Christianity arose in the 1st century. AD in the Roman province of Judea. The time of its emergence was characterized by a deep crisis experienced by the Roman Empire. In Rome itself, internal decay reigned, terrible emptiness and moral licentiousness of the top. The atmosphere of uncertainty and expectation of the end of the world favored the emergence of various cults of Eastern religions (the cult of the Egyptian gods - Isis and Osiris, the Iranian god - Mithras, etc.), in which those elements were emphasized that Christianity later borrowed from them - the suffering of a dying God and his resurrection, hope for the afterlife. This belief was brought by a new religion - Christianity , which, among other things, addressed all people, without distinction of their nationality and class, as equal before God. Christianity was born in the womb Jewish religion but soon abandoned it.
Judaism - the first monotheistic religion (recognizing the one God), which arose more than 3 thousand years ago, the main postulates of which were the following:
Jesus Christ (Christ in Greek means "messiah") for his followers - Christians and was such a messiah. The Jews put him on trial as an impostor. This led to the identification of Christianity as a special religion, which added the New Testament of Jesus Christ, not recognized by the Jews, to the holy books of the Jews, which became known to Christians as the Old or Old Testament.
New Testament - main source of judgment on the political thought of early Christianity. It consists of four gospels- from Matthew, Mark, Luke and John; the acts of the apostles and the Revelation of John the Theologian (better known by the Greek name "Apocalypse"). Initially, Christianity condemned slave-owning Rome. So, in the "Apocalypse", written in the 60s. 1st century AD, a terrible picture of the end of the world and the Last Judgment is drawn, containing harsh criticism of Rome.
Christians were waiting for the coming of the Messiah, Christ the Redeemer, who, in a fight with the "beast-emperor", would crush the kingdom of evil, and the thousand-year kingdom of justice promised by the prophets would be established.
In anticipation of the imminent coming, Christians sought to isolate themselves from the evil reality in their communities, where they led a common life according to customs that were directly opposite to those of Rome.
Fundamentals of Christianity.
These principles make it possible to speak of "Christian communism", the peculiarity of which was that it was "closed" in religious communities, and was not universal, and was of a consumer, not a productive character. As M. Weber noted, “a genuine charismatic desire to save one's own soul must be apolitical in its essence. The earthly orders (the state) were recognized as independent in relation to Christian dogmas, being characterized either as diabolical or absolutely unimportant for the salvation of the soul - “give to Caesar what is Caesar's” (Matt. 22, 21). Political and legal reality was condemned.
In the I and II centuries. AD Christian communities spread throughout the Roman Empire. The ranks of adherents of the new religion grew, they also began to replenish with people from the propertied and educated strata. This led to a change in the social composition, organizational principles and ideology of Christian communities. At the same time, the evolution of Christianity was predetermined by the unrealizability of the proclaimed ideal, by disappointment in the hopes for the imminent coming of the Messiah.
By the middle of the II century. ecclesiastical apparatus was formed. The leadership of the communities passed into the hands of the bishops, presbyters, clerks, who formed the clergy standing above the faithful.
The original teaching of the Christians underwent a significant change. The ideas of the “imminent coming of the Messiah” and the “thousand-year kingdom” were replaced by the dogmas of the already former coming, the crucifixion and resurrection of Christ, as well as the “afterlife reward”.
Universal equality was interpreted as equality before God in universal sin before God. Preaching "love for enemies", the clergy declared it a grave sin to condemn the Roman Empire.
Gradually there was an adaptation to political reality: it was justified principle of loyalty to the existing government and the principle of obedience. Thus, the Apostle Paul in his letter to the Romans says: "Let every soul be subject to the higher authorities, for there is no authority except from God, but the existing authorities are established by God."
This provision became fundamental for Christianity and opened the way for it, first, to legitimize, recognize along with other religions (Milan, or Mediolan, edict of 313 of the emperors Constantine and Licinius), and soon to the transformation of Christianity into the dominant religion (324). Constantine became the first Christian emperor. The church sanctified his power, a union of the throne and the altar arose. The persecuted church became dominant. In 380, under Emperor Theodosius the Great (379-395), Christianity became the state religion (the "Edict on the Catholic Faith").
