Types of mushroom plates:
The dung beetle is white.
610-1. Which organisms have a body made up of mycelium?
A) algae
B) bacteria
B) mushrooms
D) protozoa
610-2. Vegetative propagation in fungi it is carried out with the help
A) dispute
B) gametes
B) mycelium
D) fruiting bodies
610-3. The fruiting body is characteristic of
A) Bacteria
B) Mushrooms
B) Protozoa
D) Algae
610-4. The mold fungus penicillium consists of
A) various tissues and organs
B) anucleate cells on which sporangia are located
B) multicellular mycelium and racemose sporangia
D) multicellular mycelium and fruiting body
610-5. Which of the following representatives belongs to the kingdom of fungi?
A) sphagnum
B) streptococcus
B) penicillium
D) chlorella
610-6. What mushrooms do not form mycorrhizae with woody plants?
A) boletus
B) boletus
B) chanterelles
D) tinder fungi
610-7. Look at the drawing.
What letter on it indicates the mycelium? 
610-8. What function does the cap of the fruiting body perform in boletus?
A) serves to attract animals and humans
B) captures solar energy, enabling photosynthesis
B) is the place where spores are formed
D) provides air supply
610-9. Which of the following fungi does not form mycorrhizae?
A) tinder fungi
B) boletus
B) boletus
D) white
610-10. What are hyphae?
A) threads that make up the body of the mushroom
B) fungal sporulation organs
B) organs of attachment of the fungus to the substrate
D) photosynthetic part of the lichen
610-11. Consider a microphotograph of a mukor mold. What is contained in the black balls of this mushroom?
A) nutrients
B) water with mineral salts
B) microscopic spores
D) microscopic seeds
610-12. Which mushroom is classified as tubular?
A) russula
B) boletus
B) autumn honey fungus
D) champignon
610-13. What function does the fruiting body of the boletus mushroom perform?
A) structural
B) trophic
B) excretory
D) generative
610-14. When picking mushrooms, it is important not to damage the mycelium, as it
A) serves as a place for spore formation
B) serves as food for animals living in the soil
B) absorbs nutrients dissolved in water from the soil
D) holds soil lumps together and protects it from erosion
610-15. Settling on stumps, honey mushrooms use them for
A) attracting pollinating insects
B) obtaining finished organic substances
B) obtaining energy from inorganic substances
D) protection against pathogenic bacteria
610-16. Why is it often found on a rotten stump? a large number of again?
A) a rotting stump releases heat, which activates the growth of honey mushrooms
B) a rotting stump emits heat, which activates the reproduction of mushrooms
C) honey mushrooms feed on organic matter from dead plants
D) the mycelium of honey mushrooms forms mycorrhiza with the roots of the stump
610-17. Why are porcini mushrooms often found in oak forests?
A) There is a lot of light in the oak forest.
B) Porcini mushrooms form mycorrhiza with oak roots.
C) Porcini mushrooms have no competitors in the oak forest.
D) In the oak forest there are no animals that feed on porcini mushrooms.
610-18. What is mycelium?
A) the photosynthetic part of the lichen
B) fungal sporulation organ
B) a symbiotic organ of a fungus and plant roots
D) vegetative body of the fungus
610-19. What is mycorrhiza?
A) mushroom root
B) mycelium growing in the soil
B) individual threads of the fungus forming the fruiting body
D) fibrous root system of the plant
610-20. Why, when picking mushrooms, should the mushroom picker not dig up the soil around the fruiting body?
A) the mycelium of the fungus is destroyed
B) the root system of nearby trees is damaged
C) soil fertility is impaired
D) there is a mass death of soil insects
610-21. The mycelium that entangles the roots of a plant is called
A) mycorrhiza
B) lichen
B) mold
D) scion
Dmitry Pozdnyakov BIOLOGY contents
ZUBROMINIMUM: preparing for the Unified State Exam quickly
"BIOROBOT" is an online testing
Let’s not beat around the bush, but let’s immediately begin to describe the structure of the mushroom.
The edge is the edge of the record; in some species it is colored differently than the plate itself.
The fruiting body is the part of the mushroom on which spores are formed. In other words visible part mushroom. The rest of it, located in the ground (or in a tree), is called mycelium.
The general cover is a snow-white leathery shell that envelops the young mushroom and makes it look like an egg. When the mushroom cap grows and expands, the common covering breaks and remains at the base of the stem like a typical cover. This is the vagina, or the volva. From time to time, traces of the common blanket remain in the form of leathery scales on the cap. It is more noticeable in Amanita mushrooms, as well as in Volvariella (there is such a mushroom).
The cap is that part of the fruiting body of the mushroom on inside which contains plates, tubes or spines. Usually the middle of the cap is attached to the stem, but in some species, for example Oyster mushroom, the stem protrudes beyond the edges of the cap, in other words, it is placed on the side.
Hyphae are fungal cells. They usually have the shape of oblong sausages. The thickness of an ordinary hypha is one hundredth of a mm, the length is five to ten times greater.
The tuber is a swelling at the base of the stalk, for example in the Fly Agaric.
The pulp is formed from dense bundles of filaments-hyphae and is the connective tissue that makes up the cap, stalk and inner side of the plates. The pulp usually has a fibrous structure and, therefore, the mushroom stem can simply be divided into fibers.
Milk and Russula are distinguished by fragile and brittle pulp, which cannot be divided into fibers, but can only be crushed.
The plates are blade-shaped projections on the inside of the mushroom cap. The color of the plates can only be found in young mushrooms, because in mature mushrooms they are already covered with spore powder, which has its own color, clearly distinguishable from the plates. The color of the spore powder is the principal corresponding characteristic of each species.
Types of mushroom plates:
Mycelium is connective tissue, consisting of threads-hyphae and is the main part of the mushroom, in contrast to its fruiting body, which is collected and eaten. The mycelium is found in the ground or inside the tree on which the mushroom grows.
Mycorrhiza, “fungal root” is a symbiosis of fungal mycelium with the upper roots of a tree. Tree roots receive mineral salts and water from the fungus, and the mushroom receives sugar from the tree roots. Of all the mushrooms outlined on this site, mycorrhizae are formed by Amanita, Tubular, Chanterelles, Russula, Mlechniki, Ryadovki, Lakovitsy, Fiberworts and Svinushki. This means that they all grow under trees, and usually under trees of a certain type.
Ribs or veins are plate-like formations on the inside of the cap, for example in chanterelles. Unlike plates, they do not have the shape of a blade, but only protrude slightly above the surface of the underside of the cap and look like more or less branched veins.
The ring is a leathery cuff on the upper part of the leg. The ring can be ordinary, single-layer, or multi-layer, like that of the Motley Umbrella.
Tubes are located on the inside of the cap of tubular or cellular mushrooms instead of plates. In tubular ones they simply separate from the cap, in cellular ones they are firmly fused with the pulp.
Saprophytes are fungi that feed on the organic matter of dead plants, animals or other fungi. This is the most numerous of the groups of mushrooms distinguished by lifestyle.
“Witches' rings”, Heterotrophs are organisms that receive ready-made nutrients from the environment, in contrast to autotrophs, which independently produce nutrients for themselves under the influence of sunlight.
The vagina (volva) is a typical sheath at the base of the stalk, which appears from the remains of a leathery general covering. Young Volvariella or Fly Agaric, for example, are enclosed in a shell (common blanket) and look like an egg. As the fungus grows, the stalk inside the “egg” stretches, the shell ruptures and forms a kind of vagina at the base of the stalk. On the cap of the mushroom, the remains of this shell look like large or small scales, which are the corresponding distinctive feature of many fly agaric mushrooms, for example, the white toadstool.
