The history of China begins from the time of the legendary ruler Fu Xi, who lived 30-40 centuries BC. Supposedly the gods inspired him to write the sacred book of ancient China, the I Ching, from which stemmed the theory that the physical universe arose and developed through the alternation of yin and yang. Fu-Xi is also considered the mythological founding father and most revered ancient ruler of China.
If we do not take into account mythological characters, as for official written historical sources, they do not mention any rulers of China preceding the Shang Dynasty (1766-1122 BC). It is with the rulers of the Shang Dynasty that the reliable, written history of China begins.
Brief History of China
The Shang rulers were overthrown by the Zhou dynasty, which first built its capital near modern Xi'an, and later, around 750 BC. e., fled from the barbarians who invaded the country and settled near present-day Liaoyang. In the early period of the dynasty, power was concentrated in the hands of the emperor, but later local rulers formed almost independent states. From 770 BC e. these rulers waged fierce wars with each other, and the entire period from 476 to 221. BC e. called the "Warring States". At the same time, China was attacked by barbarians from the north and northeast. Then it was decided to build huge walls to protect the territory. In the end, the main power was concentrated in the hands of Prince Qin, whose army overthrew the ruler of Zhou.
The new emperor Qin Shi Huangdi became the founder of the Qin dynasty in 221 BC. e. He was one of the most celebrated emperors in Chinese history and the first to unify the Chinese empire. After the death of Emperor Qin Shi Huang Di in 210 BC. e. A power struggle ensued between provincial governors, and the winner, Liu Bang, founded the Han Dynasty (206 BC - 220 AD). During the Han Dynasty, China's territory expanded significantly. After the fall of the Han dynasty, the struggle for power was launched by 3 kingdoms - Wei, Shu and Wu. Later short time 16 provinces entered the war. In 581 BC. e. the founder of the Sui dynasty seized power and made efforts to unify the empire. Work began with the Grand Canal, connecting the lower reaches of the Yangtze with the middle reaches of the Yellow River.
After the fall of the Sui Dynasty, during the Tang era, Chinese history flourished. It was during this period that China became the most powerful state in the world and represented the main force in East Asia. The population of Xi'an, the capital of the empire, exceeded 1 million people, culture flourished: classical painting developed, arts such as music, dance and opera were produced, magnificent ceramics were produced, and the secret of white translucent porcelain was discovered. Confucian ethics and Buddhism dominated, and there was progress in science - mainly in astronomy and geography.
Towards the end of the 9th century. invasions of neighboring peoples began on the territory of China, in addition, internal uprisings constantly broke out. In 907 the dynasty ceased to exist and was quickly replaced by five others. During this turbulent period Chinese history paper notes were introduced and primitive printing press. IN early XIII V. Genghis Khan invaded China. By 1223, his troops captured all the lands north of the Yellow River. The Song Dynasty ended in 1279 when Kublai Kublai took over all of China and became emperor.
The Mongol Yuan dynasty established the state capital at Khanbalik, present-day Beijing. For the first time in history, all of China was ruled by outsiders, and the state became part of a vast empire that stretched to Europe and Persia in the west and encompassed the plains and steppes of Siberia in the north. The presence of foreign warriors on the lands of China and the seizure of usable land by the Mongols eventually led to the “Red Turban Rebellion” in the mid-14th century. The Mongol Empire began to collapse after Kublai Kublai's death in 1297, and trade routes once again became insecure. Somewhat later, the Mongols were expelled from China, and the Ming dynasty reigned first in Nanjing and then in Beijing. At this time, architecture was actively developing, new crops were grown, power was concentrated at the court, and large naval expeditions were sent to Java, Sri Lanka, and even to the Persian Gulf and Africa.
The Manchus were the second foreign people to invade China, but they adapted to Chinese culture so quickly that within a few generations few Manchus spoke Chinese. native language. The borders of the empire expanded significantly; for the first 150 years of Manchu rule, peace and prosperity reigned in the country. At the beginning of the 19th century. European ships began to appear more and more often off the coast, Tsarist Russia took possession of Siberia. Due to the Opium Wars (1839-1842), Shanghai and Nanjing fell into British hands, five ports were opened for trade, and British troops occupied Hong Kong.
In addition, the Taiping uprising (1848-1864) led by a religious fanatic who called himself the brother of Jesus Christ posed a threat to the Manchu court. He and his followers conquered a large area of China and established the Heavenly Capital in Nanjing. The rebels' attempts to take control of Beijing and the weak resistance of the Manchus prompted the British and French to seek new concessions from the emperor. The result was the Beijing Agreement, which opened additional ports to foreign traders and guaranteed extraterritorial rights and other privileges to foreigners in China. Allied forces and the Manchu army defeated the Taipings, Nanjing was recaptured. But soon the war between China and Japan began (1894-1895), as a result of which China lost Korea, Taiwan and the Pescadores Islands.
In 1900, the Just Fists Society, or Boxers, invaded Beijing and attacked a neighborhood where foreigners lived. The siege lasted 50 days until an expeditionary force from seven Western nations and Japan arrived. The Boxers had to flee. The revolutionary movement in China eventually led to the fall of the Qing Dynasty in 1911. At this time, the revolutionaries in Nanjing established their own government. Sun Yat-sen was proclaimed the first president on January 1, 1912, but it was not he, but General Yuan Shikai who forced the Manchus to abdicate the throne in 1912 and proclaimed China a constitutional republic.
Beijing was declared the capital of the state. That same year, Sun Yat-sen formed the Kuomintang party, which Yuan Shikai outlawed in 1913. Yuan tried to become emperor, but his attempt failed. After his death in 1916, Japan took advantage of internal unrest in China to seize Shandong Province and put forward the so-called “Twenty-One Demands,” which transferred power in China to the Japanese. China was forced to agree to these demands, and since then this day has been considered a day of national mourning.
In 1917, China joined the First world war, primarily driven by the desire to reconquer the lost provinces, but at the Versailles Peace Conference, China's claims were rejected. In July 1921, the Chinese Communist Party was formed in Shanghai, one of whose leaders was Mao Zedong. In 1924, the Kuomintang party, having lost the support of Western democracies, was reorganized by Sun Yat-sen under the leadership of the Soviet government. With the support of Russian communists, a revolutionary army was formed.
Sun Yat-sen died in 1925, and the national government of Guangzhou Province was headed by Chiang Kai-shek. Nationalist troops moved north, capturing province after province, and in 1927 they reached Shanghai. In April 1927, after the massacre of members Communist Party, a provisional nationalist government was created in Nanjing, which the Western powers recognized in 1928. Chiang Kai-shek became the country's president. For almost 10 years, Chiang Kai-shek tried to restore political unity throughout the country, but faced powerful opposition. In 1931, Japan captured Manchuria, and by 1933 troops were approaching the outskirts of Beijing.