At the beginning of the IV century. AD The Christian Church has changed its social composition. If earlier the bulk of its followers were slaves and proletarians, now they were representatives of the middle class and aristocracy. The state church became universal - Catholic or universal. The monopoly of the Christian Church on ideology, politics, and later on the law, which was established after the recognition of Christianity as the official religion, could not but be criticized. Currents that deviated from the official dogmas of the Christian religion were called heresies (translated from Greek - teaching).
Heresies had their epistemological and socio-political roots. The epistemological aspect proceeded from the natural desire of a thinking person to explain with the help of reason the main tenets of the Christian faith (about the trinity of the deity and the God-humanity of Christ). The socio-political basis of heresies was determined by the discontent of the common people, who suffered from exploitation and violence.
The characterization of the content of heresies can only be concrete historical, since at various stages they differed significantly. However, some common features can also be distinguished: all heresies saw an ideal in early Christianity, only the more moderate ones were limited to efforts to reorganize religious and church life, and the more radical ones - to all spheres of society. Heresies arose in the centers of the intellectual life of society, which coincided with the centers of the development of crafts and trade, and hence the socio-political life.
By IV-V centuries. heresies were concentrated in the Eastern Mediterranean. The developing cities of the East produced a rich spectrum of heresies: arianism(Alexandria), Nestorianism(Constantinople), Donatism(Carthage) and others. The first heresies arose on the basis of the so-called trinitarian disputes, i.e. controversy on the interpretation of the dogma of the trinity of the deity. The official church defended the cornerstone dogma of the Christian faith about the holy trinity (Father, Son and Holy Spirit - the essence of the “same” triune deity), and its opponents argued that God the Son, i.e. Jesus Christ cannot be equal to God the Father, but only like him (Arians), and some of the heretics saw in Christ only the human race (Nestorians). In political terms, the first heresies, although sometimes linked with a broad popular movement (Donatism), more often reflected passive social protest, ethical contradictions and separatist aspirations of individual provinces of the Eastern Prefecture.
The second significant surge of heretical teachings is associated with the rise of crafts and trade in the cities of Western and Southern Europe in the 11th-12th centuries. In the western regions of Bulgaria (now Bosnia) a movement arose Bogomilov(pilgrims); in Lombardy, in northern Italy appeared paterenes; in Lyon, in the south of France - Valdeis(followers of Pierre Waldo, a rich merchant who gave his property to the poor), in Languedoc, also in the south of France - Albigensians. All these heresies entered history under the general name "cathars"(clean).
Bogomils paid attention to the fact that already at the very beginning of the New Testament it is clearly said about two otherworldly forces: the good God Christ is opposed by the evil devil, to whom, as it is said there, all the kingdoms of the world belong. From a comparison of these ideas with the text: "No one can serve two masters ... can not serve God and mammon (wealth)", it follows immutably that the devil (evil god) is wealth. The conclusions from this were quite specific: in the Bogomil legends, it is described that the devil took a bondage note from Adam when he, expelled from Paradise, began to plow the land - for himself and for all his offspring, since the land was appropriated by them, the devil. Since then, the peasants have been in bondage to the servants of the devil who have seized arable land.
In terms of their theological content, the heresies of the Cathars were aimed at criticizing the foundations of Catholic dogma. Continuing the traditions of the Arians, the Cathars opposed the orthodox interpretation of the trilithic question. From the Nestorians they inherited very high demands on the world. The medieval clergy did not meet the moral requirements of the Cathars, so they were not recognized as an intermediary between God and the laity. A new element of the doctrine was the denial of the church cult and the seven Christian sacraments, the demand for a cheap church - without church tithes, without numerous clergy, without large feudal property.
To eradicate heresies, the Christian Church organized a series of crusades (the Albigensian Wars, the first third of the 13th century), inquisition and "mendicant" orders ( Dominicans and Franciscans)(late XII - early XIII century). Finally, in an effort to wrest from the hands of heretics the formidable weapon - the Holy Scriptures - Pope Gregory IX issued a bull (1231) forbidding the laity to read the Bible.
In the second half of the XIV - XV centuries. a new upsurge of religious dissidence began. In heretical movements, two independent currents clearly loomed: burgher and peasant-plebeian heresy. burgher heresy expressed the interests of the townspeople and part of the lower nobility, was directed mainly against the priesthood, whose wealth and political position it attacked. This heresy required the restoration of the simple structure of the early Christian church, the abolition of monks, prelates, and the Roman curia. Its prominent representatives were John Wycliffe (c. 1330-1384), doctor of theology and professor at Oxford University in England, and the Czech theologian Jan Hus (c. 1370-1415).
