The turn from the positivism of the “old realists” towards questions of existence was combined with a change in poetics, which was reflected primarily in the “lyricization” of prose. However, there was also a reverse influence of realistic depiction, expressed in the “objectification” of poetry. This is how one of the essential features of this period manifested itself - the desire for artistic synthesis. Synthetic in nature was the desire to bring poetry closer to music, to philosophy (among the Symbolists), and to a social gesture (among the Futurists).
Similar processes occurred in other arts: in painting, in theater, in architecture and in music. Thus, symbolism corresponded to “total”, which extended to all fine and applied arts, as well as to architecture, the “modern” style (called “Art Nouveau” in France, “Art Nouveau” in Germany, “Secession” style in Austria). Impressionism, which emerged as a movement in painting, created an equally powerful movement in music, influencing literature. The same can be said about expressionism, which gave equally significant results to painting, music, literature, and drama. And this also reflected the tendency towards synthesis, characteristic of that time. It was no coincidence that the appearance of such “synthetic” creators as the composer and artist M. Churlenis, poets and artists Voloshin, Mayakovsky, Kruchenykh and others.
The Russian theater experienced a special flourishing. Being basically synthetic, theatrical art absorbed influences coming from literature (drama) and music (opera and ballet). Through scenography he was associated with new artistic trends. Such artists as A. Benois, Bakst, M. Dobuzhinsky, N. Roerich turned to the design of dramatic, opera and ballet performances. Like other arts, theater refused the dictates of life-likeness.
At the same time, along with the desire for unity, there was a desire for differentiation, for a clear definition of one’s own creative program. Numerous “trends”, groups, associations that arose within each of the arts declared their artistic guidelines in theoretical manifestos, which were no less an important part of creativity than its practical manifestations. The situation in the successive directions of modernist literature is indicative: each subsequent one defined itself in repulsion from the previous one, affirmed itself through negation. Acmeism and Futurism, inheriting symbolism, opposed themselves to it on different grounds, while simultaneously criticizing each other and all other directions: Acmeists in articles The legacy of symbolism and acmeism And Morning of Acmeism, cubo-futurists in the program manifesto A slap in the face to public taste (1912).
All these trends were reflected in philosophy and criticism.
The creativity of the figures of the first wave of emigration, which transferred the cultural forms developed in Russia to “other shores”, developed in the same direction.
Thus, the turn of the 19th–20th centuries. can be considered as a special stage of Russian culture, internally holistic with all the diversity of its phenomena. It gave birth in Russia to a new consciousness of the “non-classical era” and a new art corresponding to it, in which the “re-creation” of reality was replaced by its creative “re-creation”.
Tatiana Mikhailova
Conventionally, the beginning of the “Silver Age” in philosophy can be associated with the time between the two Russian revolutions. If before the first revolution of 1905 the Russian intelligentsia was more or less unanimous on the issue of the need political reforms(considering the form of government the main reason for the unsatisfactory state of affairs in the country and society), then after the introduction of basic constitutional freedoms in 1905, public minds were directed to the search for new forms of views on the world and life.
Philosophers and writers of this period for the first time comprehended the state of personal freedom and sought an answer to the question: “How to realize human freedom for his personal and social development?” After the revolution of 1917 and the civil war, most of the philosophers of the “Silver Age” found themselves in exile, where their interests were increasingly focused on the religious side of the life of the Russian Orthodox community abroad. As a result of this, such a phenomenon of spiritual culture of the 20th century as Russian religious philosophy arises.
Philosophers of the Silver Age traditionally include N.A. Berdyaev, S.N. Bulgakov, B.P. Vysheslavtsev, S.L. Frank, N.O. Lossky, F.A. Stepun, P.B. Struve, V. N. Ilyina, L. P. Karsavina,
In 1907, the St. Petersburg Religious and Philosophical Society was created. During that period, traditional themes of philosophical and religious thought were developed in new literary forms. The era of the "Silver Age" Russian culture is rich in experience in expressing metaphysical ideas in artistic creativity. Such examples of “literary” metaphysics are the works of two writers and polemicists - D.S. Merezhkovsky and V.V. Rozanov.
The main platform for philosophers of the “Silver Age” was participation in literary and philosophical magazines (Logos, New Ideas in Philosophy, Put’ Publishing House) and collections. Collection Milestones (1909) (cm. MILESTONES AND VEKHOVTSY) has a pronounced ideological character. The authors - M.O. Gershenzon, Berdyaev, S.N. Bulgakov, A. Izgoev, B. Kistyakovsky, P.B. Struve, Frank - wanted to influence the mood of the intelligentsia, to offer them new cultural, religious and metaphysical ideals. At the same time, the main criticism was the tradition of Russian radicalism. Meaning Wekh as the most important document of the era was a kind of change in the philosophical paradigm of Russian society. But it is necessary to take into account that the main transition to religious and philosophical views occurred among Berdyaev, Bulgakov, and Frank much later, already in emigration.
The philosophers of the Silver Age had different fates: some of them left their homeland along with the “white movement”, some were expelled from Soviet Russia and lived in exile, some were subjected to repression and died during the Stalin years. There were also those who were able to fit into university and academic philosophical life in the USSR. But, despite this, the conditional association of these thinkers under the name “philosophers of the Silver Age” is legitimate on the basis of a combination of broad erudition, based on the European cultural tradition, and literary and journalistic talent.
Fedor Blucher
Literature:
Ippolit Udushev [Ivanov-Razumnik R.V.]. Look and Something. Excerpt.(To the centenary of “Woe from Wit”). – In: Contemporary Literature .
L., 1925
Otsup N. silver Age. – In: Numbers, ed. Nikolai Otsup. Book 7–8. Paris, 1933
Veide V. Russia's task. New York, 1956
Otsup N. Contemporaries. Paris, 1961
Makovsky S. On Parnassus« Silver Age» .
Munich, 1962
Kolobaeva L.A . The concept of personality in Russian literature of the turn 19 – started 20V. M., 1990
Gasparov M.L. Poetics« silver age" – In the book: Russian poetry of the “Silver Age”: an anthology. M., 1993
Memories of the Silver Age. Comp. Kreid V. M., 1993
Berdyaev N. Russian spiritual renaissance of the early twentieth century and the magazine« Path»
(by the tenth anniversary« Paths"). – In the book: Berdyaev N. Philosophy of creativity, culture and art. In 2 volumes, vol. 2. M., 1994
History of Russian literature: 20th century: Silver Age. Ed. Niva J., Sermana I., Strady V., Etkinda E.M. M., 1995
Jesuitova L.A. What was called the “golden” and “silver age” in cultural Russia of the 19th – early 20th centuries. – In the collection: Gumilyov readings: Materials of the international conference of philologists-Slavists .