By 1935, Mao Zedong had proclaimed himself the leader of the Chinese Communist Party. Within six months, a full-scale invasion of China by Japanese troops began, and by October 1938, the Japanese army controlled all the eastern provinces from Manchuria to Guangdong. Puppet governments were created in Beijing and Nanjing. Kuomintang troops retreated to Chongqing, and the Communists occupied Shaanxi province, leading a guerrilla war in the occupied territories.
In 1945, after the defeat Japanese army in the Pacific region, Japanese troops in China surrendered. Chiang Kai-shek's army, with the help of the US Air Force, captured the remnants of the Japanese troops and thereby gained control over the main strategic points of the territory occupied by the Japanese. In 1949, civil war broke out in China. Resorting to the same guerrilla warfare tactics that they mastered during the occupation, the communists captured almost all of the northern lands by 1948, and took Beijing in January 1949. Chiang Kai-shek's troops fled to Taiwan.
On October 1, 1949, Mao Zedong proclaimed the formation of the People's Republic of China. The first actions of the new government were aimed at restoring the economy and creating socialist institutions. Helped the Chinese with this Soviet Union according to the Pact of Soviet-Chinese Friendship, concluded in February 1950. Soviet specialists arrived in the country, China received the equipment necessary to restore the economy. In October 1950, China entered into Korean War. At the same time, agrarian reforms were introduced in the country to ensure a more equitable distribution of land, but they were accompanied by the executions of former landowners and wealthy peasants. In addition, measures were taken against political and economic corruption.
In 1953 the first five year plan, an attempt to develop the Chinese economy along the Soviet model, which emphasized the development of heavy industry. Land given to peasants under land reform was taken back during the creation of collective farms. In the 60s, a breakdown in relations between China and the USSR began. All Soviet specialists were recalled and assistance programs ceased. In 1962, the authorities were forced to transform the communes into more efficient small farms. That same year, clashes on the Indian border led to war. Two years later, an atomic bomb was exploded in China.
In 1966, the Red Guard movement began, sweeping all of China. When the uprising was pacified in 1968, Mao was back in power. In 1969, serious clashes took place between the border troops of China and the USSR on the Ussuri River. In 1971, Mao's successor Lin Biao tried to enlist the support of the army and carry out a coup, but was defeated and killed on the border with Mongolia while trying to flee to the USSR. A year later, US President R. Nixon visited China with the aim of concluding a communiqué according to which the US recognized China's right to Taiwan as integral part countries.
Prime Minister Zhou Enlai died in 1976, and later a short time Radical circles in the party launched a violent campaign against his likely successor, Deng Xiaoping, who was removed from all posts in April. In July, China was hit by a massive earthquake in Tianshan, near Beijing, killing at least 240,000 people and causing massive damage to one of the country's major industrial zones. Mao died in September.
In 1977, Deng Xiaoping was restored to all positions and led a faction of moderates trying to move towards economic development and reforms. China began work on the “four modernization” program, which was to strengthen industry, agriculture, science and defense. In 1980, criticism was voiced against the actions of Mao Zedong and his serious mistakes in the last years of his reign. On June 3, 1989, troops were sent to disperse student demonstrations. Hundreds of people died, thousands were arrested. Zhao Ziyang was removed from office Secretary General. In 1994, official controls over currency exchange were abolished in China, and the yuan gained a fixed exchange rate.
Brief History of China
Chinese civilization is considered one of the oldest in the world. It is at least 5,000 years old, although written sources only cover 3,500 years. The Book of Changes "I Ching" was written more than 30 centuries ago BC. Emperor Fu Xi. His theory of the existence of the Universe was based on the fact that life depends on the alternation of yin and yang energies. Proof of the antiquity of Chinese civilization is also the remains of “Beijing man” (Sinanthropus), who lived about 400 thousand years ago.
To make it easier to understand the long period of development of Chinese civilization, it is customary to divide it into three periods: Pre-Imperial China, Imperial China and New China. The second stage was the longest. To the first Chinese dynasties included in pre-imperial period, belong to the Xia, Shang-Yin and Zhou dynasties. The founder of the very first dynasty was Yu the Great - a man who ruled for about 2200-2100 gg. BC. Little information has been preserved about that time, but it is known that he became famous for his selfless fight against floods.
In the second half of the 17th century BC. one of the rulers of the Shang region displaced the Xia dynasty and founded his own dynasty. Totemism and matriarchal relations are considered characteristic features of this period. After the attack of the Zhou tribes, the ruling dynasty changed. These tribes were mainly engaged in cattle breeding and agriculture. Outwardly, they represented a Western variety of a possibly proto-Turkic type. It was during the reign of the Zhou dynasty that ancient Chinese philosophical schools Confucianism and Taoism.
WITH 221 BC The Qin dynasty was proclaimed the ruling dynasty in China. This was the beginning imperial period. The first emperor of the dynasty was Shihuang, the ruler of the Qin region. Despite the fact that the Qin dynasty ruled for only 10 years, during this period the most important reforms were carried out to establish China as a powerful empire. First of all, the feudal system has become a thing of the past. Then the monetary system was unified and a unified transport system was created. It was during the reign of Shi Huang that huge areas of ancient protective walls were connected to form the Great Wall of China.
The Qin Dynasty was replaced by the Han Dynasty ( 202 BC -220 AD). It was founded by middle-class man Liu Bang. Administratively, there were no significant changes, but the territory of the empire was increased. During the crisis, wars and resettlement, the number of agricultural areas noticeably decreased. After the fall of this dynasty, a long, fierce struggle for power unfolded between the Chinese provinces. IN 581 year AD The founder of the Sui dynasty seized power. During the 37 years of Zhou's reign, Yang Jian and his son Yang Di made every effort to connect the southern and northern parts of the country. At the same time, the Grand Canal was built between the Yellow River and the Yangtze.
IN 618 The Tang Dynasty came to power. Representatives of the Tang ruled in China for almost 300 years, and this period is considered one of the most humane and favorable in the entire history of the country. This is a time of flourishing of Chinese culture and art, a time of important economic innovations, a time of formation of the legal system and a time of progress in science. WITH 960 By 1127 gg. The ruling dynasty was the Song Dynasty. This is a period of territorial losses for China. In XIII, Genghis Khan captured the entire north of the Yellow River, and soon power passed to Mongol Khan Kublai. This was the beginning of the Mongol Yuan Dynasty.