The personal cover is a narrow, cobweb-like skin that is stretched between the edges of the cap and the stem of completely young mushrooms. When the hat straightens out, this protective film bursts and remains hanging in the form of thin shreds or threads on the sides of the cap or on the stem, and often it completely disappears. The remains of a personal veil can be found on the leg of the gray-plated honey fungus.
Smell is a fundamental aspect in determining the edible suitability of many mushroom species. But you need enough experience before you can completely trust your own instincts. Usually you need to sniff the inside of the mushroom (plates).
Taste is a fundamental aspect when determining the type of mushroom. Often, in order to recognize a mushroom, they bite off a small piece from the edge of the cap, carefully chew it, and then spit it out. The taste of mushrooms can be different: from soft, nutty to sharply bitter or hot and spicy. It is important to know that there is no connection between the taste of a mushroom and its suitability for eating. Many Milkgarics, for example, have a hot, pungent taste, but after salting they are very tasty (this does not apply to Fly Agarics!). When determining the type of tubular mushrooms, you can completely rely on their taste: mushrooms with a mild taste are edible, but those with a bitter taste should be thrown away.
Spores are the reproductive organs of fungi; they are formed in multitudes on plates and tubes. The length of the spore is usually one hundredth of a mm, and it is usually ovoid in shape. The spores are quite diverse in shape and color and are a distinctive feature of each type of mushroom.
Spore powder is millions of spores spilled from the mushroom cap.
To get spore powder, you need to cut off the cap from the mushroom, put it with the plates down on a sheet of snow-white paper, cover with a glass and leave overnight (you need to take only fresh caps without a wormhole).
The stem is the part of the mushroom to which the cap is attached. It can be long or short, thick or narrow, and sometimes it is absent, for example, in tree mushrooms.
Marsupial fungi form spores in the so-called spore sac, in other words, an oblong cell, at the end of which there is a pore or hole with a valve. Usually 8 spores appear in the spore bag.
· fungi are unicellular and multicellular organisms, the body of which consists of thin threads - hyphae
· reproduction of fungi: spores, parts of mycelium - vegetative reproduction; budding in yeast; sexual reproduction of some fungi
What are the structural features and vital functions of cap mushrooms?
Name at least 4 features.
have mycelium and fruiting body
· reproduce by spores and mycelium
· according to the method of nutrition - heterotrophs
Most form mycorrhizae
53. In what ways does the kingdom of fungi differ from the kingdom of plants? Name at least 3 signs.
Fungi are heterotrophs and are not capable of photosynthesis.
· fungi differ in the structure and chemical composition of the cell: they do not have chloroplasts, the cell wall contains chitin, the reserve nutrient is glycogen
The body of fungi is formed by hyphae
How does a person use molds?
· By specially growing them, he obtains vitamins and antibiotics (penicillin) from them, and uses them in the preparation of cheeses.
List at least 3 similarities between representatives of the fungal and plant kingdoms
Explanation.
Unlimited apical growth
attached lifestyle
absorption of substances from the environment
Indicate at least three signs of similarity between representatives of the fungal and animal kingdoms
heterotrophic mode of nutrition
absence of plastids in the cell
· presence of polysaccharides: chitin in the cell wall and synthesis of the reserve nutrient glycogen
Indicate at least three ways of asexual reproduction of representatives of the fungal kingdom
budding (yeast)
Reproduction by a non-specialized cell - spore (penicillium)
areas of mycelium (cap mushrooms)
Why do some scientists classify green euglena as a plant and others as an animal? Provide at least three reasons.
· like animals: capable of heterotrophic nutrition and active movement in search of food
· like plants: contains chlorophyll in the cell and is capable of autotrophic nutrition
What signs are characteristic of coelenterates in comparison with protozoa?
· the body consists of many cells that form 2 layers: ento and ectoderm, have a mouth and an intestinal cavity
· in the ectoderm the cells are differentiated into dermal-muscular, stinging, intermediate and nervous (they form a diffuse nervous system), in the endoderm there are 2 types of digestive cells
radial symmetry of the body
· intestinal and intracellular digestion
Reproduction by budding, with alternation of sexual and asexual generations
· Adaptation to environmental conditions increases.
· The area is expanding.
· Fertility increases.
What are the similarities between flat, round and annelids?
62. Explanation.
· Three-layer, body walls are represented by a skin-muscle bag
· Bilateral symmetry, their body has anterior and posterior ends, elongated
Lack of hard skeletal parts and true dismembered limbs
63. Explanation.
· compliance with personal hygiene rules
· cleaning drinking water
· sanitary control in slaughterhouses and proper food preparation
· simplification of the structure and reduction of individual organ systems
the presence of attachment organs that allow them to be retained in the host’s intestinal body
hermaphrodites with complex life cycles with change of owners
What signs of annelids indicate their high level of organization. Specify at least 4 characteristics
· the presence of body segmentation, which is expressed in external and internal organization, in the repetition of many internal organs, which increases survivability in case of damage
presence of a secondary body cavity
presence of a closed circulatory system
· developed nervous system is represented by the peripharyngeal nerve ring and the ventral nerve cord
English writer James Aldridge described an interesting feature of the octopus. He tells how he put the caught octopus on a sheet of newspaper and it instantly changed color, becoming striped with white and black stripes. Explain what is the biological meaning of the described phenomenon?
· This protective device, allowing the octopus to become invisible to enemies;
· The octopus, which leads a predatory lifestyle, can more successfully lie in wait for its victims due to this adaptation.
What are the nutritional features of representatives of different classes of molluscs?
class gastropods - herbivores, they scrape with the help of a grater tongue soft fabrics plants
class bivalve - filter feeders, they pass water through the mantle cavity, extracting organic particles and small organisms
· class cephalopods - predators, attack various crustaceans and fish, which they grab with tentacles and kill with jaws and poison from the salivary glands
Signs of the type of arthropods
· the body and limbs consist of segments (segments)
open circulatory system
chitinous cover
ventral nerve cord
How do representatives of different classes of the phylum arthropods differ?
· crustaceans – 5 pairs of walking legs, body divided into cephalothorax and abdomen, 2 pairs of antennae, compound eyes on stalks
· arachnids – 4 pairs of walking legs, the body is divided into a cephalothorax and abdomen, no antennae, several pairs of simple eyes
· insects – 3 pairs of walking legs, the body is divided into a head, thorax and abdomen, there are wings, 1 pair of antennae, complex compound eyes
Insects are the most common and numerous class of animals. What features of their structure and life activity contributed to the prosperity of these animals in nature? Please indicate at least three features.
· chitinous cover – protects against moisture loss, UV rays, mechanical damage
Wings – provide the ability to quickly populate new territories
Breathing using tracheas - allows for intensive metabolism during flight
Reproduction with complete metamorphosis allows adults and larvae to eat different foods Explanation.
1. Light chitinous cover (protecting the body from moisture loss, mechanical damage, exposure ultraviolet rays) and the presence of wings in most (allowing insects to quickly colonize new territories).
2. Breathing using tracheas (allows for intensive gas exchange and support if necessary (during the flight) high level life processes).
3. An excretory system of Malpighian vessels and a fat body, which allows them to adapt to life in dry conditions and protects them from pesticides.
4. Reproduction in the majority with complete transformation, where the larva feeds on different food, unlike the adult insect, which reduces competition.
Other possible answers: Small size of insects; High fertility and ability for mass reproduction; High fertility and ability for mass reproduction; A well-developed nervous system, diverse and sophisticated sensory organs, complex innate forms of individual and social behavior- instincts; The ability to survive unfavorable conditions in a state of diapause - temporary physiological rest; Change of habitat at different stages of ontogenesis.
What features are characteristic of mollusks?