St. Petersburg, 1996
Etkind A. Sodom and Psyche: Essays on the Intellectual History of the Silver Age. M., 1996
Piast Vl. Meetings. M., 1997
Imagist poets. – Comp. E.M. Shneiderman. St. Petersburg – M., 1997
Etkind A. Khlyst: Sects, literature and revolution. M., 1998
Bogomolov N.A. Russian literature of the early twentieth century and the occult. M., 1999
Hardy W. Guide to Art Nouveau style. M., 1999
Ronen O. The Silver Age as intent and fiction. M., 2000
Keldysh V.A. Russian literature« silver age» like a complex whole. – In the book: Russian literature at the turn of the century (1890 – early 1920s) .
M., 2001
Koretskaya I.V. Literature in the circle of arts. – In the book: Russian literature at the turn of the century (1890 – early 1920s). M., 2001
Isupov K.G. Philosophy and literature of the “Silver Age”(convergences and intersections). – In the book: Russian literature at the turn of the century (1890 – early 1920s). M., 2001
Smirnova L.A. silver Age. – In the book: Literary encyclopedia of terms and concepts.
M., 2003
Mildon V.I. Russian Renaissance, or Falsehood« silver age» . –
Questions of philosophy. M., 2005, No. 1
VSEVOLOD SAKHAROV
The Silver Age of Russian Literature... This is what is commonly called the period in the history of Russian poetry, which occurs at the beginning of the twentieth century.
A specific chronological framework has not yet been established. Many historians and writers from all over the world argue about this. The Silver Age of Russian literature begins in the 1890s and ends in the first decade of the twentieth century. It is the end of this period that causes controversy. Some researchers believe that it should be dated to 1917, others insist on 1921. What is the reason for this? In 1917, the Civil War began, and the Silver Age of Russian literature as such ceased to exist. But at the same time, in the 20s, those writers who created this phenomenon continued their work. There is a third category of researchers, which argues that the end of the Silver Age occurs in the period from 1920 to 1930. It was then that Vladimir Mayakovsky committed suicide and the government did everything to strengthen ideological control over literature. Therefore, the time limits are quite extensive and amount to approximately 30 years.
As in any period of development of Russian literature, the Silver Age is characterized by the presence of different literary movements. They are often identified with artistic methods. Each movement is characterized by the presence of common fundamental spiritual and aesthetic principles. Writers unite in groups and schools, each of which has its own programmatic and aesthetic setting. The literary process develops following a clear pattern.
DECADENCE
At the end of the 19th century, people began to abandon civic ideals, finding them unacceptable for themselves and society as a whole. They refuse to believe in reason. The authors feel this and fill their works with the individualistic experiences of the characters. More and more literary images are appearing that express the socialist position. The artistic intelligentsia tried to disguise the difficulties of real life in a fictional world. Many works are filled with features of mysticism and unreality.
MODERNISM
Under this movement lie a wide variety of literary trends. But Russian literature of the Silver Age is characterized by the manifestation of completely new artistic and aesthetic qualities. Writers are trying to expand the scope of a realistic vision of life. Many of them want to find a way to express themselves. As before, Russian literature of the Silver Age occupied an important place in the cultural life of the entire state. Many authors began to unite in modernist communities. They differed in their ideological and artistic appearance. But they are united by one thing - they all see literature as free. The authors want her not to be influenced by moral and social rules.
At the end of the 1870s, Russian literature of the Silver Age was characterized by such a direction as symbolism. The authors tried to focus on artistic expression and used intuitive symbols and ideas to achieve this. The most sophisticated feelings were used. They wanted to learn all the secrets of the subconscious and see what is hidden from the eyes of ordinary people. In their works they focus on candle beauty. The Symbolists of the Silver Age expressed their rejection of the bourgeoisie. Their works are imbued with a longing for spiritual freedom. This is exactly what the authors missed so much! Different writers perceived symbolism in their own way. Some – as an artistic direction. Others - as a theoretical basis for philosophy. Third - how Christian teaching. The Silver Age of Russian literature is represented by many symbolist works.
At the beginning of 1910, the authors began to move away from the pursuit of the ideal. Their works were endowed with material features. They created a cult of reality; their heroes had a clear view of what was happening. But at the same time, writers avoided describing social problems. The authors fought to change lives. Acmeism in Russian literature of the Silver Age was expressed by a certain doom and sadness. It is characterized by such features as intimate themes, unemotional intonations and psychological emphasis on the main characters. Lyricism, emotionality, belief in spirituality... All this is characteristic of the Soviet period of development of literature. The main goal of the Acmeists was to return the image to its former concreteness and take on the shackles of fictitious encryptedness.
FUTURISM
Following Acmeism, a direction such as futurism began to develop in Russian literature of the Silver Age. It can be called avant-garde, the art of the future... The authors began to deny traditional culture and endow their works with the features of urbanism and machine industry. They tried to combine the incompatible: documentary materials and fiction, experimenting with the linguistic heritage. And we must admit that they succeeded. The main feature of this period of the Silver Age of Russian literature is contradiction. Poets, as before, united into various groups. A revolution of form was proclaimed. The authors tried to free it from content.
Imagism
In Russian literature of the Silver Age there was also such a movement as imagism. It manifested itself in the creation of a new image. The main emphasis was on metaphor. The authors tried to create real metaphorical chains. They compared the most diverse elements of opposing images, endowing words with direct and figurative meaning. The Silver Age of Russian literature in this period was characterized by shocking and anarchic features. The authors began to move away from rudeness.
The Silver Age is characterized by heterogeneity and diversity. The peasant theme is especially evident. It can be observed in the works of such writers as Koltsov, Surikov, Nikitin. But it was Nekrasov who aroused a special surge of interest. He created real sketches of village landscapes. The theme of the peasant people in Russian literature of the Silver Age was played out from all sides. The authors talk about the difficult fate of ordinary people, how hard they have to work and how bleak their life looks in the future. Nikolai Klyuev, Sergei Klychkov and other authors who themselves come from the village deserve special attention. They did not confine themselves to the theme of the village, but tried to poeticize rural life, crafts and the environment. Their works also reveal the theme of centuries-old national culture.