WITH 1368 For three centuries, China was ruled by the Ming Dynasty. At this time, architecture and the Chinese fleet were actively developing. The last in Imperial China was the Manchu Qing dynasty - the second dynasty founded by a foreign people. In fact, the Manchus united and took the helm with armed pressure on China in the first half of the 17th century. For China, the first 150 years of their rule were a period of prosperity and peace. However, at the end of the 18th - beginning of the 19th centuries. The “opium wars” began in the country, which became a real threat.
Fall of the Qing Dynasty under and beginning new period fell on 1911 year. At the same time, the first Chinese government was formed, headed by Sun Yat-senbish. A year later, China was declared a constitutional republic with Beijing as its capital. In October 1949 The People's Republic of China was founded by order of communist leader Mao Zedong. The 20th century saw many wars and hardships, but today the People's Republic of China is a country with a stable political and economic situation, a world leader in the production of most types of industrial products.
Second half of the 1st millennium BC. e. in society Ancient China received the name Zhanguo - Warring Kingdoms. This was an era of constant wars between small principalities and kingdoms that formed on the ruins of the once powerful Zhou state. Over time, the seven strongest stood out among them, who subjugated their weak neighbors to their power and continued to fight for the inheritance of the Zhou dynasty: kingdoms of Chu, Qin, Wei, Zhao, Han, Qi and Yan. But it was also an era of changes in all areas of life, production and social relations. Cities grew, crafts improved, and agriculture developed; iron replaced bronze. Scientists and writers created wonderful interpretations in the field of natural science, philosophy, history, romance and poetry that continue to excite the reader to this day. Suffice it to say that it was at this time that Confucius and Lao Tzu lived, the founders of two philosophical and religious schools - Confucianism and Taoism, to which most Chinese now consider themselves adherents.
Despite the borders, it was one world, one civilization, in which all the conditions were created not only for unification, but also for going beyond its geographical limits. Such unification within the framework of a single empire occurred at the end of the 3rd century. BC e. under the rule of the dynasty of one of the “seven strongest” - kingdom of qin. The dynasty ruled a unified China for only one generation, a total of 11 years (from 221 to 210 BC). But what a decade it was! The reforms affected all aspects of life in Chinese society.
It was replaced by a new one dynasty - Han, which not only did not undo everything done first emperor Qin Shi Huang, but preserved, multiplied his achievements and spread them to the surrounding peoples, from the Gobi Wasteland in the north, to the South China Sea in the south and from the Liaodong Peninsula in the east to the Pamir Mountains in the west. The empire of ancient China, formed by the end of the 3rd century. BC e., existed until the end of the 2nd century. n. e., when new, even more significant changes led it to crisis and collapse.
In the further history of the civilization of ancient China, many more dynasties, both local and alien, were replaced. Eras of power have more than once given way to periods of decline. But China emerged from each crisis invariably preserving its originality and increasing its cultural wealth. Witnesses of the next rise of Chinese civilization we are with you even now. And the beginning of this amazing constancy and originality was laid in that distant era when the Celestial Empire of China was born.
Kingdom of Qin among other large formations of Ancient China, it was not the most powerful and enlightened. It was located in the north of the country, had heavy soils and was adjacent to numerous nomadic tribes. But fenced by natural boundaries - the Yellow River and mountain ranges - the kingdom of Qin was more or less protected from enemy invasions and at the same time occupied convenient strategic positions for attacking neighboring powers and tribes. The lands of the kingdom, lying in the basins of the Weihe, Jinghe and Luohe rivers, are very fertile. In the middle of the 3rd century. BC e. Simultaneously with the creation of the Zheng Guo canal, work was carried out to drain the swamps, which significantly increased the harvest. Important trade routes passed through the territory of the Qin kingdom, and trade with neighboring tribes became one of the sources of its enrichment. Of particular importance for the state was trade with the northern tribes - intermediaries in the trade of the ancient Chinese kingdoms with the countries of Central Asia. Mainly iron and products made from it, salt and silk were exported from Qin. From the pastoral tribes of the north and northwest, the inhabitants of the Qin kingdom received wool, skins and slaves. In the southwest, the Qin kingdom traded with the inhabitants of the Mu and Ba regions. Fertile lands and the mountain riches of these regions, which also lay at the junction of trade routes that led far to the southwest all the way to ancient india, became the reason for the expansion of the Qin kingdom.
Since the reign of Xiao Gong (361-338 BC), the strengthening of Qin began. And it was not only the successes of the economy and aggressive campaigns. The same thing happened in other kingdoms of ancient China.
In the middle of the 4th century. BC e. in the kingdom of Qin were carried out important reforms, which contributed to its comprehensive strengthening. They were conducted by the dignitary Shang Yang, one of the most prominent representatives and zealous followers of the Fajia teachings. The first was land reform , which dealt a decisive blow to communal land ownership. According to the regulations of Shang Yan, land began to be freely bought and sold. In order to centralize the state, Shang Yang introduced a new administrative division on a territorial principle, which violated the previous boundaries established by the old tribal division. The entire kingdom was divided into districts (xiang). Counties were split into smaller entities, each headed by government officials. The smallest administrative units were associations of five and ten families bound by mutual guarantee. Second reform there was a tax office. Instead of the previous land tax of 1/10 of the harvest, Shang Yang introduced a new tax corresponding to the amount of land being cultivated. This provided the state with an annual fixed income, independent of harvest. Droughts, floods, and crop failures now fell heavily on farmers. New system the collection of taxes provided the enormous funds necessary for the rulers of the Qin kingdom to wage wars.