Explanation.
· The body is soft, not segmented, most have shells.
· They have a mantle and a mantle cavity.
· Circulatory system open
Explanation.
What aromorphoses allowed ancient amphibians to colonize land?
· Five-fingered limbs for movement on land.
· Pulmonary respiration.
· Three-chambered heart and two circles of blood circulation.
Explanation.
Fungi are ancient heterotrophic organisms that occupy special place V common system wildlife. They can be either microscopically small or reach several meters. They settle on plants, animals, humans or on dead organic matter, on the roots of trees and grasses. Their role in biocenoses is great and varied. In the food chain, they are decomposers - organisms that feed on dead organic remains, subjecting these remains to mineralization into simple organic compounds.
In nature, mushrooms play a positive role: they are food and medicine for animals; forming a fungal root, they help plants absorb water; Being a component of lichens, fungi create a habitat for algae.
Fungi are chlorophyll-free lower organisms that unite about 100,000 species, from small microscopic organisms to giants such as tinder fungi, giant raincoat and some others.
In the system of the organic world, mushrooms occupy a special position, representing separate kingdom, along with the animal and plant kingdoms. They lack chlorophyll and therefore require ready-made organic matter for nutrition (they belong to heterotrophic organisms). In terms of the presence of urea in the metabolism, chitin in the cell membrane, and a reserve product - glycogen, and not starch - they are close to animals. On the other hand, in their method of nutrition (by absorption, not ingestion of food), and unlimited growth, they resemble plants.
Mushrooms also have characteristics that are unique to them: in almost all mushrooms the vegetative body is a mycelium, or mycelium, consisting of threads - hyphae.
These are thin, thread-like tubes filled with cytoplasm. The threads that make up the mushroom can be tightly or loosely intertwined, branched, fused with each other, forming films like felt or strands visible to the naked eye.
In higher fungi, the hyphae are divided into cells.
Fungal cells can have from one to several nuclei. In addition to nuclei, cells also contain other structural components (mitochondria, lysosomes, endoplasmic reticulum etc.).
The body of the vast majority of fungi is built from thin filamentous formations - hyphae. Their combination forms the mycelium (or mycelium).
By branching, the mycelium forms a large surface, which ensures the absorption of water and nutrients. Conventionally, mushrooms are divided into lower and higher. In lower fungi, hyphae do not have transverse partitions and the mycelium is one highly branched cell. In higher fungi, the hyphae are divided into cells.
The cells of most fungi are covered with a hard shell; zoospores and the vegetative body of some protozoal fungi do not have it. The cytoplasm of the fungus contains structural proteins and enzymes, amino acids, carbohydrates, and lipids not associated with cell organelles. Organelles: mitochondria, lysosomes, vacuoles containing storage substances - volutin, lipids, glycogen, fats. There is no starch. A fungal cell has one or more nuclei.
In fungi, vegetative, asexual and sexual reproduction are distinguished.
Reproduction is carried out by parts of the mycelium, special formations - oidia (formed as a result of the disintegration of hyphae into separate short cells, each of which gives rise to a new organism), chlamydospores (formed in approximately the same way, but have a thicker dark-colored shell, tolerate unfavorable conditions well), by budding of mycelium or individual cells.
For asexual vegetative reproduction, no special devices are needed, but not many offspring appear, but few.
With asexual vegetative reproduction, the cells of the filament, no different from their neighbors, grow into a whole organism. Sometimes, animals or environmental movement tear the hypha apart.
It happens that when unfavorable conditions occur, the thread itself breaks up into individual cells, each of which can grow into a whole mushroom.
Sometimes growths form on the thread, which grow, fall off and give rise to a new organism.
Often, some cells grow a thick membrane. They can withstand drying out and remain viable for up to ten years or more, and germinate in favorable conditions.
During vegetative propagation, the DNA of the offspring does not differ from the DNA of the parent. This type of reproduction does not require special devices, but the number of offspring is small.
During asexual spore reproduction, the fungal filament forms special cells that create spores. These cells look like twigs that are unable to grow and separate spores from themselves, or like large bubbles within which spores form. Such formations are called sporangia.
In asexual reproduction, the DNA of the offspring is no different from the DNA of the parent. Less substances are spent on the formation of each spore than on one offspring during vegetative propagation. Asexually, one individual produces millions of spores, so the fungus has a greater chance of leaving offspring.
During sexual reproduction, new combinations of characteristics appear. In this type of reproduction, the DNA of the offspring is formed from the DNA of both parents. In fungi, DNA combining occurs in different ways.
Different ways to ensure DNA unification during sexual reproduction of fungi:
At some point, the nuclei and then the DNA strands of the parents merge, exchange pieces of DNA and separate. The descendant's DNA contains sections received from both parents. Therefore, the descendant is in some ways similar to one parent, and in some ways - like the other. A new combination of traits can reduce or increase the viability of the offspring.
Reproduction consists of the fusion of male and female sex gametes, resulting in the formation of a zygote. Fungi are distinguished between iso-, hetero- and oogamy. The sexual product of lower fungi (oospore) germinates into a sporangium in which spores develop. In ascomycetes (marsupial fungi), as a result of the sexual process, bags (asci) are formed - single-celled structures usually containing 8 ascospores. Bags formed directly from the zygote (in lower ascomycetes) or on ascogenous hyphae developing from the zygote. In the bag, fusion of the zygote nuclei occurs, then meiotic division of the diploid nucleus and the formation of haploid ascospores. The bursa is actively involved in the spread of ascospores.
Basidial fungi are characterized by a sexual process - somatogamy. It consists of the fusion of two cells of vegetative mycelium. The reproductive product is a basidium, on which 4 basidiospores are formed. Basidiospores are haploid; they give rise to haploid mycelium, which is short-lived. By fusion of haploid mycelium, dikaryotic mycelium is formed, on which basidia with basidiospores are formed.
In imperfect fungi, and in some cases in others, the sexual process is replaced by heterokaryosis (heterogeneity) and a parasexual process. Heterokaryosis consists of the transition of genetically heterogeneous nuclei from one segment of mycelium to another through the formation of anastomoses or fusion of hyphae. Nuclear fusion does not occur in this case. The fusion of nuclei after their transition to another cell is called the parasexual process.
The fungal filaments grow by transverse division (the filaments do not divide along the cell). The cytoplasm of neighboring fungal cells forms a single whole - there are holes in the partitions between the cells.
Most mushrooms look like long threads that absorb nutrients over their entire surface. Fungi absorb the necessary substances from living and dead organisms, from soil moisture and water from natural reservoirs.
Fungi release substances that break organic molecules into pieces that the fungus can absorb.
But under certain conditions, it is more beneficial for the body to be a thread (like a mushroom) rather than a lump (cyst) like a bacterium. Let's check if this is true.
Let's follow the bacteria and the growing thread of the fungus. A strong sugar solution is shown in brown, a weak solution is light brown, and sugar-free water is shown in white.
We can conclude: the filamentous organism, growing, may end up in places rich in food. The longer the thread, the greater the supply of substances that saturated cells can spend on the growth of the fungus. All hyphae behave as parts of one whole, and sections of the fungus, once in places rich in food, feed the entire fungus.
Molds settle on moist remains of plants and, less commonly, animals. One of the most common molds is mucor, or capitate mold. The mycelium of this fungus in the form of the finest white hyphae can be found on stale bread. Mucor hyphae are not separated by septa. Each hypha is one highly branched cell with several nuclei. Some branches of the cell penetrate into the substrate and absorb nutrients, while others rise upward. At the top of the latter, black round heads are formed - sporangia, in which spores are formed.
Ripe spores are spread by air currents or with the help of insects. Once in favorable conditions, the spore grows into a new mycelium (mycelium).