The revolution also had a significant influence on the development of Russian literature of the Silver Age. Peasant poets received it with great enthusiasm and completely devoted themselves to it within the framework of their creativity. But during this period creativity was not in the first place, it was perceived in second place. The first positions were occupied by proletarian poetry. She was declared the front line. After the completion of the revolution, power passed to the Bolshevik Party. They tried to control the development of literature. Driven by this idea, the poets of the Silver Age spiritualized the revolutionary struggle. They glorify the power of the country, criticize everything old and call for the party leaders to come forward. This period is characterized by the glorification of the cult of steel and iron. The turning point of traditional peasant foundations was experienced by such poets as Klyuev, Klychkov and Oreshin.
The Silver Age of Russian literature is always identified with such authors as K. Balmont, V. Bryusov, F. Sologub, D. Merezhkovsky, I. Bunin, N. Gumilev, A. Blok, A. Bely. To this list we can add M. Kuzmin, A. Akhmatova, O. Mandelstam. No less significant for Russian literature are the names of I. Severyanin and V. Khlebnikov.
Conclusion
Russian literature of the Silver Age is endowed with the following features. This is love for the small Motherland, adherence to ancient folk customs and moral traditions, widespread use of religious symbols, etc. Christian motives and pagan beliefs can be traced in them. Many authors tried to turn to folk stories and images. The urban culture that everyone is tired of has acquired the features of denial. It was compared to the cult of instruments and iron. The Silver Age left Russian literature a rich heritage and replenished the stock of Russian literature with bright and memorable works.
© Vsevolod Sakharov. All rights reserved.
The first decade of the 20th century went down in the history of Russian culture under the name "Silver Age". It was a time of unprecedented flowering of all types of creative activity, the birth of new trends in art, the emergence of a galaxy of brilliant names that became the pride of not only Russian but also world culture.
The artistic culture of the turn of the century is an important page in the cultural heritage of Russia. Ideological inconsistency and ambiguity were inherent not only in artistic movements and trends, but also in the work of individual writers, artists, and composers. This was a period of renewal of various types and genres of artistic creativity, rethinking, “general revaluation of values,” in the words of M. V. Nesterov. The attitude towards the legacy of the revolutionary democrats became ambiguous even among progressive-minded cultural figures. The primacy of sociality in the Wandering movement was seriously criticized by many realist artists.
In Russian artistic culture of the late XIX - early XX centuries. became widespread « decadence» , denoting such phenomena in art as the rejection of civil ideals and faith in reason, immersion in the sphere of individualistic experiences. These ideas were an expression of the social position of part of the artistic intelligentsia, which tried to “escape” the complexities of life into the world of dreams, unreality, and sometimes mysticism. But even in this way she reflected in her work the crisis phenomena of the then social life.
Decadent moods captured figures of various artistic movements, including realistic ones. However, more often these ideas were inherent in modernist movements.
Concept "modernism"(French toe1erpe - modern) included many phenomena of literature and art of the twentieth century, born at the beginning of this century, new in comparison with the realism of the previous century. However, even in the realism of this time, new artistic and aesthetic qualities appear: the “framework” of a realistic vision of life is expanding, a search is underway for ways of personal self-expression in literature and art. The characteristic features of art are synthesis, an indirect reflection of life, in contrast to the critical realism of the 19th century with its inherent concrete reflection of reality. This feature of art is associated with the wide spread of neo-romanticism in literature, painting, music, and the birth of a new stage realism.
At the beginning of the 20th century. There were many literary trends. This is symbolism, and futurism, and even the ego-futurism of Igor Severyanin. All these directions are very different, have different ideals, pursue different goals, but they agree on one thing: to work on the rhythm, the word, to bring the playing of sounds to perfection.
At the same time, the voice of the representatives of realism of the new generation began to sound, protesting against the main principle of realistic art - the direct image of the surrounding world. According to the ideologists of this generation, art, being a synthesis of two opposite principles - matter and spirit, is capable of not only “displaying”, but also “transforming” the existing world, creating a new reality.
Chapter 1.Education
The modernization process included not only fundamental changes in the socio-economic and political spheres, but also a significant increase in literacy and educational level of the population. To the credit of the government, they took this need into account. Government spending on public education since 1900 to 1915 increased more than 5 times.
The main focus was on primary schools. The government intended to introduce universal primary education in the country. However school reform was carried out inconsistently. Several types of primary schools have survived, the most common being parish schools (in 1905 there were about 43 thousand of them). The number of zemstvo primary schools increased (in 1904 there were 20.7 thousand, and in 1914 - 28.2 thousand). More than 2.5 million students studied in primary schools of the Ministry of Public Education, and in 1914. - already about 6 million.
The restructuring of the secondary education system began. The number of gymnasiums and secondary schools grew. In gymnasiums, the number of hours allocated to the study of natural and mathematical subjects increased. Graduates of real schools were given the right to enter higher technical educational institutions, and after passing the exam in Latin to the physics and mathematics faculties of universities.
On the initiative of entrepreneurs, commercial (7-8-year) schools were created, which provided general education and special training. In them, unlike gymnasiums and real schools, joint education of boys and girls was introduced. In 1913 55 thousand people, including 10 thousand girls, studied in 250 commercial schools, which were under the patronage of commercial and industrial capital. The number of secondary specialized educational institutions has increased: industrial, technical, railway, mining, land surveying, agricultural, etc.
The network of higher educational institutions has expanded: new technical universities have appeared in St. Petersburg, Novocherkassk, and Tomsk. A university was opened in Saratov, new technical universities appeared in St. Petersburg, Novocherkassk, Tomsk. To ensure the reform of primary schools, pedagogical institutes were opened in Moscow and St. Petersburg, as well as over 30 higher courses for women, which laid the foundation for mass access of women to higher education. By 1914 there were about 100 higher educational institutions, in which approximately 130 thousand people studied. Moreover, over 60% of students did not belong to the nobility. Higher State Officials were trained in privileged educational institutions - lyceums.
However, despite advances in education, 3/4 of the country's population remained illiterate. Due to high tuition fees, middle and high schools were inaccessible to a significant part of the population. 43 kopecks were spent on education. per capita, while in England and Germany - about 4 rubles, in the USA - 7 rubles. (in terms of our money).
Chapter 2.The science
Russia's entry into the era of industrialization was marked by successes in the development of science. At the beginning of the 20th century. the country made a significant contribution to world scientific and technological progress, which was called the “revolution in natural science,” since the discoveries made during this period led to a revision of established ideas about the world around us.
Physicist P.N. Lebedev was the first in the world to establish the general laws inherent in wave processes of various natures (sound, electromagnetic, hydraulic, etc.), and made other discoveries in the field of wave physics. He created the first physical school in Russia.
A number of outstanding discoveries in the theory and practice of aircraft construction were made by N. E. Zhukovsky. Zhukovsky’s student and colleague was the outstanding mechanic and mathematician S. A. Chaplygin.