According to military reform Shang Yang, the Qin army was rearmed and reorganized. It included cavalry. War chariots, which formed the basis of the military power of the former hereditary aristocracy, were excluded from the army. Bronze weapons were replaced with new ones made of iron. The long outerwear of the warriors was replaced by a short jacket, like that of nomadic barbarians, convenient for marching and battle. The army was divided into fives and tens, bound by a system of mutual responsibility. Soldiers who did not show due courage were subject to severe punishment. After the military reform of Shang Yang, the Qin army became one of the most combat-ready armies of the ancient Chinese kingdoms. Shang Yan created 18 degrees of nobility for military merit. For each enemy captured and killed, one degree was awarded. “Noble houses that do not have military merit can no longer be included in the lists of the nobility,” the decree said. The result of the reforms carried out by Shang Yang was the emergence of a strong centralized state. Already from the reign of Xiao Gong, the struggle of the Qin kingdom began to unite the entire territory of Ancient China under its hegemony. The Qin kingdom had no equal in strength and power. Further conquests of the kingdom, culminating in the formation of an empire, are associated with the name of Ying Zheng (246-221 BC). As a result of many years of struggle, he subjugated, one after another, all the kingdoms of Ancient China: in 230 BC. e. - Kingdom of Han, in 228 BC. e. - Kingdom of Zhao, in 225 BC. e. - Kingdom of Wei. In 222 BC. e. The kingdom of Chu was finally conquered. In the same year, the kingdom of Yan also surrendered. The last - in 221 BC. e. - the kingdom of Qi was conquered. The chariot, charioteer and horses are made with extraordinary precision, conveying all the details of the prototypes. Having become the head of a huge state, Ying Zheng chose a new title for himself and his descendants - huangdi (emperor). Later sources usually call it Qin Shi Huang, which literally means "first emperor of the Qin Empire". Almost immediately after the completion of the conquests of the ancient Chinese kingdoms, Qin Shi Huang undertook successful campaigns against the Huns in the north and the kingdom of Yue in the south. The Chinese state has gone beyond the boundaries of national education. From this moment the history of the imperial period begins.
Sources indicate that the ancient Chinese revered the silkworm and silk weaving. Mulberry is a sacred tree, the personification of the Sun and a symbol of fertility. Old Chinese texts mention sacred mulberry groves or individual mulberry trees as sites of rituals associated with the cult of the Mother Ancestress. According to legend, the baby Yin, who became the ancestor of the first dynasty of China, was found in the hollow of a mulberry tree. The deity of the silkworm was considered to be a woman who kneels by a tree and weaves a silk thread.
In the VI century. BC e., as well as at the other end of the civilized world in Western Asia and, in kingdom of jin metallic money appeared for the first time. Soon they began to be cast in other powers of Ancient China. IN different kingdoms had money different shape : in Chu - the shape of a square, and in Qi and Yan - the shape of knives or swords, in Zhao, Han and Wei - the shape of shovels, in Qin there was large money with square holes in the middle.
Before the invention of paper, China used bamboo or wood and silk to write. Bamboo plates were sewn together into a kind of “notebook”. Silk “books” were stored in rolls.
Improved writing technology ancient China. The Chinese split bamboo trunks into thin planks and wrote hieroglyphs on them with black ink from top to bottom. Then, folded in a row, they were fastened with leather straps along the upper and lower edges - a long bamboo panel was obtained, easily rolled up. This was an ancient Chinese book, usually written on several scrolls - juans; rolled up, they were placed in a clay vessel, stored in stone chests of imperial libraries, and in wicker boxes of scribes.
Chinese society, at least the most enlightened minds of that time, well understood the past and future changes. This awareness gave rise to numerous ideological movements, some of which defended antiquity, others took all innovations for granted, and others were looking for ways to further progress. It can be said that politics entered the home of every Chinese, and passionate debates between supporters of various teachings flared up in squares and taverns, at the courts of nobles and dignitaries. The most famous teachings of that era were Taoism, Confucianism and Fajia, conventionally called the school of legalists - legalists. The political platforms put forward by representatives of these trends expressed the interests of different segments of the population. The creators and preachers of these teachings were representatives high society, so are people who are not noble and not rich. Some of them came from the lowest strata of society, even from among slaves. The founder of Taoism is considered to be the semi-legendary sage Lao Tzu, who lived, according to legend, in the VI-V centuries. BC e. He wrote a philosophical treatise known as Tao Te Ching (The Book of Tao and Te). The teaching set forth in this book became, to a certain extent, an expression of the community’s passive protest against increasing tax oppression and ruin. Condemning wealth, luxury and nobility, Lao Tzu spoke out against the arbitrariness and cruelty of rulers, against violence and war. The social ideal of ancient Taoism there was a return to the primitive community. However, along with his passionate denunciation of injustice and violence, Lao Tzu preached renunciation of struggle, putting forward theory of "non-action", according to which a person must obediently follow the Tao - the natural flow of life. This theory was the basic principle of the socio-ethical concept of Taoism.
Confucianism arose as an ethical and political doctrine at the turn of the 6th-5th centuries. BC e. and subsequently became very widespread. Its founder is considered to be a preacher originally from the kingdom of Lu - Kunzi (Confucius, as he is called in the European world; around 551-479 BC). Confucians were the ideologists of the old aristocracy, justified the order of things that had developed since ancient times, and had a negative attitude towards the enrichment and elevation of humble people. According to the teachings of Confucius, every person in society should occupy a strictly defined place. “A sovereign must be a sovereign, a subject must be a subject, a father must be a father, a son must be a son,” said Confucius. Its adherents insisted on the inviolability of patriarchal relations and attached great importance to the cult of ancestors.
Representatives of the third direction - fajia expressed interests new nobility. They advocated the establishment of private ownership of land, an end to internecine wars between kingdoms, and insisted on carrying out reforms that met the requirements of the time. This direction of social thought reached its peak in the 4th-3rd centuries. BC e. The most prominent representatives of Fajia were Shang Yang, who lived in the 4th century. BC e. and Han Fei (III century BC). The legalists created their own theory of political and government system. For the first time in Chinese history, their works put forward idea of "legal law" as an instrument of government. In contrast to the Confucians, who were guided by ancient traditions and customs, the Legalists believed that government should be based on strict and binding laws (fa) that meet the needs of modernity. They were supporters of the creation of a strong bureaucratic state. In the struggle for the unification of ancient China, it was the one who followed this teaching who won. He was elected by the rulers of the outlying and least enlightened kingdom of Qin, who willingly accepted the idea of “a strong kingdom and a weak people”, absolute power over the entire Celestial Empire.
About the level development of ancient Chinese crafts says the list of professions. Ancient writers report on artisans of various specialties: skilled foundries, carpenters, jewelers, gunsmiths, specialists in the manufacture of carts, ceramics, weavers, even builders of dams and dams. Each region and city was famous for its craftsmen: the kingdom of Qi for the production of silk and linen fabrics, and its capital Linzi was the largest center of weaving at that time. Here, thanks to its convenient location, salt and fishing industries were especially developed. The city of Linqiong in the Shu region (Sichuan), rich in ore deposits, became one of the most significant centers of iron mining and processing. The largest centers of iron production at that time were Nanyang in the kingdom of Han and Handan, the capital of the kingdom of Zhao. In the kingdom of Chu, the city of Hofei was famous for the production of leather goods, Changsha - for jewelry. Coastal towns are known for shipbuilding. A well-preserved structure gives an idea of ancient Chinese ships. wooden model 1b-rowing boat(see below), which was discovered by archaeologists during excavations of ancient graves. Already in this distant era the Chinese invented a primitive compass; initially it was used for overland travel, and then it began to be used Chinese sailors. The growth of cities and craft production, the expansion of land and water road networks gave impetus to the development of trade.