The second representative of mold fungi is penicillium, or blue mold. The mycelium penicillium consists of hyphae divided by transverse partitions into cells. Some hyphae rise upward, and branches resembling brushes are formed at their ends. At the end of these branches, spores are formed, with the help of which penicillium reproduces.
Yeasts are single-celled, immobile organisms of oval or elongated shape, 8-10 microns in size. True mycelium is not formed. The cell has a nucleus, mitochondria, many substances (organic and inorganic) accumulate in the vacuoles, and redox processes occur in them. Yeast accumulates volutin in cells. Vegetative propagation by budding or division. Sporulation occurs after repeated reproduction by budding or division. It occurs more easily when there is a sharp transition from abundant nutrition to insignificant nutrition, when oxygen is supplied. The number of spores in a cell is paired (usually 4-8). In yeast, the sexual process is also known.
Yeasts, or yeasts, are found on the surface of fruits and on carbohydrate-containing plant residues. Yeast differs from other fungi in that it does not have a mycelium and consists of single, mostly oval cells. In a sugary environment, yeast causes alcoholic fermentation, which results in the release of ethyl alcohol and carbon dioxide:
C6H12O6 → 2C2H5OH + 2CO2 + energy.
This process is enzymatic and occurs with the participation of a complex of enzymes. The released energy is used by yeast cells for vital processes.
Yeast reproduces by budding (some species by division). When budding occurs, a bulge resembling a kidney forms on the cell.
The nucleus of the mother cell divides, and one of the daughter nuclei becomes a bulge. The bulge grows quickly, turns into an independent cell and separates from the mother one. With very rapid budding, the cells do not have time to separate and the result is short, fragile chains.
At least ¾ of all mushrooms are saprophytes. The saprophytic method of nutrition is associated primarily with products of plant origin (the acidic reaction of the environment and the composition of organic substances of plant origin are more favorable for their life).
Symbiont fungi are associated primarily with higher plants, bryophytes, algae, and less often with animals. An example would be lichens and mycorrhiza. Mycorrhiza is the coexistence of a fungus with the roots of a higher plant. The fungus helps the plant to absorb hard-to-reach humus substances, promotes the absorption of mineral nutrition elements, helps with carbohydrate metabolism with its enzymes, activates the enzymes of higher plants, and binds free nitrogen. From a higher plant, the fungus apparently receives nitrogen-free compounds, oxygen and root secretions, which promote the germination of spores. Mycorrhiza is very common among higher plants; it is not found only in sedges, cruciferous plants and aquatic plants.
Soil fungi are involved in the mineralization of organic matter, the formation of humus, etc. This group includes fungi that enter the soil only during certain periods of life, and fungi of the rhizosphere of plants that live in the zone of their root system.
Specialized soil fungi:
House mushrooms are destroyers of wooden parts of buildings.
These include the group of mycorrhizal symbiont fungi.
Cap mushrooms settle on forest soil rich in humus and obtain water, mineral salts and some organic substances from it. They get some of their organic matter (carbohydrates) from trees.
The mycelium is the main part of every mushroom. Fruiting bodies develop on it. The cap and stem consist of mycelium threads tightly adjacent to each other. In the stem, all the threads are the same, and in the cap they form two layers - the upper one, covered with skin, colored with different pigments, and the lower one.
In some mushrooms, the bottom layer consists of numerous tubes. Such mushrooms are called tubular. In others, the lower layer of the cap consists of radially arranged plates. Such mushrooms are called lamellar. Spores form on the plates and on the walls of the tubes, with the help of which the fungi reproduce.
The hyphae of the mycelium entwine the roots of trees, penetrate them and spread between the cells. A cohabitation that is beneficial for both plants is established between the mycelium and plant roots. The fungus supplies plants with water and mineral salts; By replacing root hairs on the roots, the tree gives up some of its carbohydrates to it. Only with such a close connection of the mycelium with certain tree species is the formation of fruiting bodies in cap mushrooms possible.
Special cells called spores form in the tubes or on the plates of the cap. Ripe small and light spores spill out and are picked up and carried by the wind. They are spread by insects and slugs, as well as squirrels and hares that eat mushrooms. The spores are not digested in the digestive organs of these animals and are thrown out along with the droppings.
In moist, humus-rich soil, fungal spores germinate and mycelium threads develop from them. A mycelium arising from a single spore can form new fruiting bodies only in rare cases. In most species of fungi, fruiting bodies develop on myceliums formed by fused cells of filaments originating from different spores. Therefore, the cells of such a mycelium are binuclear. The mycelium grows slowly, and only after accumulating reserves of nutrients does it form fruiting bodies.
Most species of these fungi are saprophytes. They develop on humus soil, dead plant debris, and some on manure. The vegetative body consists of hyphae that form a mycelium located underground. During development, umbrella-like fruiting bodies grow on the mycelium. The stump and cap consist of dense bundles of mycelium threads.
In some mushrooms, on the underside of the cap, plates diverge radially from the center to the periphery, on which the basidia develop, and in them the spores are hymenophores. Such mushrooms are called lamellar. Some types of fungi have a veil (a film of infertile hyphae) that protects the hymenophores. When the fruiting body ripens, the covering breaks and remains in the form of a fringe along the edges of the cap or a ring on the stem.
In some mushrooms the hymenophore has a tubular shape. These are tubular mushrooms. Their fruiting bodies are fleshy, rot quickly, are easily damaged by insect larvae, and eaten by slugs. Cap mushrooms reproduce by spores and parts of mycelium (mycelium).
In fresh mushrooms, water makes up 84-94% of the total mass.
Mushroom proteins are digested only 54-85% - worse than other proteins plant products. Absorption is hampered by poor protein solubility. Fats and carbohydrates are absorbed very well. Chemical composition depends on the age of the mushroom, its condition, type, growing conditions, etc.
Many mushrooms grow together with the roots of trees and grasses. Their cooperation is mutually beneficial. Plants provide sugar and proteins to fungi, and fungi destroy dead plant remains in the soil and absorb water with minerals dissolved in it over the entire surface of the hyphae. Roots fused with fungi are called mycorrhiza. Most trees and grasses form mycorrhizae.
Fungi play the role of destroyers in ecosystems. They destroy dead wood and leaves, plant roots and animal carcasses. They convert all dead remains into carbon dioxide, water and mineral salts - something that plants can absorb. As they feed, the mushrooms gain weight and become food for animals and other mushrooms.
Let’s not beat around the bush, but let’s immediately begin to describe the structure of the mushroom.
The edge is the edge of the record; in some species it is colored differently than the plate itself.
The fruiting body is the part of the mushroom on which spores are formed. In other words, the visible part of the mushroom. The rest of it, located in the ground (or in a tree), is called mycelium.
The general cover is a snow-white leathery shell that envelops the young mushroom and makes it look like an egg. When the mushroom cap grows and expands, the common covering breaks and remains at the base of the stem like a typical cover. This is the vagina, or the volva. From time to time, traces of the common blanket remain in the form of leathery scales on the cap. It is more noticeable in Amanita mushrooms, as well as in Volvariella (there is such a mushroom).
The cap is that part of the fruiting body of the mushroom, on the inside of which there are plates, tubes or spines. Usually the middle of the cap is attached to the stem, but in some species, for example Oyster mushroom, the stem protrudes beyond the edges of the cap, in other words, it is placed on the side.
Hyphae are fungal cells. They usually have the shape of oblong sausages. The thickness of an ordinary hypha is one hundredth of a mm, the length is five to ten times greater.
The tuber is a swelling at the base of the stalk, for example in the Fly Agaric.