Heresies attracted the broad masses of the urban lower classes and the peasantry thanks to the idea of returning to the simple structure of the early Christian church and especially the reorganization of life on the basis of social justice. Plebeian heretical movements are represented by speeches wandering Lollard priests- the followers of Wycliffe in England, who demanded the transfer of land to peasant communities and liberation from serfdom and tried to put into practice the simple, ascetic lifestyle of early Christians; as well as Taborites led by Jan Zizka in the Czech Republic. By the combined efforts of the ecclesiastical and secular authorities, both the Lollards and the Taborites were defeated.
In the Middle Ages, heresies were distributed mainly among the people. The carriers of heretical ideas, as a rule, were itinerant preachers who did not belong to any of the estates. Often these were the so-called. "Vagants" are runaway monks, defrocked clerics, students and actors. Their preaching was always anti-church and, as a rule, anti-state. The heretics of the Middle Ages denied the sacraments and rituals, did not recognize the authority of the church hierarchy, and ridiculed the clergy. Often, any power, including secular power, was denied in general, and a society based on universal brotherhood and community of property was proclaimed as an ideal. Heretical ideas were sometimes introduced by pilgrims or merchants returning from the East, who heard many teachings and myths of different peoples and often became followers of bizarre and eclectic beliefs. Medieval sects sometimes formed around non-orthodox theologians, of whom there were quite a lot, since the craving for theological knowledge was great and scholarly disputes were constantly held throughout Europe. However, this rarely happened. Such groups were formed exclusively from students who wandered from one teacher to another, so these sects were very unstable and quickly disintegrated.
From the point of view of doctrine, medieval heresies did not at all represent a single whole. Among them were teachings based on the resurgent Gnosticism ( Bogomils, Albigensians or cathars). Others, not having a developed theological system, built their doctrine solely on criticism of the Church, trying to imitate the ideals of apostolic times invented by themselves ( Waldenses). In the Middle Ages, the heirs of all kinds of ancient heresies that tormented the Church in the first centuries of Christianity and were not completely destroyed were also preserved (for example, various groups antitrinitarians). A number of sects arose as a result of the rise of national consciousness. Their followers opposed themselves to Catholicism precisely as a universal faith, dreaming of creating independent national Christian communities. These are Czech brothers or polish brothers. These communities became the forerunners of later Protestant churches.
The most favorable regions for the spread of heresies in the Middle Ages were Eastern Europe and the south of France. Here Christianity was less rooted and pagan traditions had a greater influence on the population. Sometimes heretical teachings spread over a vast territory and had a noticeable impact on the political life of Europe. So it was, for example, with the Albigensians, who became the cause of an armed conflict on a pan-European scale.
In medieval Europe, heresy was a religious doctrine that recognized the basic ideas (dogmas) of Christianity, but understood and interpreted them differently than the dominant church.
Heresies can be conditionally divided into three types: those that were predominantly theological in nature; oppositional teachings that interpret doctrine differently and criticize church organization; politically oriented heresies that not only criticize the church, but also oppose the feudal order.
Politically oriented heresies, depending on their social base and the nature of political demands, can be divided into moderate (burgher) and radical (peasant-plebeian) heresies.
The burgher heresies expressed the interests of wealthy citizens and defended the idea of a "cheap church" (the abolition of the class of priests, the elimination of their privileges and a return to early Christian foundations). In their opinion, the hierarchical organization of the church, the concentration of great wealth in its hands, magnificent ceremonies and church services do not correspond to the New Testament. The church has deviated from the true faith and needs to be reformed.
One of the representatives of the burgher heresy was a professor at Oxford University, John Wycliffe, who spoke at the end of the 14th century. against the dependence of the English church on the papal curia, the intervention of the church in the affairs of the state, criticizing the principle of the infallibility of the popes. However, he considered the preservation of private property and class hierarchy as principles pleasing to God.
The beginning of the Reformation in the Czech Republic was laid by the speech of Jan Hus against the privileges of the clergy, tithes and church wealth. In the Hussite movement, two currents were soon determined - the Chashniki and the Taborites. The cup program was moderate in nature and amounted to the elimination of the privileges of the clergy, the deprivation of the church of secular power, the secularization (transfer of secular power) of church wealth and the recognition of the independence of the Czech church.