At this time, connections were established not only within the kingdoms, but also between various regions of ancient China and neighboring tribes. Slaves, horses, cattle, sheep, leather and wool were bought from the northern and western tribes of the Chinese; among the tribes living in the south - ivory, dyes, gold, silver, pearls. During this period, the kingdom with a significant number of large traders was considered stronger and richer. And their influence on political life strengthened so much that more and more often they began to occupy senior government positions at court. So, in the kingdom of Wei in the 4th century. BC e. The merchant Bai Tui became a major dignitary. In the kingdom of Qin in the 3rd century. BC e. the famous horse trader Lü Buwei served as first advisor. The Tian family rose to prominence in the Qi kingdom.
The country that we call China is called by the Chinese themselves either Zhong Guo (Middle Kingdom), or Zhong Hua (Middle Blooming), or by the name of certain dynasties (for example, Qin). This designation passed, with some changes, into Western European geographical nomenclature.
The state arose in China initially in the Yellow River basin.
The Yellow River is referred to in Chinese literature as “the river that breaks the heart.” It often changed its course, breaking through the loose soil of the banks and flooding entire areas. Only hard work was able to curb it and protect the fertile valley from floods by building dams and dams. The soil of northern China (mostly loess) is highly fertile.
In Ancient China there were significant forest areas (which have now disappeared and survived only on the outskirts). The wild flora and fauna, judging by the descriptions of ancient Chinese authors, confirmed by archaeological excavations, was rich and diverse. In many areas, now densely populated, there were deer, wild boars, bears and such terrible predators as tigers. The oldest collection of Chinese songs (Shijing) describes the annual mass hunts of foxes, raccoons and wild cats. The abundance of ores and other minerals was of great importance for the development of China's economy.
The population of China in ancient times was very diverse in its ethnic composition. At the dawn of their history, the Chinese themselves inhabited only the basin of the middle reaches of the Yellow River and gradually spread to its source and mouth. Only in the 1st millennium BC. and at the beginning new era they dispersed widely beyond this core area. During these movements, they entered into either hostile or peaceful relations in the northeast with the Manchu-Tungus tribes, in the northwest and west with the Turkic and Mongolian tribes, in the southwest with the Sino-Tibetan, etc.
The Chinese and neighboring peoples influenced each other in the process of long-term communication, mutually enriching themselves with cultural achievements.
Some ethnic groups living near the Chinese adopted the Chinese language and culture. However, even now in some areas of southern China and in a significant part of western China, the population speaks languages other than Chinese and preserves their local cultural traditions, despite repeated attempts at forced Sinicization.
In Europe, Ancient China was almost unknown for a long time. The ancient tradition has preserved a minimal amount of information about him.
Only from the 16th century. n. e. European missionaries and merchants begin to show more interest in East Asia's past.
At the beginning of the 20th century. French sinologist E. Chavannes undertakes the translation of Sima Qian’s “Historical Notes”.
Of the Russian researchers who played an outstanding role in the study of Chinese history, N.Ya. should be noted. Bichurin (monk Iakinthos). He lived in China for 14 years (1807-1821) as the head of the Beijing Spiritual Mission and became familiar with a huge number of original Chinese documents. Bichurin and other Russian scientists show sympathy for the Chinese people in their works and recognize the value of Chinese culture.
It must be taken into account that noble and bourgeois Sinology (Sinology), for all its merits and achievements, was not able to explain the course of development of China and identify it general pattern and undoubted local features and characteristics.
There was a very common view of the Chinese (as well as the Indians) as a people supposedly incapable of progress. On the other hand, the opposite extreme is also noticeable. Some Chinese historians exaggerate to please the great power claims of the Maoists historical role of your country.
The main periods in the history of Ancient China bear traditional names: Shang (Yin), Zhou Qin and Han (by the names of dynasties and kingdoms).
Judging by archaeological data, China was inhabited in the Old Stone Age. Many Paleolithic tools have been found here. In many places in China (especially in Henan), much later sites dating back to the Neolithic were also discovered.
Judging by the information preserved in ancient Chinese sources (in particular, from Sima Qian), matriarchy dominated in ancient China (like other peoples). Relationships were counted along the maternal line. The power of the tribal leader was passed not from father to son, but from the elder brother to the younger one.
2nd millennium BC was a time of gradual transition from maternal to paternal rights.
Of the ancient Chinese tribes, it especially intensified at the beginning of the 2nd millennium BC. Shang tribe (in the Yellow River basin).
According to Chinese tradition, in the 17th century. BC. a certain Cheng Tang founded a state, which received the name Shan after the dominant tribe. Later it appears in historical texts under the name Yin (applied to it by its neighbors).
Researchers use two terms: Shang and Yin.
We can judge the economy of Shang (Yin) society in the second half of the 2nd millennium from numerous monuments of material culture and short inscriptions on the so-called Henan oracle bones.
Stone and bone were also used as the main material for the production of tools and weapons. However, copper and then bronze tools appeared (knives, shovels, axes, awls, etc.).
There is a transition from primitive forms of economy to cattle breeding and agriculture, and even the first attempts at irrigation. Millet and barley were cultivated. Wheat, kaoliang. Of particular importance was the cultivation of the mulberry tree, which was valued not so much for its fruits (as in Western Asia), but for its leaves, which served to feed silkworms.
Cattle breeding in that era reached greater development than in modern China, where, due to the significant population density, there is not enough pasture. Documents from the Shang (Yin) time mention hundreds of heads of bulls and sheep being sacrificed to the gods. Goats and pigs were also bred. There were few horses; they were harnessed to chariots and carts, and mainly bulls were used for field work.
Crafts reached a high level in the Shang kingdom. In the ruins of his capital (also called Shan) the remains of a bronze foundry were discovered.
Ceramics, in particular the processing of white clay (kaolin), reached great perfection. The potter's wheel was already known. Widely used wood materials: houses and even palaces) were built from wood.
The separation of crafts from agriculture led to the development of exchange. Special shells (cowries) served as a measure of value. Trade ties were established with various countries of East Asia, in particular copper and tin were delivered from the Yangtze basin. From the mountainous areas and steppe areas located in the north and west of the Yellow River basin, cattle, skins, furs and stone (jasper, jade, etc.) were exported, and Chinese handicrafts received in return reached the banks of the Yenisei.
