The historical “narrative,” as Konstantin Ivanovich Konichev (1904–1971) called his book, is dedicated to Peter I in the North. “Peter the Great in the North”... Is this topic worthy of attention? To what extent is the North connected with the name and activities of the transformer of Russia - Peter I, whom F. Engels called “a truly great man”? After all, it would seem that all of Peter’s thoughts, all of his actions were aimed at the struggle for establishment on the shores of the Baltic Sea, which Russia achieved as a result of a victorious conclusion Northern War, which, according to K. Marx, was “the war of Peter the Great.”
Peter understood perfectly well that Russia could become a powerful state only by becoming a maritime power.
““Water space is what Russia needs,” Peter said to Cantemir, and these words can be written on the title page of the book of his life,” wrote K. Marx.
And the first sea that Peter became acquainted with was not the Azov, Baltic or Caspian Seas, which he would visit, but the northern White Sea.
The inclinations of the future king of all Great and Little and White Rus' manifested themselves early. Peter had just turned three years old, and in his upper rooms appeared a “funny wooden horse”, wooden cannons, drums, “small bows”, maces, bridles, shestopers, “pistols”, banners, etc. Among these toys, testifying to the prince’s inclinations , there was also a “silver boat with stones.” The Tsarevich “amused himself,” but in these amusement one could discern the future “Mars affairs” and “Neptune amusement” of Peter.
In 1688, sixteen-year-old Peter in the village of Izmailovo, in a barn, discovered an old English boat and became very interested in it, since the “amusing” ships stationed in Preobrazhenskoye - plows and shnyavas - could not satisfy him. The Dutchman Brandt fixed the bot, which became the “grandfather of the Russian flog.” On the Yauza, on the Prosyan pond, on Lake Pereyaslavl, the Russian fleet was born.
But the time came, and the lakes ceased to interest Peter. He was irresistibly drawn to the sea. The “fun” is over. Things were starting to happen.
In July 1693, Peter left for Arkhangelsk. On July 30, Arkhangelsk greeted the Tsar with the thunder of cannon fire and the ringing of bells. And already “4th (August. – V.M.) on the heels great sovereign... deigned to travel on his yacht with his people and with German ships to the Dvina estuary Berezovskoye.” And at seven o’clock in the morning, “in the wind,” Peter went out to sea for the first time on his yacht.
A cold White Sea wave was splashing, huge white-winged gulls were flying over the water, and the sail of a lonely Pomeranian sail was white on the horizon.
The sea made a huge impression on Peter. He escorted foreign ships into the open sea, reaching the Three Islands off the Tersky coast of the Kola Peninsula.
In the spring of 1694, the “shipger” (skipper), as Peter called himself and those around him called him, was already sailing the Dvina towards the “City” (Arkhangelsk).
In Unskaya Bay, Peter's ship was caught in a strong storm, and only the skill of pilot Anton Timofeev, a peasant from the Sumy churchyard, saved the Tsar's yacht. They landed on the Pertominsky shore, where Peter placed a cross he had made with his own hand with an inscription in Dutch: “This cross was made by Captain Peter in the year of Christ 1694.” Peter also visited the Solovetsky Monastery and went out to the White Sea on the new Russian-built sea vessels “St. Peter” and “St. Paul”. At the stern of the ships a new Russian flag fluttered - red, blue and white.
Although these voyages were not without “embarrassment,” they nevertheless did their job. Peter fell in love with the sea. It became his “sweetheart.” The time will come - it is not far off - and Peter will conclude that only that sovereign has both hands, who has both an army and a navy. This idea originated with Peter in the North, on the shores of the White Sea, in Arkhangelsk. Maybe it is here, in the White Sea region, that we should look for the origins of the maritime power of Peter’s Russia.
Outstanding historical figures of the past can be judged by how the people themselves assessed them in their oral literature and folklore.