At the origins of modern cosmonautics stood a nugget, a teacher at the Kaluga gymnasium K. E. Tsiolkovsky. In 1903. he published a number of brilliant works that substantiated the possibility of space flights and determined ways to achieve this goal.
The outstanding scientist Vernadsky V.I. gained worldwide fame thanks to his encyclopedic works, which served as the basis for the emergence of new scientific directions in geochemistry, biochemistry, radiology. His teachings on the biosphere and noosphere laid the foundation for modern ecology. The innovation of the ideas he expressed is fully realized only now, when the world finds itself on the brink of an environmental catastrophe.
Research in the field of biology, psychology, and human physiology was characterized by an unprecedented surge. Pavlov I.P. created the doctrine of higher nervous activity, about conditioned reflexes. In 1904 he was awarded the Nobel Prize for his research in the physiology of digestion. In 1908 The Nobel Prize was awarded to the biologist I. I. Mechnikov for his works on immunology and infectious diseases.
The beginning of the 20th century is the heyday of Russian historical science. The largest specialists in the field of national history were Klyuchevsky V.O., Kornilov A.A., Pavlov-Silvansky N.P., Platonov S.F. Vinogradov P.G., Vipper R. Yu., Tarle E. dealt with the problems of general history V. The Russian school of Oriental studies has gained worldwide fame.
The beginning of the century was marked by the appearance of works by representatives of original Russian religious and philosophical thought (Berdyaev N.A., Bulgakov N.I., Solovyov V.S., Florensky P.A., etc.). A large place in the works of philosophers was occupied by the so-called Russian idea - the problem of the originality of Russia's historical path, the uniqueness of its spiritual life, and the special purpose of Russia in the world.
At the beginning of the 20th century, scientific and technical societies were popular. They united scientists, practitioners, amateur enthusiasts and existed on contributions from their members and private donations. Some received small government subsidies. The most famous were: the Free Economic Society (it was founded back in 1765), the Society of History and Antiquities (1804), the Society of Lovers of Russian Literature (1811), Geographical, Technical, Physicochemical, Botanical, Metallurgical, several medical, agricultural, etc. These societies not only served as centers of scientific research, but also widely disseminated scientific and technical knowledge among the population. Characteristic feature The scientific life of that time included congresses of naturalists, doctors, engineers, lawyers, archaeologists, etc.
Chapter 3.Literature
The most revealing image "Silver Age" appeared in literature. On the one hand, the writers’ works maintained stable traditions of critical realism. Tolstoy in his last works of art raised the problem of individual resistance to ossified norms of life (“The Living Corpse”, “Father Sergius”, “After the Ball”). His appeal letters to Nicholas II and journalistic articles are imbued with pain and anxiety for the fate of the country, the desire to influence the authorities, block the road to evil and protect all the oppressed. The main idea of Tolstoy's journalism is the impossibility of eliminating evil through violence. During these years Anton Pavlovich Chekhov created the plays “Three Sisters” and “ The Cherry Orchard”, which reflected the important changes taking place in society. Socially sensitive subjects were also favored by young writers. Ivan Alekseevich Bunin studied not only the external side of the processes taking place in the village (stratification of the peasantry, the gradual withering away of the nobility), but also the psychological consequences of these phenomena, how they influenced the souls of the Russian people (“Village”, “Sukhodol”, cycle “ peasant stories). Kuprin A.I. showed the unsightly side of army life: the lack of rights of soldiers, the emptiness and lack of spirituality of the “gentlemen officers” (“Duel”). One of the new phenomena in literature was the reflection in it of the life and struggle of the proletariat. The initiator of this topic was Maxim Gorky (“Enemies”, “Mother”).
The lyrics of the “Silver Age” are diverse and musical. The epithet “silver” itself sounds like a bell. The Silver Age is a whole constellation of poets. Poets - musicians. The poems of the “Silver Age” are the music of words. In these verses there was not a single extra sound, not a single unnecessary comma, not a single point placed out of place. Everything is thoughtful, clear and musical.
In the first decade of the 20th century, a whole galaxy of talented “peasant” poets came to Russian poetry - Sergei Yesenin, Nikolai Klyuev, Sergei Klychkov.
The founders of a new direction in art were symbolist poets who declared war on the materialistic worldview, arguing that faith and religion are the cornerstone of human existence and art. They believed that poets are endowed with the ability to connect with the transcendental world through artistic symbols. Initially, symbolism took the form of decadence. This term meant a mood of decadence, melancholy and hopelessness, and pronounced individualism. These features were characteristic of the early poetry of Balmont K.D., Alexander Blok, Bryusov V.Ya.
After 1909 a new stage in the development of symbolism begins. It is painted in Slavophile tones, demonstrates contempt for the “rationalistic” West, and foreshadows the death of Western civilization, represented, among other things, by official Russia. At the same time, he turns to spontaneous popular forces, to Slavic paganism, tries to penetrate the depths of the Russian soul and sees in Russian folk life the roots of the “rebirth” of the country. These motifs sounded especially vividly in the works of Blok (the poetic cycles “On the Kulikovo Field”, “Motherland”) and A. Bely (“Silver Dove”, “Petersburg”). Russian symbolism has become a global phenomenon. It is with him that the concept of “Silver Age” is primarily associated.
Opponents of the Symbolists were the Acmeists (from the Greek “acme” - the highest degree of something, blooming power). They denied the mystical aspirations of the symbolists, proclaimed the intrinsic value of real life, and called for returning words to their original meaning, freeing them from symbolic interpretations. The main criterion for assessing the creativity of acmeists (Gumilyov N. S., Anna Akhmatova, O. E. Mandelstam)
impeccable aesthetic taste, beauty and refinement of artistic expression.
Russian artistic culture of the early 20th century was influenced by avant-gardeism that originated in the West and embraced all types of art. This movement absorbed various artistic movements that announced their break with traditional cultural values and proclaimed the idea of creating “new art.” Prominent representatives of the Russian avant-garde were the futurists (from the Latin “futurum” - future). Their poetry was different increased attention not to the content, but to the form of the poetic construction. The futurists' programmatic settings were oriented towards defiant anti-aestheticism. In their works they used vulgar vocabulary, professional jargon, the language of documents, posters and posters. Collections of Futurist poems bore characteristic titles: “A Slap in the Face of Public Taste,” “Dead Moon,” etc. Russian futurism was represented by several poetic groups. Most bright names brought together the St. Petersburg group "Gilea" - V. Khlebnikov, D. D. Burlyuk, Vladimir Mayakovsky, A. E. Kruchenykh, V. V. Kamensky. Collections of poems and public speeches by I. Severyanin enjoyed stunning success
The futurists especially succeeded in this. Futurism completely abandoned the old literary traditions, the “old language”, “old words”, and proclaimed a new form of words, independent of content, i.e. a new language was literally invented. Working on words and sounds became an end in itself, while the meaning of poetry was completely forgotten. Take, for example, V. Khlebnikov’s poem “Perverten”:
Horses, trampling, monk.