The pulp is formed from dense bundles of filaments-hyphae and is the connective tissue that makes up the cap, stalk and inner side of the plates. The pulp usually has a fibrous structure and, therefore, the mushroom stem can simply be divided into fibers. Milk and Russula are distinguished by fragile and brittle pulp, which cannot be divided into fibers, but can only be crushed.
The plates are blade-shaped projections on the inside of the mushroom cap. The color of the plates can only be found in young mushrooms, because in mature mushrooms they are already covered with spore powder, which has its own color, clearly distinguishable from the plates. The color of the spore powder is the principal corresponding characteristic of each species.
Types of mushroom plates:
Mycelium is a connective tissue consisting of hyphal threads and is the main part of the mushroom, in contrast to its fruiting body, which is collected and eaten.
The mycelium is found in the ground or inside the tree on which the mushroom grows.
Mycorrhiza, “fungal root” is a symbiosis of fungal mycelium with the upper roots of a tree. Tree roots receive mineral salts and water from the fungus, and the mushroom receives sugar from the tree roots. Of all the mushrooms outlined on this site, mycorrhizae are formed by Amanita, Tubular, Chanterelles, Russula, Mlechniki, Ryadovki, Lakovitsy, Fiberworts and Svinushki. This means that they all grow under trees, and usually under trees of a certain type.
Ribs or veins are plate-like formations on the inside of the cap, for example in chanterelles. Unlike plates, they do not have the shape of a blade, but only protrude slightly above the surface of the underside of the cap and look like more or less branched veins.
The ring is a leathery cuff on the upper part of the leg. The ring can be ordinary, single-layer, or multi-layer, like that of the Motley Umbrella.
Tubes are located on the inside of the cap of tubular or cellular mushrooms instead of plates. In tubular ones they simply separate from the cap, in cellular ones they are firmly fused with the pulp.
Saprophytes are fungi that feed on the organic matter of dead plants, animals or other fungi. This is the most numerous of the groups of mushrooms distinguished by lifestyle.
“Witches' rings”, Heterotrophs are organisms that receive ready-made nutrients from the environment, in contrast to autotrophs, which independently produce nutrients for themselves under the influence of sunlight.
The vagina (volva) is a typical sheath at the base of the stalk, which appears from the remains of a leathery general covering. Young Volvariella or Fly Agaric, for example, are enclosed in a shell (common blanket) and look like an egg. As the fungus grows, the stalk inside the “egg” stretches, the shell ruptures and forms a kind of vagina at the base of the stalk. On the cap of the mushroom, the remains of this shell look like large or small scales, which are the corresponding distinctive feature of many fly agaric mushrooms, for example, the white toadstool.
The personal cover is a narrow, cobweb-like skin that is stretched between the edges of the cap and the stem of completely young mushrooms. When the cap straightens, this protective film bursts and remains hanging in the form of thin shreds or threads on the sides of the cap or on the stem, and often it completely disappears. The remains of a personal veil can be found on the leg of the gray-plated honey fungus.
Smell is a fundamental aspect in determining the edible suitability of many mushroom species. But you need enough experience before you can completely trust your own instincts. Usually you need to sniff the inside of the mushroom (plates).
Taste is a fundamental aspect when determining the type of mushroom. Often, in order to recognize a mushroom, they bite off a small piece from the edge of the cap, carefully chew it, and then spit it out. The taste of mushrooms can be different: from soft, nutty to sharply bitter or hot and spicy. It is important to know that there is no connection between the taste of a mushroom and its suitability for eating. Many Milkgarics, for example, have a hot, pungent taste, but after salting they are very tasty (this does not apply to Fly Agarics!). When determining the type of tubular mushrooms, you can completely rely on their taste: mushrooms with a mild taste are edible, but those with a bitter taste should be thrown away.
Spores are the reproductive organs of fungi; they are formed in multitudes on plates and tubes. The length of the spore is usually one hundredth of a mm, and it is usually ovoid in shape. The spores are quite diverse in shape and color and are a distinctive feature of each type of mushroom.
Spore powder is millions of spores spilled from the mushroom cap.
To get spore powder, you need to cut off the cap from the mushroom, put it with the plates down on a sheet of snow-white paper, cover with a glass and leave overnight (you need to take only fresh caps without a wormhole).
The stem is the part of the mushroom to which the cap is attached. It can be long or short, thick or narrow, and sometimes it is absent, for example, in tree mushrooms.
The mushroom kingdom includes many species. Lower fungi belong to microorganisms. A person can only see them through a microscope or on spoiled food. Higher fungi have a complex structure and big sizes. They can grow on the ground and on tree trunks and are found where there is access to organic matter. The bodies of fungi are formed by thin, tightly adjacent hyphae. These are exactly the species that we are used to collecting in baskets while walking through the forest.
Perhaps every person has an exact idea of what an ordinary mushroom looks like. Everyone knows where they can grow and when they can be found. But in reality, the representatives of the mushroom kingdom are not so simple. They differ from each other in shape and structure. The bodies of fungi are formed by a plexus of hyphae. Most of the species known to us have a stem and a cap, which can be painted in different colors. Almost all mushrooms that humans eat are classified as agaricaceae. This group includes species such as champignons, valui, saffron milk caps, chanterelles, honey mushrooms, porcini mushrooms, trumpet mushrooms, etc. So it is worth studying the structure of these mushrooms in more detail.
The bodies of fungi are formed by intertwined giant multinucleated cells - hyphae, which make up the plectenchyma. In most capped representatives of the order Agaricaceae, it is clearly divided into a rounded cap and a stalk. This external structure They also have some species related to aphyllophorans and morels. However, even among the agaricaceae there are exceptions. In some species, the leg may be lateral or completely absent. But in Gasteromycetes, the bodies of the fungi are formed in such a way that no such division is visible, and they do not have caps. They have a tuberous, club-shaped, spherical or star shape.
The cap is protected by a skin, under which there is a layer of pulp. It may have a bright color and smell. The stem or stump is attached to the substrate. This could be soil, a living tree, or the corpse of an animal. The stump is usually dense, its surface varies depending on the species. It can be smooth, scaly, velvety.
Higher fungi reproduce sexually and asexually. The vast majority form spores. The vegetative body of the fungus is called mycelium. It consists of thin branching hyphae. A hypha is an elongated thread that has apical growth. They may not have partitions, in which case the mycelium consists of one giant multinucleate, highly branched cell. The vegetative body of fungi can develop not only in soil rich in organic matter, but also in the wood of living and dead trunks, on stumps, roots, and much less often on shrubs.
The fruiting bodies of most agaricaceae are soft, fleshy and juicy. When they die, they usually rot. Their life span is very short. For some mushrooms, only a few hours may pass from the moment they appear above the ground to the final stage of development; less often, it lasts a couple of days.
The fruiting body of mushrooms consists of a cap and a centrally located stalk. Sometimes, as mentioned above, the leg may be missing. There are hats various sizes, from a few millimeters to tens of centimeters. Walking through the forest, you can see how small mushrooms with a cap the size of a little finger pad have grown out of the ground on thin, delicate legs. And a heavy giant mushroom may sit next to them. Its cap grows up to 30 cm, and the leg is heavy and thick. Porcini mushrooms and milk mushrooms can boast such impressive sizes.
The shape of the cap is also different. There are cushion-shaped, hemispherical, flattened, bell-shaped, funnel-shaped, with an edge curved down or up. Often, over the course of a short life, the shape of a mushroom’s cap changes several times.