Tsar Peter is memorable to the Russian people, his appearance is memorable, his deeds have not been forgotten. The Russian North, which did not know serfdom, remembered Peter especially well. The hardworking, stern and persistent Pomor, a literate man, a peasant of the distant northern “kilns”, a reader and a storyteller, inspired respect for the image of the “carpenter king”, who was not afraid of any menial and hard work, who knew how to do everything.
“He was such a king,” the peasants of the Olonets region said about Peter, “he didn’t eat bread for nothing, he worked harder than a barge hauler.”
Even the numerous zealots of antiquity in the North, schismatics, Old Believers, who went into the dense forests to preserve their eight-pointed cross, their special hallelujah, their church books of the “old letter”, even they, the fanatics of the Poveletsky, Olonetsky, Vygsky and other monasteries, liked Petra his hard work, perseverance, perseverance. Blaming him for the persecution of his son Alexei, who defended the “old times” and the “old faith,” the inhabitants of the endless northern forests and the shores of the “Icy Sea” paid tribute to Peter. And in the balance of the Russian Pomor, who sang his “oldies” on long winter evenings under the howl of the “night owl” wind, with a torch casting a timid light on their stern faces, the positive assessment of Peter’s activities outweighed the negative.
That is why in the legends and “old stories” of the Pomors, God does not punish the “king-antichrist”, which is why even in the mouths of the distant descendants of those who followed the popular “teachers of schism” Archpriest Avvakum and Nikita Pustosvyat, Peter’s assessment changes over time. In folk songs, traditions and legends, the Old Believer, schismatic condemnation of Peter the “Antichrist” is heard less and less often, and his military exploits come to the fore.
Peter can do anything. He is a symbol of power. In the legends of the Northern Territory, Peter even acts as the master of the elements. He causes a storm, and the storm destroys his enemies, sinking the “Swean boats.”
But the people also remembered the other side of Peter’s activity - the “exorbitant burden”, from which even the “damp earth” cries, Peter’s struggle with any “liberty” and “freedom”. The people’s lot is hard, it’s hard to dig the Ladoga Canal, to build St. Petersburg, the soldier’s lot is bitter and his bread is bitter, his trials are great.
And the folklore of Peter’s times bears the imprint of gloom and severity. You can feel the people's grief, unshed tears, hidden sadness in it. The Russian people approached the memory of Peter seriously and strictly, and rightly assessed his bright, unique personality, his activities, full of internal contradictions, the positive and negative aspects of his transformations. And oral folk art, folklore, “invariably accompanies history in everything”
(M. Gorky).
A work of art is not a historical study, but K. Konichev’s “narration” about Peter I in the North is precisely a work of art. Therefore, there is no reason to demand from K. Konichez’s book accuracy in the interpretation of events, in the chronological outline, etc.
Speculation in a work of art is inevitable, but it should not be fantasy, but rather be based on sources.
The most important sources and basic literature on the issue, published before the Great October Socialist Revolution, are known to K. Konichev, and he relied on good-quality materials. Unfortunately, the author was apparently less familiar with the works of Soviet researchers, with our latest literature dedicated to Peter I. This circumstance and the author’s undoubted love for the topic “Peter and the North”, for the Russian North, prompted him to somehow briefly touch upon the fact that that after all, Peter dealt a blow to the North, since Petersburg, Peter’s “Paradise,” undermined the importance of both Arkhangelsk and the White Sea route, and with them the entire North.
Having received a “window to Europe” on the shores of the Baltic, Russia, naturally, largely lost interest in that “window” on the shores of the White Sea, which was Arkhangelsk. It was during the reign of Peter I that the ways of communication between Russia and Western Europe changed, which had a lasting impact on the position of the Russian North.
Doctor of Historical Sciences.V. V. Mavrodin
Peter I Alekseevich (1682–1725) really found himself in power when he reached his twentieth birthday. Peter the Great as a statesman was distinguished by his versatility in talents. He was a talented commander, an excellent diplomat, an outstanding legislator and a gifted publicist, etc. Peter's reforms left a deep mark on the history of the country, as they affected almost all spheres of life.