The development of productive forces and the strengthening of internal and external exchange led to property inequality. Excavations reveal, along with rich houses and tombs, the remains of dwellings and burials of the poor. Some hieroglyphs represent slaves (captives with bound hands and domestic slaves). However, slavery was at a very early, primitive stage. The custom of sacrificing hundreds of slaves (during fortune telling, during the burial of rulers) suggests that the demand for forced labor was still small.
The state apparatus gradually takes shape and the Vans (rulers) turn from elected tribal leaders into hereditary kings. The strengthening of central power was apparently associated with the transformation of the Shang city into the capital of the country (14th century BC). a standing army, officials and prisons appear. The clan aristocracy is formed from the king's relatives and associates. Religion is used for the authority of royal power. Later the king is called “son of heaven.”
The kingdom of Shang (Yin) was fragile. The western Zhou tribe turned out to be his especially dangerous opponent. Tradition says that the leader of the Zhou tribe, Wu-wan, defeated the last Yin Wang, Shou Xin, in battle, and he committed suicide. On the ruins of the former state formation of Yin, a new one arose, which received (as well as the dominant tribe and ruling dynasty) the name Zhou. The Zhou Dynasty lasted until the 3rd century. BC.
This era was divided into the time of Western Zhou, when the capital was the city of Hao, and Eastern Zhou, when the capital was moved to the east and Luoyi (modern Luoyang, in Henan).
It must be taken into account that at this time the Zhou dynasty had only nominal power over virtually independent state entities, the number of which amounted to tens, if not hundreds, and Chinese chroniclers apply to the transitional time covering the end of the 5th and a significant part of the 3rd century. BC, the name Zhan-guo (“Warring Kingdoms”).
The Western Zhou period is characterized by a significant strengthening of the clan nobility, both court and provincial. Kings give their relatives and associates significant awards and privileges. The inscriptions on bronze vessels endlessly talk about the donation of significant plots of land taken from rural communities, as well as hundreds and sometimes thousands of slaves, to one or another honored dignitary. The scale of slavery increased due to the enslavement of the population of the conquered kingdom of Shang (Yin). It is no coincidence that King U-wan (the founder Zhou kingdom) the following words are attributed to his warriors: “In the fields of the Shan, do not attack those who run over to us - let them work in our western fields.” Wars with neighboring nomadic tribes lead to the theft of prisoners of war who are enslaved. The contingent of slaves is also replenished by convicted criminals.
Cultivated land was still at the disposal of the communities. There was a “well system”, which consisted in the fact that the territory belonging to the village was divided into nine parts (the pattern of this division resembled the outline of a hieroglyph meaning “well”). Of these plots, eight were given to various families, and the ninth (central) was cultivated by them jointly, and the harvest was brought to the headman for community needs (later it began to be appropriated by the king).
In the 2nd millennium BC. e., far east of ancient civilizations Western Asia and India, a slave-owning society takes shape and the first slave-owning state arises in Northern China. This was of great importance for the history of the peoples inhabiting both China and other countries Far East. The most ancient traditions of the Chinese people, the beginnings of their hieroglyphic writing, the growth and spread of the influence of their high culture date back to this time. From this time it begins centuries-old history the great Chinese people.
The Russian name “China” was borrowed from the Central Asian peoples, who gave the country this name after the Chinese (people of Mongolian origin), who owned it in the 10th-12th centuries. n. e. northern part of China. Western European and Middle Eastern names for China are derived from the word "Chin", a Tajik-Persian designation for the country's name. This name comes from the name of the ancient Chinese kingdom of Qin, which extended its power to most of China in the 3rd century. BC e.
The Chinese themselves called their country differently, most often by the name of the reigning dynasties, for example: Shang, Zhou, Qin, Han, etc. Since ancient times, the name “Zhong Guo” (“Middle State”) was also common, which has been preserved until now. Another Chinese name for the country is “Hua” (“Blooming”) or “Zhong Hua” (“Middle Blossoming”); it is now part of the name of the People's Republic of China.
Based on geographic and economic characteristics, modern China is usually divided into two parts: western and eastern. The territory of Western China is a vast plateau with such powerful mountain systems as the Himalayas, Kunlun and Tien Shan. The world's highest mountain ranges, the Himalayas, in some places more than 8 km above sea level, form a barrier between China and India.
Eastern China does not have such powerful mountain systems as Western China; a significant part of the territory here consists of lowlands, coastal plains, adjacent to them are mountains of medium height and plateaus.
Eastern China has more favorable natural conditions than in the West, the climate is much milder, the vegetation is more diverse, etc. All these conditions contributed to the fact that it was in this part of China that the most ancient agricultural culture arose, the first centers of Chinese civilization appeared, and the state arose earlier than in other parts of the country.
China has a significant river network, but all major rivers are in the eastern part of the country. The main rivers of China flow from west to east. River valleys are the most fertile and most populated areas of the country. The ancient population of China was concentrated in river valleys. The basin of the main river of Northern China - the Yellow River, whose length is more than 4 thousand km, was the center of the ancient Chinese civilization. The Yellow River is a stormy river. It repeatedly changed its course, flooded vast expanses of land, bringing great disasters to the population. The largest river in China is the Yangtze Jiang, with a length of over 5 thousand km, its basin is Central China. The largest river in Southern China is the high-water Xijiang (about 2 thousand km).
The depths of China are replete with minerals. Rivers, lakes and seas are rich in fish. In ancient times, large areas in Cathay were covered with forests.
The climate of eastern China is very favorable for Agriculture, since the hottest time of the year - summer - accounts for the greatest amount of precipitation, while autumn is warm and dry. The climate of western China is characterized by significant dryness: there is a long Cold winter and a short, hot summer.
The population of China in ancient times was not homogeneous. The Chinese tribes themselves, which, according to later literary sources, bore the names Xia, Shang, Zhou, etc., were already very early times occupied a significant part of Eastern, Northern and Northwestern China. The south and southwest of the country were inhabited mainly by various tribes of the Sino-Tibetan group of languages. The west, north and northeast of China were inhabited mainly by tribes of the Turkic, Mongolian and Manchu-Tungusic language groups.
The main areas of Chinese settlement in ancient times were the areas of the middle and lower reaches of the Yellow River, as well as the plain adjacent to the Bohai (Zhili) Gulf. Fertile alluvial (alluvial) soil, formed mainly from river silt, predominated here. Fertile soil and the temperate climate of the Great Chinese Plain contributed to the development of agriculture here among the ancient Chinese tribes.