The caps, like the bodies of mushrooms, are formed by hyphae. They are covered with a thick skin on top. It also consists of covering hyphae. Their function is to protect internal tissues from loss of vital moisture. This prevents the skin from drying out. It can be painted in different colors depending on the type of mushroom and its age. Some have white skin, others have bright skin: orange, red or brown. It can be dry or, on the contrary, covered with thick mucus. Its surface can be smooth and scaly, velvety or warty. In some species, for example, butterfish, the skin is easily removed completely. But in russula and russula it lags behind only at the very edge. In many species, it is not removed at all and is firmly connected to the pulp that is located under it.
Under the skin, therefore, the fruiting body of the mushroom is formed by pulp - sterile tissue built from a plexus of hyphae. It varies in density. The flesh of some species is loose, while others are elastic. It can be brittle. This part of the mushroom has a specific species-specific odor. It can be sweet or nutty. The aroma of the pulp of some species is acrid or peppery-bitter; it can have a rare and even garlicky tint.
As a rule, in most species the flesh under the skin on the cap is light in color: white, milky, brownish or greenish. What are the structural features of the fungal body in this part? In some varieties, the color at the break site remains the same over time, while in others the color changes dramatically. Such changes are explained by the oxidative processes of dyes. A striking example of this phenomenon is the boletus. If you make a cut on its fruiting body, this place will quickly darken. The same processes are observed in moss and bruise.
In the pulp of such species as volushka, milk mushroom and saffron milk cap, there are special hyphae. Their walls are thickened. They are called milky passages and are filled with a colorless or colored liquid - juice.
The fruiting body of the mushroom is formed by pulp, under which, directly under the cap, there is a fruiting layer - the hymenium. This is a series of microscopic spore-bearing cells - basidium. In the overwhelming majority of agaric hymeniums, they are located openly on the hymenophore. These are special protrusions located on the underside of the cap.
Hymenophore various types higher fungi have different structures. For example, in chanterelles it is presented in the form of thick branched folds that descend onto their stem. But in blackberries, the hymenophores are in the form of brittle spines that are easily separated. The tubes are formed, and the lamellar ones, accordingly, have plates. The hymenophore can be free (if it does not reach the stalk) or adherent (if it grows tightly with it). The hymenium is necessary for reproduction. From the spores that spread around, a new vegetative body of the fungus is formed.
The structure of the fruiting body of the cap mushroom is not complex. Its spores develop on fertile cells. All agaric fungi are unicellular. As in any eukaryotic cell, a spore is divided into a membrane, cytoplasm, nucleus and other cellular organelles. They also contain a large number of inclusions. Spore size is from 10 to 25 microns. Therefore, they can only be viewed through a microscope at good magnification. In shape they are round, oval, spindle-shaped, granular and even star-shaped. Their shell also varies depending on the species. In some spores it is smooth, in others it is spiny, bristly or warty.
When leaving in environment spores often resemble powder. But the cells themselves can be either colorless or colored. Often among mushrooms there are spores that are yellow, brown, pink, red-brown, olive, purple, orange and even black. Mycologists pay great attention to the color and size of spores. These signs are stable, and they often help in identifying the types of mushrooms.
The fruiting body of the mushroom is familiar to almost everyone. The stem, like the cap, is formed from tightly intertwined threads of hyphae. But these giant cells are distinguished by the fact that their shell is thick and has good strength. The mushroom needs the stem for support. She lifts it above the substrate. The hyphae in the stalk are connected into bundles that are adjacent to each other in parallel and go from bottom to top. This is how water and mineral compounds flow from the mycelium to the cap. The legs are distinguished into two types: solid (the hyphae are pressed closely) and hollow (when a cavity is noticeable between the hyphae - laticifers). But in nature there are also intermediate types. These are the legs of the bruise and the chestnut tree. These species have a dense outer part. And in the middle the leg is filled with spongy pulp.
Anyone who has an idea of the appearance of the fruiting body of a mushroom knows that the legs differ not only in structure. They have different shapes and thickness. For example, russula and boletus have a straight and cylindrical stem. But in the well-known boletus and aspen boletuses, it evenly expands towards its base. There is also an obverse club-shaped hemp. It is very common among agaric mushrooms. Such a leg has a noticeable expansion at the base, which sometimes turns into a bulbous swelling. This form of hemp is most often detected in large species mushrooms It is typical for fly agarics, cobwebs, and umbrellas. Mushrooms in which mycelium develops on wood often have a stem narrowed towards the base. It can be elongated and turn into a rhizomorph, stretching under the roots of a tree or stump.
So, what does the body of an agaricaceae mushroom consist of? This is a stalk, which lifts it above the substrate, and a cap, in the lower part of which spores develop. Some types of mushrooms, for example, fly agaric mushrooms, after the formation of the ground part, are covered for some time with a whitish shell. It is called the “common veil”. As the fruiting body of the mushroom grows, pieces of it remain on the round cap, and at the base of the stump a bag-like formation is noticeable - a volva. In some mushrooms it is free, while in others it is attached and looks like a thickening or ridges. Also, the remnants of the “common blanket” are the bands on the stem of the mushroom. They are noticeable in many species, especially early in development. As a rule, in young mushrooms the belts cover the developing hymenophore.
Fungi differ from species to species. The fruiting bodies of some are not similar to the structure described above. There are exceptions among agaric mushrooms. And there are quite a few such species. But the lines and morels only superficially resemble agaric mushrooms. Their fruiting bodies also have a clear division into a cap and a stalk. Their cap is fleshy and hollow. Its shape is most often conical. The surface is not smooth, but rather ribbed. The lines have a hat irregular shape. It is covered with easily perceptible winding folds. Unlike agaric mushrooms, in morels the spore-bearing layer is located on the surface of the cap. It is represented by "bags" or asci. These are containers in which spores are formed and accumulate. The presence of such a part of the mushroom body as asca is common to all. The stem of morels and pods is hollow, its surface is smooth and even, and there is a noticeable tuberous thickening at the base.
Representatives of another order - aphyllophorous mushrooms, also have capped fruiting bodies with a pronounced stalk. This group includes chanterelles and blackberries. Their cap has a rubbery or slightly woody structure. A striking example of this is tinder fungi, which are also included in this order. As a rule, aphyllophoran mushrooms do not rot, as happens with agaric mushrooms with their fleshy body. When they die, they dry out.
Also slightly different in structure from most cap species are mushrooms of the order of horned mushrooms. Their fruiting body is club-shaped or coral-shaped. It is completely covered with hymenium. An important feature of this order is the absence of a hymenophore.
The order Gasteromycetes also has an unusual structure. In this group, the body of the fungus is often called a tuber. In species included in this order, the shape can be very diverse: spherical, star-shaped, ovoid, pear-shaped and nest-shaped. Their size is quite large. Some mushrooms of this order reach a diameter of 30 cm. The most striking example of gasteromycetes is the giant puffball.
The vegetative body of mushrooms is called their mycelium (or mycelium), which is located in the soil or, for example, in wood. It consists of very thin threads - hyphae, the thickness of which varies from 1.5 to 10 mm. The hyphae are highly branched. The mycelium develops both in the substrate and on its surface. The length of the mycelium in such nutritious soil, such as forest litter, can reach 30 km per 1 gram.
So, the vegetative body of fungi consists of long hyphae. They grow only at the top, that is, apically. The structure of the mycelium is very interesting. The mycelium in most species is noncellular. It is devoid of intercellular partitions and is one giant cell. It has not one, but a large number of cores. But mycelium can also be cellular. In this case, under a microscope, the partitions separating one cell from another are clearly visible.
So, the vegetative body of the fungus is called mycelium. Once in a moist substrate, the rich spores of cap mushrooms germinate. It is from them that the long filaments of the mycelium develop. They grow slowly. Only after accumulating a sufficient amount of nutritious organic and mineral substances does the mycelium form fruiting bodies on the surface, which we call mushrooms. Their rudiments themselves appear in the first month of summer. But they finally develop only with the onset of favorable weather conditions. As a rule, there are a lot of mushrooms in the last month of summer and in autumn, when the rains come.