In the early 1690s. The course of Peter's first reforms began to take shape spontaneously. They appeared at that time forced measures, successive operational measures that were aimed at strengthening the Russian army and navy and creating a military industry, achieving victory in the Northern War (1700–1721).
The following can be noted character traits most of Peter's reforms: 1) the desire for universal regulation, unification (bringing to a single model) political and social institutions;
2) the formation of a multi-stage unified system of police supervision and control;
3) widespread use of Western European experience as a model of transformation.
In the political sphere, the following reforms are distinguished:
1) after the victory in the Northern War, Peter I took the title of emperor, from that time Russia began to be called an empire, which was supposed to emphasize its new foreign policy status as a world power;
2) instead of the Boyar Duma, which ceased to exist, the Senate became the highest advisory body under Emperor Peter I (since 1711). It was government agency, which was formed from senior officials who enjoyed the greatest confidence from the emperor. The main task of the Senate was control and audit of the activities of lower bodies, for which the Senate had a special staff of fiscals. Although in the future the Senate itself was the object of constant supervision by a specially organized prosecutor's office (since 1722);
3) central governing bodies, collegiums, were formed (since 1719). At the same time, individual orders continued to exist and worked until the middle of the 18th century. The main collegiums were: the Military, the Admiralty and the Collegium of “Foreign Affairs”. In addition, 3 commercial and industrial, 3 financial collegiums, the Justice Collegium (controlled the local court), the Patrimonial Collegium (in charge of land ownership), and the City Magistrate (controlled the city administration) were created;
4) the old district-volost structure of the country was abolished. Russia was divided into 8 provinces (in 1708–1710). The provinces, in turn, were divided into provinces, and the provinces into districts. The provinces were headed by governors who were appointed by Peter the Great from among his most trusted associates;
5) Orthodox Church under Peter I it was transformed into government agency led by the Synod. The Synod was headed by the Chief Prosecutor, who was a secular person, while the patriarchate was eliminated. From this time on, priests were considered as civil servants and were required to make reports on the trustworthiness of parishioners. Peter I inflicted great damage on the monasteries, which he considered shelters for parasites. The significance of administrative changes. As a result of the administrative reforms of Peter I in Russia, the establishment of an absolute monarchy was completed.
In the transformative activities of Peter I, four main directions can be distinguished.
Multiple increases in taxes led to the impoverishment and enslavement of the bulk of the population. The assignment of each Russian to a place of residence and place of service reduced the space of freedom that expanded at that time in Europe. Everyone was built into the system, like cogs in a clock mechanism. Carrying out reform government controlled, Peter I was guided by the introduction of a bureaucratic principle. A cult of institution has developed in Russia, and the pursuit of ranks and positions has become a national disaster.
A special feature of the administrative reform was the creation of a system of state control over the activities of the administrative apparatus. This led to a kind of “bureaucratic revolution,” the consequence of which was everyone’s dependence on the state apparatus.
Economic policy during the reign of Peter I was of a mercantilist nature, combined with protectionism in relation to domestic industry. The policy of mercantilism meant encouraging the development of domestic trade and industry with an active foreign trade balance. Encouragement of types of production that were “useful and necessary” from the state’s point of view was combined with a ban or restriction on the production of “unnecessary” goods. The development of industry was dictated by the needs of warfare. The main attention was paid to metallurgy, the center of which moved to the Urals. Copper smelting, silver smelting, and iron factories appeared. The Arsenal and the Admiralty Shipyard grew up in the capital, from the stocks of which 59 large and 200 small ships rolled off during the life of Peter I. By 1725, the country had 25 textile enterprises, rope and gunpowder factories. For the first time, paper, cement, sugar factories, as well as a wallpaper factory were built. Height industrial production was based on the strengthening of feudal exploitation. Forced labor was widely used in manufactories - the labor of serfs, purchased (possession) peasants, as well as the labor of the state (black) peasantry, which was assigned to the plant as a permanent source of labor, was used.