But it’s not speech, it’s black.
Let's go young, down with copper.
The rank is called with a sword on the back.
How long does hunger last?
The spirit of the crow's paws fell and the spirit of the crow fell...
There is no meaning in this poem, but it is remarkable in that each line is read from left to right, and from right to left.
New words appeared, were invented, and were composed. From just one word “laughter” an entire poem, “The Spell of Laughter,” was born:
Oh, laugh, you laughers!
Oh, laugh, you laughers!
That they laugh with laughter, that they laugh with laughter,
Oh, laugh merrily!
Oh, the laughter of mockers - the laughter of clever laughers!
Oh, make these mocking laughers laugh!
Smeivo, smeivo,
Laugh, laugh, laugh, laugh,
Laughers, laughers.
Oh, laugh, you laughers!
Oh, laugh, you laughers.
Glava 4.Painting
Similar processes took place in Russian painting. Representatives of the realistic school held strong positions, and the Society of Itinerants was active. Repin I. E. graduated in 1906. grandiose painting “Meeting of the State Council”. In revealing the events of the past, V.I. Surikov was primarily interested in the people as a historical force, the creative principle in man. The realistic foundations of creativity were also preserved by M. V. Nesterov.
However, the trendsetter was the style called “modern”. Modernist quests affected the work of such major realist artists as K. A. Korovin, V. A. Serov. Supporters of this direction united in the “World of Art” society. They took a critical position towards the Peredvizhniki, believing that the latter, performing a function not inherent in art, harmed painting. Art, in their opinion, is an independent sphere of activity, and it should not depend on social influences. Over a long period (from 1898 to 1924) the “World of Art” included almost all the major artists - Benois A. N., Bakst L. S., Kustodiev B. M., Lansere E. E., Malyavin F. A. ., Roerich N.K., Somov K.A.. “The World of Art” left a deep mark on the development of not only painting, but also opera, ballet, decorative art, art criticism, and exhibition business. In 1907 An exhibition entitled “Blue Rose” was opened in Moscow, in which 16 artists took part (P. V. Kuznetsov, N. N. Sapunov, M. S. Saryan, etc.). These were searching youth who sought to find their individuality in the synthesis of Western experience and national traditions. Representatives of the “Blue Rose” were associated with symbolist poets, whose performances were a modern attribute of vernissages. But symbolism in Russian painting has never been a single direction. He included, for example, such different artists in their style as M. A. Vrubel, K. S. Petrov-Vodkin and others.
A number of the greatest masters - Kandinsky V.V., Lentulov A.V., Chagall M. Z., Filonov P.N. and others - entered the history of world culture as a representative unique styles, combining avant-garde trends with Russian national traditions.
Chapter 5.Sculpture
Sculpture also experienced a creative upsurge. Her awakening was largely due to the tendencies of impressionism. P. P. Trubetskoy achieved significant success on the path of renewal. His sculptural portraits of Tolstoy, Witte, Chaliapin and others became widely known. The monument became an important milestone in the history of Russian monumental sculpture Alexander III, opened in St. Petersburg in October 1909. It was conceived as a kind of antipode to another great monument - “The Bronze Horseman” by E. Falconet.
The combination of impressionism and modernist tendencies characterizes the work of A. S. Golubkina. At the same time, the main feature of her works is not the display of a specific image, but the creation of a generalized phenomenon: “Old Age” (1898), “Walking Man” (1903), “Soldier” (1907 ) “Sleepers” (1912), etc.
S.T. Konenkov left a significant mark on Russian art. His sculpture embodied the continuity of the traditions of realism in new directions. He went through a passion for the work of Michelangelo (“Samson”), Russian folk wooden sculpture (“Lesovik”), Wandering traditions (“Stonebreaker”), traditional realistic portrait (“A.P. Chekhov”). And with all this, Konenkov remained a master of bright creative individuality. In general, the Russian sculptural school was little affected by avant-garde trends and did not develop such a complex range of innovative aspirations characteristic of painting.
Chapter 6.Architecture
In the second half of the 19th century, new opportunities opened up for architecture. This was due to technological progress. The rapid growth of cities, their industrial equipment, the development of transport, and changes in public life required new architectural solutions. Not only in the capitals, but also in provincial cities, train stations, restaurants, shops, markets, theaters and bank buildings were built. At the same time, the traditional construction of palaces, mansions, and estates continued. The main problem architecture began to search for a new style. And just like in painting, the new direction in architecture was called “modern”. One of the features of this direction was the stylization of Russian architectural motifs - the so-called neo-Russian style.
The most famous architect, whose work largely determined the development of Russian, especially Moscow Art Nouveau, was F. O. Shekhtel. At the beginning of his work, he relied not on Russian, but on medieval Gothic models. The mansion of manufacturer S.P. Ryabushinsky (1900-1902) was built in this style. Subsequently, Shekhtel more than once turned to the traditions of Russian wooden architecture. In this regard, the building of the Yaroslavl Station in Moscow (1902-1904) is very indicative. In subsequent years, the architect is increasingly moving closer to the direction called “rationalistic modernism,” which is characterized by a significant simplification of architectural forms and structures. The most significant buildings reflecting this trend were the Ryabushinsky Bank (1903), the printing house of the newspaper “Morning of Russia” (1907).
At the same time, along with the architects of the “new wave”, significant positions were held by fans of neoclassicism (I.V. Zholtovsky), as well as masters who used the technique of mixing different sculptural styles (eclecticism). The most significant thing about this was architectural solution building of the Metropol Hotel in Moscow (1900), built according to the design of V. F. Walcott.
Chapter 7.Music, ballet, theater, cinema
The beginning of the 20th century is the time of the creative rise of the great Russian composer-innovators A. N. Scriabin. I. F. Stravinsky, S. I. Taneyev, S. V. Rachmaninov. In their work they tried to go beyond traditional classical music and create new musical forms and images. Musical performing culture has also achieved significant flourishing. The Russian vocal school was represented by the names of outstanding opera singers F. I. Chaliapin, A. V. Nezhdanova, L. V. Sobinov,3. Ershova.