Peasant-plebeian heresies pointed out that the existing social order was contrary to the idea of equality reflected in early Christianity, and criticized the rich decoration of the church, class inequality, serfdom, noble privileges, wars, courts and oaths.
Historically, the first radical heresy was the Bulgarian Bogomil movement. The sharp and violent transition of the Bulgarian society from the communal-patriarchal system to the estate-feudal system, the seizure of peasant lands by the tsar, the tsar's servants, the church, the burden of impoverished peasants with a mass of duties in favor of the rich gave rise to massive doubt that all this was happening by the will of God. Confirmation was found in the New Testament, at the very beginning of which it is said that all the kingdoms of this world do not belong to a good god, but to an evil devil. The gospel about the temptation of Christ says: “And having led him to a high mountain, the devil showed him all the kingdoms of the universe in a moment of time, and the devil said to him: I will give you power over all these Kingdoms and their glory, for she is devoted to me, and I, to whom I want, I give it; so if you bow down to me, then everything will be yours.”
Bulgarian heretics paid special attention to the texts of the gospels, which give grounds to identify the devil with wealth: “No one can serve two masters; for either one will be hated and the other loved; or he will be zealous for one, and neglect the other. You cannot serve God and mammon (wealth)." From this, the Bogomils concluded that wealth is the devil. Crosses - instruments of execution - adorn themselves with the rich, especially the church, which sold itself to the devil. About church traditions, statutes and rituals, they said: "This is not written in the gospel, but established by people." Of all the rites, the Bogomils recognized only fasting, mutual confession and the prayer "Our Father". They argued that the end of the reign of wealth and violence was near: “The prince of this world is condemned ... Now is the judgment of this world; now the prince of this world will be cast out." The Bogomils created their own organization following the early Christian model, based on equality and community of labor. Their preachers ("apostles") tirelessly proclaimed rebellious ideas and carried out communication between communities.
The Bogomil doctrine soon after its appearance spread to other countries (Byzantium, Serbia, Bosnia, Kievan Rus). It had a particularly strong impact on the ideology of the countries of Western Europe, primarily in southern France and northern Italy (“good people”, Cathars, Patarenes, Albigensians).
To eradicate heresy, the Roman popes organized a series of crusades, established the Inquisition and mendicant orders (Dominicans and Franciscans), Pope Innocent III ordered the destruction of all books of sacred scripture translated into the vernacular, and then in 1231 the laity were generally forbidden to read Bible.
New waves of heretical movements arose in the second half of the fourteenth century. In the era of the classical and late Middle Ages, the heretical idea of the “millennium kingdom”, the “Kingdom of God”, proclaimed in the “Revelation of John” (Apocalypse), became widespread.
The most radical heresies of this period are the movements of the Lollards (England) and the Taborites (Czech Republic). They opposed the Catholic Church, which deviated from the true dogmas of Christianity, condemned class inequality, advocated the abolition of serfdom and class privileges. The Lollard movement, which demanded the transfer of land to peasant communities and the abolition of serfdom, played a prominent role in the preparation of Wat Tyler's largest peasant uprising (1381), one of the leaders of which was the preacher John Ball.
Both of these movements were defeated, but subsequently had a significant impact on the ideas of the Reformation.
The most important aspect of papal policy was the fight against heresies. heresy- religious teachings, to one degree or another deviating from the dogmas of the official church. Heresies accompany Christianity throughout its existence, beginning with its first steps as an independent religion. However, heretical movements gained their greatest scope and significance in the era of feudalism.
The Christian religion in medieval Europe determined the worldview of people.
In the early Middle Ages, when feudal relations were not yet formed, Europe did not yet know mass heretical movements. Their rise takes place during the period of the developed Middle Ages, which is associated with the emergence and growth of cities. The intensification of the exploitation of the peasantry created the ground for involving it in heretical movements. “Revolutionary opposition to feudalism,” wrote F. Engels, “passes through the entire Middle Ages. It appears, according to the conditions of the time, now in the form of mysticism, now in the form of open heresy, now in the form of an armed uprising.