In a less favorable position were the ancient tribes who inhabited the region of loess soils, which occupy a huge area in Northern and Northwestern China. Loess, which is deposits of mineral dust particles blown from mountainous heights by the winter monsoons, contains nutrients(organic residues and easily soluble alkalis), which make it possible to do without fertilizers. But in the area of the loess plateau there is relatively little precipitation, so artificial irrigation is required for the development of agriculture. Due to the conditions noted above, among the tribes that inhabited the loess plateau in ancient times, agriculture was less developed than in the lower reaches of the Yellow River.
According to Chinese literary sources, we can conclude that it was preserved in China in the 3rd millennium BC. e. remnants of the maternal family. This is evident from the fact that ancient sources, reporting on the origins of the first ancestors of the Shang, Zhou and Qin tribes, do not talk about their fathers, but only give the names of their mothers; kinship was then calculated along the maternal line. It is known that under the maternal clan (matriarchy), sons could not inherit from their father, since they belonged to another clan, namely the mother’s clan. According to Sima Qian, the author of “Historical Notes” 1 (“Historical Notes” (“Shi Ji”), consisting of 130 chapters, represents the first comprehensive history of the country in China, covering the period from legendary antiquity to the 1st century BC BC Sima Qian (II-1 centuries BC), the author of this work, used sources that were available in his time and subsequently lost. “Historical Notes” cover a wide range of issues: internal political events, external Relations China in ancient times, the economic system of the country (mainly the 2nd-1st centuries BC), cultural development, etc.), the legendary rulers Yao and Shun, before their deaths, chose successors not from among their sons.
“Historical Notes” bring to us memories of the period when there was a council of tribal elders. The tribal leader often consulted with him on important issues. Tribal or clan leaders could be relieved of their duties by decision of the council of elders. From the legends cited in literary sources, we can conclude that at the end of the 3rd millennium the elective principle was replaced by hereditary law: tribal leaders were no longer elected, the hereditary power of the leader appeared, passed from father to son. The leader's family, separated from the rest of the tribe, later became the bearers of royal power. But even in these conditions, the council of elders still exists, although its rights are limited, and its decisions become optional for the hereditary leaders of the tribe.
Data from archaeological excavations allow us to conclude that in the 2nd millennium, when bronze appeared in China, the primitive communal system decomposed and a gradual transition to a class, slave-owning society took place.
The sources do not make it possible to trace the entire process of the decomposition of the tribal system and the transition to a class society in China; they report only fragmentary data on this. From them we can conclude that slavery appears in the depths of tribal society. Prisoners captured during wars between individual tribes and clans were used as labor and turned into slaves. This process took place on the basis of the further development of productive forces, the emergence of private ownership of the means of production and products of labor, on the basis of growing property inequality and took place in a continuous struggle both within the tribes that inhabited China in ancient times and between tribes. Based on Chinese literary sources, it can be assumed that the struggle within the tribes was accompanied by the struggle of clan elders against tribal leaders.
By the end of the 3rd millennium, as can be assumed based on ancient legends, the Xia and Shan tribes played a decisive role in the territory of ancient China. Ultimately, the winner was the Shan tribe, whose name is associated with the creation of the first state in Chinese history. Science does not have reliable archaeological data about the Xia tribe. We can judge about it only from some data from literary sources.
Judging by the legends preserved in the ancient literary sources, the Shang tribe originally inhabited the Yishui River basin (northwestern part of what is now Hebei Province). Then, as some modern Chinese researchers suggest, this tribe settled from the Yishui River basin along different directions: to the west - to the territory of modern Shanxi province, to the south - to Henan, to the southeast - to Shandong, to the northeast - along the coast of the Bohai Bay to the Liaodong Peninsula.
By the 18th century BC e., when, according to legend, Cheng Tan stood at the head of the Shai tribe, the final conquest of the Xia tribe dates back to him.
Cheng Tang, according to Chinese tradition, founded the Shang dynasty. In later times, after the fall of this dynasty, in inscriptions on bronze vessels, the Shang dynasty and the state as a whole, as well as its crown population, began to be designated for the first time with the hieroglyph “yin.” This name has become widespread both in ancient sources and in modern Chinese and foreign literature. Therefore, we also use two names to designate the same state or period: Shang and Yin.
The name Shan, used until the destruction of this kingdom in the 12th century. BC e., comes from the name of the area where, apparently, the ancestral domains of the leaders of the Shan tribe were located. This name was also used to designate a tribe, then it was adopted as the name of the state and country.
The main source of information about the Shang (Yin) kingdom is data gleaned from excavations of the remains of the last capital of this kingdom, the city of Shang, found near the city of Anyang, near the village of Xiaotun (in modern Henan province). Of particular importance are the inscribed bones found here. These inscriptions are mainly fortune-telling records - questions of the Yin kings to the oracles and the answers of the latter. The inscriptions were made on the bones of various animals (most often bulls and deer) and the scutes (shells) of turtles and can be dated back to the 14th-12th centuries. BC e.
Based on the data from these inscriptions, some researchers conclude that the entire territory of the Shang (Yin) state was divided into five large regions called: Shang, Northern Lands, Southern lands, Eastern Lands and Western Lands. The Shan region was considered central, the main one, therefore in the inscriptions on the bones it was called Central Shan.
The Shang (Yin) kingdom occupied the territory of modern Henan province, as well as parts of adjacent provinces. Around the Shang kingdom there were a number of semi-independent tribes that were at times subordinate to it, including tribes that were Chinese in language. Next door to Western lands lived the Zhou, Qiang, Guifang, Kufan tribes; the neighbors of the Northern Lands were the Luifang and Tufan tribes; the neighbors of the Southern lands were the Tsaofan and others, and finally, next to the Eastern lands there was the Renfang tribe.
Materials from archaeological excavations provide a certain idea of the development of productive forces during the Shang (Yin) period. First of all, bronze products became widespread, but at the same time stone and bone tools still retained great importance.
During excavations in Xiaotong, a Yin city, the capital of the Shang (Yin) kingdom, many items made of copper and bronze were discovered: sacrificial vessels, household utensils and weapons - swords, halberds, axes, arrowheads, spear points. In addition, bronze tools were found: axes, knives, awls, chisels, pitchforks and needles. If we take into account that in the pre-Yin period, vessels were made mainly from clay, and tools and weapons were made from stone and bone, then we should conclude that during the Shang (Yin) period great progress was made in the development of productive forces. This is also evidenced by a wide variety of forms, more skillful manufacture of products, in particular vessels, and rich painting on them.