By the beginning of the 20th century. Russian ballet took leading positions in world choreographic art. The Russian school of ballet relied on the academic traditions of the late 19th century and the stage productions of the outstanding choreographer M. I. Petipa, which became classics. At the same time, Russian ballet has not escaped new trends. Young directors A. A. Gorsky and M. I. Fokin, in contrast to the aesthetics of academicism, put forward the principle of picturesqueness, according to which not only the choreographer-composer, but also the artist became full-fledged authors of the performance. The ballets of Gorsky and Fokin were staged in walkie-talkies by K. A. Korovin, A. N. Benois, L. S. Bakst, N. K. Roerich.
The Russian ballet school of the “Silver Age” gave the world a galaxy of brilliant dancers - Anna Pavlova, T. Karsavina, V. Nijinsky and others.
A notable feature of the culture of the early 20th century. became the works of outstanding theater directors. K. S. Stanislavsky, the founder of the psychological acting school, believed that the future of theater lies in in-depth psychological realism, in solving the most important tasks of acting transformation. V. E. Meyerhold conducted searches in the field of theatrical conventions, generalization, the use of elements of folk farce and
theater of masks
© Museum named after. A. A. BakhrushinaA. Ya. Golovin. Scary game. Scenery sketch for the drama by M. Yu. Lermontov
E. B. Vakhtangov preferred expressive, spectacular, joyful performances.
At the beginning of the 20th century, the tendency to combine various types of creative activity became more and more clear. At the head of this process was the “World of Art,” which united not only artists, but also poets, philosophers, and musicians. In 1908-1913. S. P. Diaghilev organized “Russian Seasons” in Paris, London, Rome and other capitals of Western Europe, presented by ballet and opera performances, theatrical painting, music, etc.
In the first decade of the 20th century in Russia, following France, there appeared the new kind art - cinema. In 1903 The first “electric theaters” and “illusions” appeared, and by 1914 about 4 thousand cinemas had already been built. In 1908 The first Russian feature film “Stenka Razin and the Princess” was shot, and in 1911 the first full-length film “The Defense of Sevastopol” was shot. Cinematography developed rapidly and became very popular. In 1914 There were about 30 domestic film companies in Russia. And although the bulk of film production consisted of films with primitive melodramatic plots, world-famous filmmakers appeared: director Ya. A. Protazanov, actors I. I. Mozzhukhin, V. V. Kholodnaya, A. G. Koonen. The undoubted merit of cinema was its accessibility to all segments of the population. Russian films, created mainly as film adaptations of classical works, became the first sign in the formation of “ popular culture" - an indispensable attribute of bourgeois society.
Conclusion
How much new the “Silver Age” of poetry brought to the music of words, what a huge amount of work was done, how many new words and rhythms were created, it seems that music and poetry were united. This is true, because... Many poems of the poets of the “Silver” Age were set to music, and we listen and sing them, laugh and cry over them. . .
Much of the creative fervor of that time was included in further development Russian culture is still the heritage of all Russian cultural people. But then there was the intoxication of creativity, novelty, tension, struggle, challenge.
In conclusion, with the words of N. Berdyaev, I would like to describe all the horror, all the tragedy of the situation in which the creators of spiritual culture, the flower of the nation, the best minds not only of Russia, but also of the world found themselves.
“The misfortune of the cultural renaissance of the early 20th century was that in it the cultural elite was isolated in a small circle and cut off from the broad social trends of the time. This had fatal consequences in the character that the Russian revolution took...Russian people of that time lived on different floors and even in different centuries. The cultural renaissance did not have any broad social radiation.... Many supporters and exponents of the cultural renaissance remained leftists, sympathized with the revolution, but there was a cooling towards social issues, there was an absorption in new problems of a philosophical, aesthetic, religious, mystical nature that remained alien to people , actively participating in the social movement... The intelligentsia committed an act of suicide. In Russia before the revolution, two races were formed, as it were. And the fault was on both sides, that is, on the figures of the Renaissance, on their social and moral indifference...
The schism characteristic of Russian history, the schism that grew throughout the 19th century, the abyss that unfolded between the upper, refined cultural layer and broad circles, popular and intellectual, led to the fact that the Russian cultural renaissance fell into this opening abyss. The revolution began to destroy this cultural renaissance and persecute the creators of culture... Workers of Russian spiritual culture, for the most part, were forced to move abroad. In part, this was retribution for the social indifference of the creators of spiritual culture.”
Bibliography
1. Berdyaev N. Self-knowledge, M., 1990,
2. Danilov A.A., Kosulina L.G., Domestic history, history of the state and peoples of Russia, M, 2003.
3. Zaichkin I. A., Pochkov I. N., Russian history from Catherine the Great to Alexander II,
4. Kondakov I.V., Culture of Russia, “KDU”, 2007.
5. Sakharov A.N., History of Russia
About the Silver Age
Poets and writers of the 19th century gave Russian literature a big impetus in development: they brought it to the world level and created works that are still considered the most fundamental in the history of Russian literature. This age was called the Golden Age; it ended by the beginning of the 20th century. However, literature itself continued to strive forward and took on more and more new forms, and the Golden Age was followed by the Silver Age.
Definition 1
The Silver Age is the conventional name for a period in the development of Russian poetry, characterized by the appearance large quantity poets and poetic movements who sought new poetic forms and proposed new aesthetic ideals.
The Silver Age can be safely called the heir to the Golden Age. Poets of the late 19th and early 20th centuries relied on the works of A.S. Pushkin and the poets of Pushkin’s circle, as well as the work of F.I., who wrote somewhat later. Tyutcheva, A.A. Fet and N.A. Nekrasova.
If practically no questions arise with defining the chronological framework of the Golden Age, then the boundaries of the Silver Age still remain blurred. Most literary scholars agree that this milestone in the history of Russian poetry begins at the turn of the 80-90s of the 19th century, however, when it ends is a controversial issue. There are several points of view:
Note 1
It is important to understand that if the concept of the Golden Age applies to both poetry and prose, then when we talk about the Silver Age, we are talking exclusively about poetry. This era received the name “Silver Age” by analogy with the name of its predecessor.
Poets of this era boldly experimented with literary forms and genres, creating absolutely unique works that have no analogues in the history of Russian literature. The work of these authors formed such directions of poetry as symbolism, futurism, acmeism, imagism and new peasant poetry. Many researchers say that the poetry of the Silver Age, in view of the historical events unfolding in Russia at that time, was distinguished acute crisis faith and lack of inner harmony.
The most famous poets of the Silver Age are Anna Akhmatova, Vladimir Mayakovsky, Sergei Yesenin, Alexander Blok, Marina Tsvetaeva, Ivan Bunin.