Social essence and main ideas of medieval heresies. According to the social orientation, two types of medieval heresies can be distinguished - burgher and peasant-plebeian. The first expressed the protest of the townspeople against the feudal fetters that impeded the development of the urban economy. It provided for the elimination of the special position of the clergy, the political claims of the papacy, the land wealth of the church, sought to simplify and reduce the cost of rituals and improve the moral character of the clergy. The ideal of these heretics was the early Christian "apostolic" church - simple, "cheap" and "clean". Heresies of this type spoke only against "ecclesiastical feudalism" and did not affect the foundations of the feudal system as a whole. Therefore, whole groups of feudal lords sometimes joined them, trying to use the burgher heresy in their own interests (for the sake of secularizing church property or limiting the political influence of the papacy). So it was in the era of the Albigensian wars in southern France, the Hussite wars in Bohemia, during the time of Wyclif in England.
Much more radical were the peasant-plebeian heresies, reflecting the hostile attitude of the dispossessed lower classes of the city and countryside not only towards the church and the clergy, but also towards the nobility. Sharing all the religious demands of the burgher heresy, the peasant-plebeian heresy demanded, in addition, equality between people, thereby negating class differences. Peasant-plebeian heresies, as a rule, also demanded the abolition of serfdom and corvée, while individual extreme sects called for the establishment of property equality and community of property. In the XIV-XV centuries. the most radical peasant-plebeian heresies were often combined with popular uprisings (apostles, Lollards, Taborites, etc.).
At the same time, throughout the Middle Ages, there were also such heresies in which the elements of both of these currents - the burghers and the peasant-plebeian - were not clearly distinguished.
The dogma of heretical teachings: a critical attitude towards the clergy of all ranks, including the pope, criticism of indulgences. A more moderate part of the heretics considered themselves true Catholics, seeking to help correct the church. Another, no less significant part openly broke with the Catholic Church, creating their own religious organizations (Cathars, Waldensians, Apostolics, Taborites); the most radical among them (especially the Apostolics, the Lollards of the 14th century) transferred their hostile attitude towards the Catholic Church to the entire feudal social system.
The overwhelming majority of heretical teachings were also characterized by the desire to follow the Gospel, recognizing it as the only source of faith, as opposed to the writings of the "fathers of the church", decisions of councils, papal bulls, etc. One of the most popular ideas in heretic circles was the idea of "apostolic poverty, the ideal of asceticism, Mystic.
The historical role of heresies: they undermined the authority and spiritual dictates of the Catholic Church, contributed to the spread of freethinking (although heretics themselves most often did not show freethinking, they were characterized by fanaticism and intolerance towards dissidents, and shook the feudal system.
The main heretical movements of the XI-XIII centuries. Separate sects of heretics became widespread in Western Europe as early as the beginning of the 11th century. in France, Italy, Germany. In the second half of the XI century. broad popular movements unfolded in the cities of Italy (Milan, Florence). One of the first creators of an independent heretical doctrine was Arnold of Brescia, who led in the middle of the 12th century. anti-papal uprising in Rome. The sect he created (Arnoldists), representing the early burgher heresy, continued to exist even after the execution of their leader. Rise of heretical movements falls on the second half of the XII and XIII centuries. There were especially many of them in these centuries in southern France and northern Italy, where heretics made up a significant part of the population. Among the most massive heretical movements of the XII century. applies cathar heresy(from the Greek "kataros" - clean). They refused to recognize the authority of the state, rejected physical violence and the shedding of blood. They considered the Catholic Church, as well as the entire earthly world, to be the creation of Satan, and the pope to be his vicar.
Great influence among the heretics of the XII-XIII centuries. used the ideas of Joachim Florsky (or Calabrian), one of the greatest mystics of that time. The ideas of Joachimism have long enjoyed great popularity among the people.
Evangelical ideas were especially widespread in the ranks of heretics. Among the many sects that dreamed of reviving the orders of the early Christian church, of particular importance in the 13th century. acquired the Waldensians. The son of a wealthy Lyon merchant, Peter Wald, who lived in the last quarter of the 12th century, began an active preaching of poverty and asceticism. His followers, the Waldenses, along with sharp criticism of the priests, put forward ideas that challenge church dogma: they denied purgatory, most of the sacraments, icons, prayers, the cult of saints, the church hierarchy, their ideal was the "poor" apostolic church. They also opposed church tithes, taxes, military service, the feudal court and denied the death penalty. Part of the Waldensians moved to Germany, Austria, the Czech Republic, Poland, where in the XIV century. Waldensianism spread widely among peasants and small urban artisans.