Although in the life of the population of ancient China during this period primitive forms of economy - fishing and partly hunting - still retained importance, they no longer played a decisive role. They were replaced by cattle breeding and agriculture, and the latter began to play the main role.
To denote various types of concepts related to agriculture, a number of signs are used in the inscriptions on bones, meaning: “field”, “well”, “arable land”, “border”, “wheat”, “millet”, etc. The sign “field” (tian) was depicted in the form of regular four squares connected together, or in the form of a rectangle divided into several parts, or in the form of an uneven pentagon.
The main grain crops in Northern China were millet, which required relatively little moisture, wheat, barley and sorghum (kaoliang). It is possible that rice culture also existed at this time in the Yellow River basin. Inscriptions on the bones indicate the presence of horticultural crops during the Shang (Yin) period, as well as the breeding of silkworms (silkworms) and the cultivation of mulberry trees. According to legend, silkworms have been bred in China since ancient times. Silk cocoons were discovered during excavations at one of the Neolithic sites in the village of Xincun (Shanxi Province). Inscriptions on bones often contain signs depicting a silkworm. Silkworm caterpillars were held in high esteem by the Yin people. They even made sacrifices to their spirits. In fortune-telling inscriptions there are also often signs depicting silk threads (a silkworm product), a dress, etc.
ABOUT further development agriculture is evidenced by a higher technology for cultivating the land than before. A number of modern Chinese scientists suggest that irrigation was already used then, apparently primitively and even in small sizes. This conclusion is suggested both by ancient legends, which report the beginnings of artificial irrigation back in the pre-Yin period, and by inscriptions on bones. In the latter there are a number of hieroglyphs expressing the idea of irrigation. One of them depicted a field and streams of water, which were, as it were, irrigation canals.
Metal tools were already used in agriculture. This is evidenced by copper shovels found during excavations in the vicinity of Luoyang and near Anyang. The interpretation of a number of signs in the inscriptions on the bones suggests that the Yin people used livestock to cultivate the land. Thus, one of the signs, “u,” depicted an ox standing at the side of an agricultural implement. Another sign, “li” (plow, to plow), also contains an ox, and sometimes, but rarely, a horse. In fortune-telling inscriptions there are also combinations of two hieroglyphs denoting a plow and an ox.
According to Chinese legends, in ancient times there was a so-called “coupled plowing”, when two people plowed together. This gave more effect when loosening the soil. The concept of “paired plowing” had more broad meaning: it meant the joining of efforts of two or more people when cultivating the land, i.e. collective cultivation of the field.
Hunting and fishing no longer played a major role in the economy of the Yin people, but continued to retain significant importance. This is evidenced by many inscriptions on the bones.
Cattle breeding occupied a significant place in Yin society. This is evidenced by the number of animals sacrificed to the spirits. Sometimes it also includes white kaolin. At this time, the potter's wheel already existed, although clay vessels were also produced manually. Clay products were fired, sometimes covered with glaze, and often decorated with delicate ornaments.
We have already talked about the development of sericulture in Yin times. The production of silk fabrics and the development of weaving is evidenced by the existence of such hieroglyphs that denoted the concepts of “silk thread”, “clothing”, “shawl”, etc.
The existence of various branches of crafts and special workshops, as well as the high skill of Yin artisans, indicate that handicraft production has already come a long way in its development.
With the advent of the division of labor between agriculture and crafts and the growth of surplus agricultural products and handicrafts, exchange began to develop. Archaeological finds allow us to conclude that there are economic ties between the Yin and other tribes, including very distant ones. 
From the tribes on the Bohai coast, the Yin received fish and sea shells; apparently from modern Xinjiang - jasper. Copper and tin were brought from the areas located in the upper reaches of the Yangtze River and in Southern China, from which bronze was smelted. Nomadic and semi-nomadic tribes received agricultural products and handicrafts, in particular weapons, from the Yin. Finds of vessels on the Abakan River, and bronze weapons on the Yenisei River, similar to the products of Shan artisans, indicate connections between the Yin and the tribes of Siberia.
Archaeological excavations indicate that at least after the 14th century. BC e. among the Yin, precious cowrie shells were the measure of value.
In the ruins of the Yin capital, many such shells with a smooth, polished outer side were found. To make the shells more convenient to wear, holes were drilled in them and strung on a thread. The cost of the bundles appears to have been significant. In the inscriptions there is a mention of the king’s gift of several bundles, up to ten at most. Later, as exchange expanded, the number of sea shells in circulation became insufficient and it was difficult to obtain them. Then they began to resort to replacing natural shells with artificial ones made from jasper or bones. Shells, having become a measure of value, later became a symbol of preciousness and wealth. Concepts meaning preciousness, wealth, accumulation and many others, similar in meaning, began to be denoted by hieroglyphs in which the main component was the shell.
The remains of dwellings and burials indicate a significant stratification of property. While the poor huddled in dugouts, the rich lived in large wooden houses with stone foundations. The burials also reflect class differentiation. The tombs of kings and nobles differ sharply from burials in the abundance and richness of things found in them ordinary people. Found in noble burials a large number of expensive items made of bronze and jade, as well as decorated weapons. Along with the deceased noble people, their servants, probably slaves, were buried. 
Thus, corpses with severed heads were found in the graves of Yin couples. There is reason to believe that sometimes slaves were buried alive.
Until relatively recently, scientists unanimously considered Yin society to be pre-class, noting that by the end of its existence (12th century BC), primitive communal relations had decomposed and a transition to a slave-owning system had taken place. However, further research into deciphering Yin inscriptions on bones and archaeological excavations carried out by Chinese scientists in recent years have led to a different conclusion, namely: Yin society was a class, slave-owning society. But install exact time The transition from a tribal society to a class society is very difficult. Although the data from archaeological excavations, reflecting class relations, date back to the period after the transfer of the capital by King Pan Geng to Shang, i.e. to the 14th century. BC e., it can be assumed that class society arose even before this time. For a long time, this system, of course, retained significant remnants of primitive communal relations.
The most reliable literary monument, the data of which about the Yin people shed light on the period preceding the creation of the Shang dynasty, is the chapter “Basic Records of Yin” from Sima Qian’s “Historical Notes”. It is characteristic that the list of Yin Wangs (rulers, kings) given by Sima Qian is mainly confirmed by inscriptions on the bones. This gives reason to consider Sima Qian’s materials quite reliable. According to Sima Qian, Cheng Tang, addressing the zhuhou (military leaders) and the population, said: “Those of you who do not respect my orders, I will severely punish and destroy. There will be no mercy for anyone." This could be said by a ruler who was already in complete control of the lives of his subordinates.