The first direction born in the Silver Age was symbolism. He was the very product of the crisis that engulfed Russian Empire. However, its formation was greatly influenced by another crisis - the crisis of European culture. The leading minds of the late 19th century revised in their works all existing moral values, criticized the direction of social development and were very keen on the philosophy of idealism.
Definition 2
Symbolism is a movement in art that was characterized by a desire for experimentation, a desire for innovation, and the use of symbolism.
Russian symbolists, horrified at the sight of the collapse of populism in their country, abandoned the tendency of the poets of Pushkin’s circle to raise acute social issues in their works. The symbolists turned to philosophical problems. At first, Russian symbolism imitated French symbolism, but very soon acquired its own unique features.
Russian symbolism was distinguished by the absence of any single poetic school. Even in French symbolism one cannot find such a huge variety of styles and concepts as symbolism differed in Russia.
All subsequent directions were in one way or another influenced by symbolism. Some directly inherited his postulates, while others, criticizing and denying symbolism, in any case began their development by turning to him.
At the origins of Russian symbolism were the so-called “senior symbolists”: Dmitry Merezhkovsky, Zinaida Gippius, Valery Bryusov, Alexander Dobrolyubov, Konstantin Balmont. Their followers, the “junior symbolists,” were Alexander Blok, Andrei Bely and others.
Acmeism as a movement became the direct heir of symbolism, it stood out from it and became a separate movement opposing its progenitor.
Definition 3
Acmeism - literary direction, which proclaimed the cult of concreteness and “materiality” of the image.
The formation of acmeism is associated with the activities of the poetic organization “Workshop of Poets”, and Nikolai Gumilyov is considered the founder of this direction.
Acmeists were Anna Akhmatova, Sergei Gorodetsky, Osip Mandelstam, Mikhail Zenkevich and others.
The Acmeists believed that the purpose of art was to ennoble man. In their opinion, poetry was supposed to artistically process the imperfect phenomena of the surrounding reality and transform them into something better.
Note 2
For the Acmeists, art was valuable in itself (art for art's sake).
Despite all the eccentricity and brightness of the poetry of symbolism and acmeism, it is futurism that is considered a kind of quintessence of novelty and originality of the Silver Age.
Definition 4
Futurism (from Latin futurum - “future”) is the name of avant-garde movements that developed in the 1910s-20s in Russia and Italy. In other words, futurism is “the art of the future”
Futurists were interested not so much in the content of poems as in their form. Futurist poets proposed not to preserve established literary traditions and cultural stereotypes, but to destroy them. Russian futurism was distinguished by rebellion, anarchism, expression of the mood of the crowd, and experiments with rhyme and rhythm.
The creators of Russian futurism are considered to be members of the literary and artistic association "Gilea", which included Velimir Khlebnikov, Elena Guro, Vasily Kamensky, Vladimir Mayakovsky and others. It was “Gilea” that in 1912 released the manifesto “A Slap in the Face of Public Taste,” in which it called for abandoning attachment to the creations of the past.
Within itself, futurism was divided into several groups, developing this direction in parallel with each other:
The genre of peasant poetry was formed in the middle of the 19th century. Some poets of the Silver Age developed and transformed this direction, creating “new peasant poetry.”
Definition 5
New Peasant Poetry is a conventional direction of Russian poetry that united poets of the Silver Age with peasant origins.
The most famous representative of this trend is Sergei Yesenin.
Poets belonging to this movement did not form any kind of literary association; only later they were identified in this category by literary scholars, since all these poets in their work addressed the theme of rural Russia and connections with nature.
Imaginist poets believed that the purpose of artistic creativity was to create an image. The Imaginists, like almost all poets of the Silver Age, were distinguished by rebellion and shockingness.
Futurism had a great influence on the formation of imagism. The starting point of Imaginism is considered to be 1918, in which the organization “Order of Imaginists” was created.
Anatoly Mariengov and Vadim Shershenevich are considered the founders of imagism.
The 19th century, which became a period of extraordinary growth of national culture and grandiose achievements in all spheres of art, was replaced by a complex 20th century, full of dramatic events and turning points. Golden age of social and artistic life was replaced by the so-called silver, which gave rise to the rapid development of Russian literature, poetry and prose in new bright trends, and subsequently became the starting point of its fall.
In this article we will focus on the poetry of the Silver Age, consider it and talk about the main directions, such as symbolism, acmeism and futurism, each of which was distinguished by its special verse music and a vivid expression of the experiences and feelings of the lyrical hero.
It is believed that the beginning of the Silver Age of Russian literature falls on the 80-90s. XIX century At this time, the works of many wonderful poets appeared: V. Bryusov, K. Ryleev, K. Balmont, I. Annensky - and writers: L. N. Tolstoy, F. M. Dostoevsky, M. E. Saltykov-Shchedrin. The country is going through difficult times. During the reign of Alexander I, first there was a strong patriotic upsurge during the War of 1812, and then, due to a sharp change in the previously liberal policy of the tsar, society experienced a painful loss of illusions and severe moral losses.
The poetry of the Silver Age reached its peak by 1915. Social life and the political situation are characterized by a deep crisis, a turbulent, seething atmosphere. Mass protests are growing, life is becoming politicized, and at the same time personal self-awareness is strengthening. Society is making intense attempts to find a new ideal of power and social order. And poets and writers keep up with the times, mastering new artistic forms and offering bold ideas. The human personality begins to be perceived as a unity of many principles: natural and social, biological and moral. During the years of the February and October revolutions and the Civil War, the poetry of the Silver Age was in crisis.
A. Blok’s speech “On the appointment of a poet” (February 11, 1921), delivered by him at a meeting on the occasion of the 84th anniversary of the death of A. Pushkin, becomes the final chord of the Silver Age.
Let's look at the features of the poetry of the Silver Age. Firstly, one of the main features of the literature of that time was a huge interest in eternal themes: the search for the meaning of the life of an individual and all of humanity as a whole, the mysteries of national character, the history of the country, the mutual influence of the worldly and spiritual, human interaction and nature. Literature in late XIX V. becomes more and more philosophical: the authors reveal themes of war, revolution, personal tragedy of a person who, due to circumstances, has lost peace and inner harmony. In the works of writers and poets, a new, brave, extraordinary, decisive and often unpredictable hero is born, stubbornly overcoming all adversities and hardships. In most works, close attention is paid to how the subject perceives tragic social events through the prism of his consciousness. Secondly, a feature of poetry and prose has become an intensive search for original artistic forms, as well as means of expressing feelings and emotions. Poetic form and rhyme played a particularly important role. Many authors abandoned the classical presentation of the text and invented new techniques, for example, V. Mayakovsky created his famous “ladder”. Often, to achieve a special effect, authors used speech and language anomalies, fragmentation, alogisms, and even allowed
Thirdly, the poets of the Silver Age of Russian poetry freely experimented with the artistic possibilities of the word. In an effort to express complex, often contradictory, “volatile” emotional impulses, writers began to treat words in a new way, trying to convey the subtlest shades of meaning in their poems. Standard, formulaic definitions of clear objective objects: love, evil, family values, morality - began to be replaced by abstract psychological descriptions. Precise concepts gave way to hints and understatements. Such instability and fluidity of verbal meaning was achieved through the most vivid metaphors, which often began to be built not on the obvious similarity of objects or phenomena, but on non-obvious signs.