In Italy, evangelical ideas were professed by the flagellants sect. Flagellants (“flagging”) took to the roads and streets in rags, barefoot and publicly tortured themselves, bringing their supporters to a state of ecstasy.
Heresies in the 12th and 13th centuries were widely distributed not only among the lower strata of the population, but also among the educated part of the townspeople
The struggle of the church against heretical movements. Inquisition. The church fought against heretical ideas and anti-clerical movements with cruel fanaticism and intransigence. Church cathedrals of the XII-XIII centuries. obligated not only the clergy, but also the secular authorities to take an active part in this struggle. At the cathedrals, at various times, Cathars, Patarens, Waldensians, and later Beguins were anathematized. The teachings of Joachim of Florence, Amory of Vienna, and later of Peter Olivi were recognized as heresy and banned in the 15th century. - John Wyclif and Jan Hus. Hundreds of leaders of heretical movements and sects were convicted and burned, and ordinary heretics were subjected to severe persecution. The most bloody form of reprisals against heretics were the crusades inspired by the church and the papacy: against the Albigensians (began in 1209), against the apostolics (1306-1307), five crusades against the Hussites (1420-1431), etc.
The Inquisition (from the Latin inquisitio - investigation) played a special role in the fight against heresies. Emerged at the end of the XII century. as a form of ecclesiastical court, carried out at first by bishops, the inquisition was gradually removed from the control of the bishops and turned in the first half of the 13th century. into an independent organization with enormous powers and subordinate directly to the pope. Gradually, the Inquisition created a special system of search and judicial investigation of heretics. She widely introduced espionage and denunciations into practice. Sophisticated torture was applied to the stubborn. The zeal of the inquisitors and their scammers was rewarded by the division between them of a part of the property confiscated from the convicts. Already in the XIII century. Along with heretics, the Inquisition began to persecute scientists and philosophers who showed free thinking. The most common punishment for heretics was burning at the stake, often in groups (the so-called auto-da-fe - from the Portuguese auto-da-fe - a matter of faith). One of the most tragic pages in the history of mankind is connected with the activities of the Inquisition.
Heretical movements of the XIV-XV centuries.
Despite the brutal persecution and the activities of mendicant orders, heretical movements did not stop. New heresies arose to replace the old ones. In the XIV-XV centuries. their center moved from southern France and Lombardy to northeastern France, the Netherlands, England, southern and western Germany, and the Czech Republic. An important feature of the heretical movements of this period was a clear demarcation between burgher and peasant-plebeian heresies, the transformation of the latter into radical heresies, which sometimes merge with peasant uprisings. So, the sect of the Apostolics, headed by Dolcino at the beginning of the XIV century. played a leading role in the peasant-plebeian uprising, led by Dolcino. The heresy of the early Lollards, like-minded John Ball, merged with the rebellion of Wat Tyler.
One of the most massive heretical movements of the late XIII-XIV centuries. - the movement of beguins, as well as beguards and fraticelli close to them, which swept the Southern Netherlands, German lands, Austria, the Czech Republic, Italy and France. The views of the theologian Olivi had a great influence on the heretics.
In the XV century. the most significant heretical movements were the English Lollardism and Gusism. Lollards 15th century based on the teachings of John Wyclif. They sharply criticized the clergy, opposed the church hierarchy, most of the sacraments, icon veneration, church tithes, demanded the secularization of church property, freedom to preach for everyone, including the laity, worship in their native language, but did not encroach on the existing system.
Hussite movement. Actions against the abuses of the German clergy, opposition to the Catholic Church and the struggle for a national Czech church resulted in a broad social movement that took on a religious form. Jan Hus (c. 1369-1415), professor of theology at the University of Prague, led this movement. He denounced the vices of the Catholic clergy, spoke out against church wealth and demanded the secularization of church property. He led the fight against the Germans who dominated the University of Prague. It ended with the transfer of the management of the university to the Czechs (1409) and the election of Jan Hus as rector of the university.
The Catholic Church and the German clergy of the Czech Republic waged a fierce struggle against Hus. At first he was excommunicated and had to leave Prague (1412), and after a while the pope summoned him to a church council in Konstanz. Here Hus was condemned for his beliefs as a heretic and burned at the stake (1415).