The feeding of cap species is not at all similar to the processes occurring in algae or green plants. They cannot synthesize the organic substances they need on their own. There is no chlorophyll in their cells. They need ready-made nutrients. Since the vegetative body of the fungus is represented by hyphae, it is they that contribute to the absorption of water with mineral compounds dissolved in it from the substrate. Therefore, they prefer forest soils rich in humus. They grow less frequently in meadows and steppes. Mushrooms take most of the organic substances they need from tree roots. Therefore, most often they grow in close proximity to them.
For example, all lovers of quiet hunting know that porcini mushrooms can always be found near birch, oak and spruce trees. But you need to look for delicious saffron milk caps in pine forests. Boletus grows in birch groves, and boletus grows in aspen groves. This can easily be explained by the fact that mushrooms establish a close relationship with trees. As a rule, it is useful for both types. When a densely branched mycelium entwines the roots of a plant, it tries to penetrate them. But this does not harm the tree at all. The thing is that, located inside the cells, the mycelium sucks water from the soil and, of course, mineral compounds dissolved in it. At the same time, they also enter the root cells, which means they serve as food for the tree. Thus, the overgrown mycelium performs a function that is especially beneficial for old roots. After all, they no longer have hairs. How is this symbiosis useful for mushrooms? They get beneficial benefits from the plant. organic compounds which they need for nutrition. Only if there are enough of them, the fruiting bodies of cap mushrooms develop on the surface of the substrate.
At first, biologists united fungi and plants into one kingdom of plants, but after conducting a series of studies, studying the structure and life of fungi, they were separated into a separate group.
Mushrooms indeed have similar characteristics to both the plant and animal worlds, and are the most numerous organisms on our Earth.
Common with plants:
Common with animals:
Cap mushrooms belong to the group of higher mushrooms, united in the class Besidial. Found in forests, swampy areas, and meadows.
The body of a cap mushroom always has a mycelium and a fruiting part. The fruiting body is divided into a stump and a cap. This is how their name was formed - cap mushrooms.
Mycelium- This white thread-like structures that branch in loose soil. They are built from oblong cells arranged in a row. They have many nuclei, but lack plastids. The body of the fungus is presented as a dense accumulation of hyphal threads.
The stem threads have a similar structure, and in the cap area they form 2 balls. In the upper ball of cells there are pigments that give different types characteristic color of mushrooms. Depending on the structure of the underlying layer, cap mushrooms are divided into tubular and lamellar.
Division is carried out using spore cells. The fruiting bodies of cap mushrooms serve to produce spores; they are formed:
After ripening, the spores spill out and spread over long distances with the help of the wind. Insects carry spores on their legs throughout the forest, and they are also carried by rodents that feed on mushrooms. The spores are not destroyed by gastric juice and enzymes, they simply come out along with other undigested food debris.
Once on soil enriched with organic matter and moisture, the spores take root and give life to new organisms. First, the threads of the mycelium branch. This process is very slow. Only after reaching the required length and accumulating a sufficient amount of nutrients does the formation of a fruiting body begin. Fruiting bodies begin to appear in the first days of May, but rapid development and growth are possible after the onset of rains.
The cells of cap mushrooms lack plastids with chlorophyll and are not able to independently synthesize organic substances. They consume only prepared foods that are absorbed by mycelium threads from moist soil. This is how they adsorb mineral salts, water, and nutrients.
Some mushrooms use the roots of the trees they grow near to feed. Most caps are saprotrophs, meaning they obtain organic compounds by breaking down the remains of dead plants or animals.
Why many cap mushrooms can only grow near trees?
This is due to the symbiotic relationship between tree roots and fungal hyphae. During this form of cohabitation, both organisms benefit from it.
The mycelium surrounds the root with its hyphae and grows through the wall of its cells. When the mycelium absorbs moisture and mineral salts from the ground, they also move into the root system of the tree. The old parts of the root are devoid of root hairs, and the fungal threads seem to replace them. From the root of the tree, the mushroom takes in already synthesized organic substances that are needed for nutrition and growth of the fruiting body.
Stages of development:
If the mushroom has not been cut, it smolders and thus additionally feeds the mycelium.
The vital activity of cap mushrooms is closely related to weather conditions. They grow well in moist and warm environments. With the first warming and rains, morels sprout at the end of April or beginning of May, followed by champignons. If the weather is dry, the mushrooms will germinate only in mid-summer. And with the arrival of early cold weather, their growth stops.
Pale toadstools easily confused with champignons. To distinguish them, you need to turn the cap over and look at the color: the pale toadstool is light green, and the champignons are light pink.
fly agaric stands out with its red cap with chaotically scattered white dots. You can also find fly agarics with a grayish cap; they have the same structure, differing only in color.
Inedible gall mushroom similar to edible white. But on its leg at the top you can see a pattern similar to a gray or black mesh. And if it is broken, the flesh takes on a reddish tint.
False chanterelles differ from edible chanterelles with a cap with a reddish tint, without bends. Breaking off a piece of the cap of an inedible chanterelle will release a whitish juice.
Porcini widespread in coniferous and mixed forests. It has a yellowish tint, sometimes turning into brownish-red. The size of the cap varies from 7 to 30 cm in diameter.
Chanterelles- small mushrooms growing in groups in forest clearings. Red color and wavy hat, characteristics chanterelles.
boletus has a light brown color, grows near the birch, entering into symbiosis with it. The height of the leg can reach 15cm in height, and the cap up to 20cm in diameter.
Champignon often seen along parkland paths. Widely used in cooking and grown under artificial conditions.
Each of you is familiar edible mushrooms that grow in the forest: a white mushroom with a brown cap and a dense white stump, red-headed boletus, multi-colored russula, saffron milk caps and many others.
The structure of the mushroom differs from the structure of other plants. Each cap mushroom consists of mycelium and fruiting body. Most edible mushrooms (with the exception of truffles, strings and morels) have a fruiting body formed stump and hat. Hence the name - cap mushrooms.
If in the place where the mushroom was removed, slightly tear loose soil, then you can find thin branching white threads on which mushrooms grow. The white threads are called mycelium. This is the main part of every mushroom. Under a microscope it can be seen that the mycelium filaments are made up of long cells arranged in one row. Mycelium cells are often multinucleated and do not contain plastids. And the cap and stump consist of bundles of mycelium threads tightly adjacent to each other. In hemp, all the threads are the same, but in the cap they form two layers - the upper one, colored on the outside with various pigments, and the lower one. In some mushrooms, the bottom layer consists of numerous tubes, for example, in the porcini mushroom, boletus, and oiler. Such mushrooms are called tubular. The bottom layer of other mushrooms is formed by numerous plates, like those of saffron milk caps, russula, and trumpets. That's why they are called lamellar.
Fungi reproduce by spores. Millions of tiny spores are formed in the tubes or on the plates of the cap, which mushrooms use to reproduce.
The ripe, tiny light spores spill out, are picked up and carried by the wind. Fungal spores are also carried by insects and slugs. Squirrels and hares that eat mushrooms also take part in the spread of spores. The spores are not digested in the digestive organs of these animals and are thrown out along with the droppings.
Once in moist soil rich in humus, fungal spores germinate. From them the threads of the mycelium develop. The mycelium grows slowly. Having accumulated reserves of nutrients, the mycelium forms fruiting bodies, which we are accustomed to calling mushrooms. The rudiments of fruiting bodies are formed at the beginning of summer, but develop and grow quickly only with the onset of rainy days.