Fourthly, the poetry of the Silver Age is characterized by new ways of conveying the thoughts and feelings of the lyrical hero. Poems by many authors began to be created using images, motifs from various cultures, as well as hidden and explicit quotes. For example, many word artists included scenes from Greek, Roman and, a little later, Slavic myths and legends in their creations. In the works of M. Tsvetaeva and V. Bryusov, mythology is used to build universal psychological models that allow us to comprehend the human personality, in particular its spiritual component. Each poet of the Silver Age is brightly individual. You can easily understand which of them belongs to which verses. But they all tried to make their works more tangible, alive, full of colors, so that any reader could feel every word and line.
Writers and poets who opposed realism announced the creation of a new, modern art - modernism. There are three main poetry of the Silver Age: symbolism, acmeism, futurism. Each of them had its own striking features. Symbolism originally arose in France as a protest against the everyday reflection of reality and dissatisfaction with bourgeois life. The founders of this trend, including J. Morsas, believed that only with the help of a special hint - a symbol - can one comprehend the secrets of the universe. In Russia, symbolism appeared in the early 1890s. The founder of this movement was D. S. Merezhkovsky, who proclaimed in his book three main postulates of the new art: symbolization, mystical content and “expansion of artistic impressionability.”
The first symbolists, later called the elders, were V. Ya. Bryusov, K. D. Balmont, F. K. Sologub, Z. N. Gippius, N. M. Minsky and other poets. Their work was often characterized by a sharp denial of the surrounding reality. They portrayed real life as boring, ugly and meaningless, trying to convey the subtlest shades of my feelings.
Period from 1901 to 1904 marks the advent of a new milestone in Russian poetry. The poems of the Symbolists are imbued with a revolutionary spirit and a premonition of future changes. Younger symbolists: A. Blok, V. Ivanov, A. Bely - do not deny the world, but utopianly await its transformation, chanting divine beauty, love and femininity, which will certainly change reality. It was with the appearance of younger symbolists in the literary arena that the concept of symbol entered literature. Poets understand it as a multidimensional word that reflects the world of “heaven,” the spiritual essence and at the same time the “earthly kingdom.”
Poetry of the Russian Silver Age in 1905-1907. is undergoing changes. Most symbolists, focusing on the socio-political events taking place in the country, reconsider their views on the world and beauty. The latter is now understood as the chaos of struggle. Poets create images of a new world that replaces the dying one. V. Ya. Bryusov creates the poem “The Coming Huns”, A. Blok - “The Barge of Life”, “Rising from the Darkness of the Cellars...”, etc.
The symbolism also changes. Now she turns not to the ancient heritage, but to Russian folklore, as well as Slavic mythology. After the revolution, the Symbolists split into those who wanted to protect art from the revolutionary elements and, on the contrary, those who were actively interested in the social struggle. After 1907, the Symbolist debate exhausted itself and was replaced by imitation of the art of the past. And since 1910, Russian symbolism has been going through a crisis, clearly displaying its internal inconsistency.
In 1911, N. S. Gumilyov organized a literary group - the “Workshop of Poets”. It included the poets O. Mandelstam, G. Ivanov and G. Adamovich. This new direction did not reject the surrounding reality, but accepted reality as it is, affirming its value. The “Workshop of Poets” began to publish its own magazine “Hyperborea”, as well as publish works in “Apollo”. Acmeism, which originated as a literary school to find a way out of the crisis of symbolism, united poets who were very different in their ideological and artistic attitudes.
The Silver Age in Russian poetry gave birth to another interesting movement called “futurism” (from the Latin futurum, that is, “future”). The search for new artistic forms in the works of the brothers N. and D. Burlyuk, N. S. Goncharova, N. Kulbin, M. V. Matyushin became a prerequisite for the emergence of this trend in Russia.
In 1910, the futuristic collection “The Fishing Tank of Judges” was published, which collected the works of such outstanding poets as V.V. Kamensky, V.V. Khlebnikov, the Burliuk brothers, E. Guro. These authors formed the core of the so-called Cubo-Futurists. Later V. Mayakovsky joined them. In December 1912, the almanac “A Slap in the Face of Public Taste” was published. The cubo-futurists' poems "Lesiny Bukh", "Dead Moon", "Roaring Parnassus", "Gag" became the subject of numerous disputes. At first they were perceived as a way to tease the reader's habits, but a closer reading revealed a keen desire to show a new vision of the world and a special social involvement. Anti-aestheticism turned into a rejection of soulless, fake beauty, the rudeness of expressions was transformed into the voice of the crowd.
In addition to cubo-futurism, several other movements arose, including ego-futurism, led by I. Severyanin. He was joined by such poets as V. I. Gnezdov, I. V. Ignatiev, K. Olimpov and others. They created the publishing house “Petersburg Herald”, published magazines and almanacs with original titles: “Sky Diggers”, “Eagles over the Abyss” , “Zakhara Kry”, etc. Their poems were extravagant and were often composed of words they themselves created. In addition to the ego-futurists, there were two more groups: “Centrifuge” (B. L. Pasternak, N. N. Aseev, S. P. Bobrov) and “Mezzanine of Poetry” (R. Ivnev, S. M. Tretyakov, V. G. Sherenevich).
The Silver Age of Russian poetry was short-lived, but it united a galaxy of the brightest, talented poets. Many of them had tragic biographies, because by the will of fate they had to live and work in such a fatal time for the country, a turning point of revolutions and chaos in the post-revolutionary years, civil war, collapse of hopes and revival. Many poets died after tragic events (V. Khlebnikov, A. Blok), many emigrated (K. Balmont, Z. Gippius, I. Severyanin, M. Tsvetaeva), some committed suicide, were shot or perished in Stalin’s camps. But they all managed to make a huge contribution to Russian culture and enrich it with their expressive, colorful, original works.