Hussite heresy, which arose in the Czech Republic at the beginning of the 15th century. involved in its orbit a variety of social strata. Initially, Hussism was based on the moderate burgher doctrine of Jan Hus, which also reflected the desire of all sections of Czech society to liberate themselves from German domination and the dictates of the papacy. But then the movement split into two camps: moderate - chashnikov, heretics of the burgher type, and the radical - taborist, in which in the early 20s of the XV century. revolutionary peasant-plebeian, in particular chiliastic, ideas about the imminent establishment of the kingdom of God on earth prevailed.
Under the conditions of the dominance of the religious worldview and the leading role of the church, any disagreement with the existing order meant speaking out against "God's order" and meant heresy- false teaching, deviation from the official religion. Heresies arose when the Christian Church became a state church, retreated from its original simplicity, democracy and poverty, and the growth of education and economic growth from the 13th century, which revived interest in Roman law, showed that there is a fairer justice than church justice.
The formation of heretical views was influenced Manichaeism- a religion that arose in the III century. in Sasanian Iran and spread from China to Rome. In his teaching, Mani proceeded from the dualistic idea of the struggle of Light (good) with Darkness (evil): when meeting with Darkness, Light fell into fetters. The world that fell into the power of Darkness could not be saved. It could only be destroyed. Only then will the Light be freed from the fetters.
Worldly, earthly affairs are in the power of the god of Darkness. Therefore, people in earthly life cannot be engaged in worldly affairs, have their own home, family, property, they must observe chastity and abstinence in order to achieve perfection and enter the kingdom of Light after death. But asceticism is for the chosen (perfect). The lower classes are the "listening" who were allowed to have their own house, property, family, and go about their business. But they had to feed, give shelter to the "perfect" (preachers of Manichaeism). Only before death, in order for the soul of the "listening" to get into the realm of Light, he had to take initiation into the "perfect".
In 282, Emperor Diocletian ordered that "the teaching of this Persian" be banned in the Roman Empire. But after the recognition of Christianity as the dominant religion in Rome (4th century), Manichaeism spread widely, and its adherents argued with the official church.
Christianity, in contrast to Manichaeism, proceeded from the idea of the integrity of God's world. Although the idea of a struggle between good and evil, the presence of the devil is from the same pagan dualism as Manichaeism. Some heretical teachings came from Manichaeism, others were inspired by various canonized texts when they conflicted with church practice. This applies especially to Apocalypse- the most complex part of the New Testament built on allegories and symbolism
In various heretical teachings of the early Middle Ages, this idea was refracted in different ways. For example, the Byzantine Paulician it is a struggle between good and evil, which was associated with wealth and the exploitation associated with it. From the Paulicians this idea passed to Bogomils to Bulgaria. Unlike the Manicheans, they, like the Paulicians, called on the lower classes to disobey their masters. In the XIII-XIV centuries. the Bogomils withdrew from the social struggle and, within the framework of urban sects, were polemics with the official church. The ideas of these teachings formed the basis Albigensian movement, which arose in southern France in the twelfth century.
The most massive heretical movements become in Europe with the development of cities. According to social characteristics, medieval heresies were divided into burgher and peasant-plebeian. The burgher opposition to the official church was moderate. The townspeople usually demanded a cheap church: the elimination of costly privileges of the clergy, the simplification of expensive church rites. Changing the social structure was not relevant for them, even if the feudal order interfered with the economic activities of the townspeople. Moreover, the burghers usually supported the nobles who advocated secularization and limiting the political influence of the clergy (for example, bowlers in the Czech Republic).
The peasant-plebeian heresies, which demanded the establishment of social equality and, therefore, were directed against the feudal order, had a greater social orientation. The ideal in their teachings was communal order. Therefore, at the heart of all such heretical teachings lay the demand for a return to early Christian simplicity, asceticism and democracy ( Paulicians, lollards in England, Taborites in the Czech Republic). They emphasized that inequality and exploitation are contrary to the basic Christian dogmas (about the equality of all people before God, about love for one's neighbor, etc.).
There were serious dogmatic differences between the various heretical teachings. But all of them were united by a sharply negative attitude towards the Catholic clergy, headed by the pope, by contrasting him with the early Christian, "evangelical" righteous. Almost all heretical teachings proceeded from the right of every believer to understand Christianity himself without the help of the clergy, they opposed the inequality between the laity and the clergy in communion, and against the sale of indulgences. The only source of faith was Holy Bible, part of which was the gospel. Holiness and infallibility sacred tradition- Establishments of church councils, writings of church hierarchs, decrees and bulls of popes - were rejected.