Cap mushrooms feed differently than green flowering plants and algae. There is no chlorophyll in fungal cells and organic substances are not formed. Fungi feed on ready-made organic substances, like bacteria. The mycelium of mushrooms absorbs some of the ready-made nutrients along with water and mineral salts from the moist soil; humus-rich forest soil, and part of it comes from the roots of trees under which mushrooms grow.
It is known that porcini mushrooms are found near birch, spruce and oak trees, saffron milk caps - in pine and spruce forests, boletuses - near aspens. A close connection is established between the roots of trees and the mycelium of mushrooms, beneficial to both one and the other plant. Mycelium threads entwine each root and even penetrate inside it, located inside the cells. The mycelium absorbs water and dissolved mineral salts from the soil, which flow from it into the roots of trees. Thus, the mycelium replaces root hairs that are missing in old root areas. And from the roots of trees, the mycelium receives ready-made organic substances necessary for nutrition and the formation of fruiting bodies.
What kind of mushrooms can you find in a warm, rainy summer? There are about 40 species of edible mushrooms in total, but not all of them are equally valuable for nutrition. Particularly nutritious are porcini mushrooms, milk mushrooms, saffron milk caps, aspen mushrooms, boletus mushrooms, boletus mushrooms, chanterelle mushrooms, honey mushrooms, morels and string mushrooms. Less valuable are russulas, kids, whites, pigs and others.
Morels and strings appear first at the end of April, followed by champignons. In mid-June, when the rye is heading, boletus mushrooms appear. Following them are boletus, kids, moss mushrooms, boletus, and russula. From the second half of summer until the first frost, mushrooms of all types grow vigorously. The last to appear, already in the fall, are honey mushrooms. In the summer, when there are frequent short-term rains during the day and the nights are foggy and warm, there are especially many mushrooms. In dry weather, the fruiting bodies of mushrooms begin to grow only at the end of summer, and with the onset of early cold weather, their growth stops.
When picking mushrooms, you need to be able to distinguish poisonous mushrooms from edible ones.
Particularly poisonous are the toadstool, fly agaric, gall mushroom, false chanterelles and false honey mushrooms.
Pale toadstools are very similar to the edible champignon mushrooms. Remember that the toadstool has a greenish-white underside of the cap, while the mushroom cap is pink. When picking mushrooms that look like champignons, carefully inspect the underside of the caps. The fly agaric is easily distinguished from other mushrooms by its bright red cap with white spots. Gray fly agarics are sometimes found. The shape of their gray cap with white spots and the stem are the same as those of red fly agarics.
The gall mushroom looks like a white one. It differs from the porcini mushroom in that top part The hemp of the gall fungus is covered with a pattern in the form of a black or dark gray mesh, and its flesh turns red at the break.
False chanterelles are similar to edible chanterelles. But the cap of the poisonous chanterelle is smooth, reddish-orange in color, and not with wavy edges and not light yellow, like the edible one. The broken cap of the false chanterelle exudes white juice, while the cap of the edible chanterelle does not exude any juice.
False mushrooms are very similar in appearance to edible ones. When collecting honey mushrooms, carefully inspect their stumps. Edible mushrooms have a ring of film on the stump, while false mushrooms do not have such a film. False mushrooms have a more shiny and pointed cap, and the plates under the cap have a greenish color.
To prevent mushroom poisoning, carefully inspect each mushroom before adding it to your basket. If the mushroom found looks like a poisonous one, if you doubt itsedibility, it’s better not to take such a mushroom. Overgrown, old mushrooms can also be poisonous.
Rice. 159. Poisonous mushrooms:
1 - fly agaric; 2 - death cap; 3 - false chanterelles; 4 - false mushrooms.
The most important part of the mushroom is the mycelium. Scientifically it is called mycelium, translated from Greek “Mycelium” means “mushroom”. The mycelium consists of very thin downward branching processes. She “hides” underground or in trees. The mycelium grows from the center to different sides. Some of its branches - hyphae - are so small that they cannot be seen with the ordinary eye. Mycelium often intertwine with the roots of other plants and thus form a single fungal root. Previously, people thought that mushrooms harm plants, but recently scientists have come to the conclusion that plants and mushrooms are “friends” and coexist together, benefiting each other. The mushroom receives sugar from the tree, which it lacks, and in return gives moisture and food, which it extracts from the soil. Over the years, plants and fungi have adapted greatly to each other. Experienced mushroom pickers know well which tree to find a certain type of mushroom.
There are mushrooms that are specially grown in garden beds, such as honey mushrooms (Fig. 2) or oyster mushrooms (Fig. 3), as well as the most popular mushrooms in the world - champignons. In many countries around the world, this type of mushroom has been cultivated for more than 300 years, and now everyone can buy them in the store even in winter.
Rice. 4. Champignons ()
The mycelium of many mushrooms is very similar to each other, but their fruiting bodies are very different. The fruiting bodies can be very small (1 mm) or reach gigantic sizes, exceeding one meter in diameter. In addition, they can be soft or hard. The fruiting bodies of mushrooms can be varied in shape: resemble a ball (puffball) or saucer (bitter), resemble flowers or corals (Fig. 5-8).
Rice. 5. Raincoat ()
Rice. 6. Gorkushka ()
Rice. 7. Microstoma elongated - mushroom-flower ()
Rice. 8. Coral mushrooms ()
The most famous mushrooms have a stem and a cap and are therefore called cap mushrooms. The size and shape of the caps of such mushrooms can be different: straight, curved up or down, dissected. There are mushrooms that look like stones, like truffles (Fig. 9), on glasses, like goblet-shaped talkers (Fig. 10), on knitted hats, like morels (Fig. 11). Mushroom caps can be holey, like those of the red trellis (Fig. 12), pear-shaped, like those of pear-shaped puffballs, or funnel-shaped, like those of chanterelles (Fig. 13).
Rice. 10. Goblet talker ()
Rice. 12. Red grille ()
The shape of the mushroom changes with age: the cap of a young mushroom is most often round, later ovoid and bell-shaped. It is with a rounded cap that it is easier to break through a thick layer of forest litter. Later, the cap straightens and may become convex, flat or funnel-shaped. The top of the mushroom cap is covered with a skin called cuticle. It may vary depending on weather and natural conditions. Its color can be of a wide variety of colors: red, brown, yellow, orange or even more complex shades (Fig. 14).
Rice. 14. Bioluminescent mushroom ()
Additionally, the skin may be soft, rough, scaly, velvety, moist, or oily. There is pulp under the skin of the mushroom. Its thickness depends on the type of mushroom: from several centimeters, like the porcini mushroom, or several millimeters, like the false mushroom (Fig. 15, 16).
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Rice. 15 and 16. White mushroom, false honey mushrooms and an example of the thickness of their pulp (), ()
Pulp can also be different color. Most often it is white with a gray tint, but it can even be orange or purple. Some mushrooms change color at the break: for example, the flesh of boletus and flywheel turns blue (Fig. 17), and that of the gall mushroom turns pink.
Rice. 17. Sectional view of boletus ()
Below the pulp there is a layer where the spores are attached. With their help, the fungus multiplies and spreads. The mushrooms are “helped” by wind, water and animals. Under favorable conditions, spores, once in the soil, form mycelium and give life to a new fruiting body of the fungus.
Mycologists - people who study mushrooms, divide cap mushrooms into the following types: tubular (white, oiler, boletus) (Fig. 18-20) and lamellar (chanterelle, russula, champignon) (Fig. 21-23). Another small group is the so-called marsupial mushrooms (truffles, morels, strings) (Fig. 24-26).
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Rice. 21, 22, 23. Lamellar mushrooms: chanterelles, russula, champignons (