From the twelfth century heresies, as a reflection of the emerging desire for spiritual diversity and social change, became a permanent element of European life. It was a protest against the desire of the official church to preserve the unanimity and inviolability of the established socio-political order. The greatest distribution in the XII-XIII centuries. heretical movements reached the south of France, in Provence, which was no coincidence. Here the teachings of the Cathars and the Waldensians spread.
Cathars(Greek kataros - pure) were close to Bogomilism (Paulicianism) and the Manichaeans. They denied the divinity of Christ, considering him an angel. The main thing for them is the struggle between good and evil, the spiritual world with the physical, created by Satan, the devil.
The first Cathars were missionaries from the East, who came during the second crusade, between 1140-1150. - ascetics who lived on alms, in complete chastity, condemning carnal sin in any circumstances. Unlike the official church and many heresies, the Cathars recognized the equality of the sexes, which attracted a large number of women to them. The number of Cathars included not only peasants and urban lower classes, but also feudal lords dissatisfied with the official church and the centralization policy of the French kings, as well as burghers. But if the Cathars had won, their fanatical asceticism would have led to the destruction of the achievements of material culture. They were against the improvement of life, which led, in fact, to primitiveness; this contributed to the gradual decline of the sect. Catharism spread in West Germany, Burgundy, Southern France and Northern Italy, often in combination with Waldensianism.
Founder of the Waldensian heresy Pierre(Peter) Wald- also preached asceticism, opposing it to the promiscuity of the official clergy. Conducting their sermons outside the church, on their own, the Waldensians abandoned the entire official religious structure and rituals, rejected tithes and taxes, the performance of state and church duties. They were for the restoration of evangelical purity, for submission only to "good" priests.
In southern France, the Cathars and Waldensians were often called Albigensians for Mr. Albi became one of the centers of these heresies. Although the differences between both teachings were significant. If the Waldensians proceeded from the recognition of the right to preach outside the official church (as was the case in early Christianity), opposed the status of the official clergy, then the Cathars were closer to the dualistic picture in the spirit of the Manicheans, they were also divided into "perfect" (ascetics) and "believers" , that is, they went beyond Christianity.
Naturally, heresies caused a sharp rebuff from the Catholic Church. One of the most effective ways to fight for the flock was the creation of so-called mendicant monastic orders who adopted one of the main requirements of the heretics - poverty as a form of life. These were orders Dominicans and Franciscans, nicknamed militant for the active, offensive nature of their activities. Striving for popularity, they began to allow sermons in their flock's native languages.
The Dominican order in 1216 founded an educated Spanish canon (priest in a large cathedral) Dominique de Guzman(1170-1221) to fight heresies in Southern France. Founder of the Franciscan Order, son of a wealthy Italian merchant Francis of Assisi(1181 / 82-1226) acted, on the contrary, almost like a heretic - with criticism of church practice and with the preaching of poverty. The ideas of apostolic poverty quickly fell into disrepair. The craving for property proved irresistible, and the mendicant orders soon became very rich. In general, the ideal of the New Testament with equality in the community and apostolic poverty did not agree well with real life, with the ownership of private property.
The pinnacle of the struggle of the papacy with medieval heresies was inquisition, introduced in the 11th century. during the Albigensian wars against the heretics of southern France. If the Franciscan order preached humility and humility, then the Dominicans were originally aimed at eradicating heresies, and called themselves "dogs of the Lord." In 1232 they were entrusted with dealing with inquisitorial affairs. The lightest punishment is a censure and a warning. But usually the accused were punished with prison and confiscation of property. This was especially beneficial to both the church and the kings in financial difficulties. Therefore, the desire to condemn the rich is noticeable (a vivid example is the condemnation of the Templars in France at the beginning of the 14th century).
As a result, the church, in the fight against dissent, contributed to the tightening of secular laws. Lack of control in the courts corrupted the church as an organization. Denial of guilt was declared perseverance in heresy, and was punishable by death. Since the church declared that it abhorred blood, from 1231 heretics were executed by burning. In total, 9-12 million unfortunates were executed by the Inquisition in Europe. From the end of the fifteenth century the most active was the Inquisition in Spain. The burning and expulsion of about 3 million people from this country contributed to its economic decline in the 16th century. Only in the nineteenth century the inquisition lost its significance and was transformed into a "congregation of the papal office".