Transformations also took place in small-scale production. In 1711, vocational schools were established at the manufactories. And by the decrees of 1722, a guild structure was introduced in cities. This testified to the government’s patronage of the development of crafts.
Agriculture continued to develop in an extensive way. New crops were introduced - medicinal plants, fruit trees, tobacco, etc.
In the field of domestic and foreign trade, the state monopoly on the procurement and sale of basic goods played a major role, which significantly replenished the treasury. By the end of Peter's reign, exports of Russian goods were twice as high as imports, and high customs tariffs reliably protected the domestic market.
The main results of Peter the Great's military reforms are as follows:
The creation of a combat-ready regular army, one of the strongest in the world, which gave Russia the opportunity to fight its main opponents and defeat them;
The emergence of a whole galaxy of talented commanders (Alexander Menshikov, Boris Sheremetev, Fyodor Apraksin, Yakov Bruce, etc.);
Creation of a powerful navy; - a gigantic increase in military expenditures and covering them through the most severe squeezing of funds from the people.
Peter's church policy, like his policy in other spheres of state life, was aimed, first of all, at as much as possible efficient use churches for the needs of the state, and more specifically, to squeeze money out of the church for government programs, primarily for the construction of the fleet. After Peter’s journey as part of the Great Embassy, he was also occupied with the problem of the complete subordination of the church to its power. As a result of church reform, the church lost a huge part of its influence and became part of the state apparatus, strictly controlled and managed by secular authorities.
Russia became an autocratic, military-bureaucratic state, in which the central role belonged to the nobility. At the same time, Russia's backwardness was not completely overcome, and reforms were carried out mainly through brutal exploitation and coercion.
23.“ Regular State" of Peter I.
Although the public administration reforms carried out by Peter I were not systematic and strictly consistent, it is easy to notice two tasks that always remained a priority and undeniable for him, namely: 1) unification of public administration bodies and the entire administration system; 2) carrying out a collegial principle throughout the entire administration, which, together with a system of public (prosecutor's) and secret (fiscal system) control, was, in the tsar's conviction, supposed to ensure legality in administration.
Peter I was captivated by the idea of creating a state of perfect regularity in Russia, in which each person would have a precisely designated place and strictly obey the regulations. His model of an ideal (regular, lawful) state was built on the belief that the state can function effectively only on the basis of laws and rules established from above and only with the help of a properly structured system of state bureaucracy, placed under the strict control of the supreme power and free from the arbitrariness of officials.
Building a rationally governed state through reforms and legislative regulation was Peter's conscious goal. He dreamed of creating, as he put it, a “regular” state, in which well-thought-out laws would be used to ensure the smooth functioning of the entire governance mechanism and protect the population from the arbitrariness of officials. But in the absence of any institutions of social control, the state was not bound by anything in the implementation of reforms. And the reforms began to take on the character of compulsory measures. No initiative coming from society or even from the immediate environment became necessary. Peter needed only capable organizers and performers.
From the point of view of practical implementation, the model of a regular state is embodied in the legislative regulation of all aspects of public life, active state intervention in public relations, state protectionism (active state support priority sectors National economy) right up to the introduction of a state monopoly in a number of sectors of the then young national industry. This is also related to the desire of Peter I to create an effective system of struggle against corruption and administrative red tape.
The basic principle public policy Peter I had the principle of benefit, state benefit. In the new system of values he affirmed, state and sovereign interests prevailed over ideological postulates and dogmas. The state, which became the subject of a new cult in the era of Peter I, was perceived as a self-sufficient entity and, ultimately, as a new basis for Russian identity. Religious values were also placed at the service of the state. Such state maximalism inevitably had to come into conflict with the Christian idea of the spiritual sovereignty of the individual. As a consistent pragmatist, Peter I could not perceive the moral abstractions of Christianity. We can say that it was precisely from Peter I that politics in Russia was deprived of all moral content.
The main task of the state reforms of Peter I was a radical restructuring of the state apparatus, since the traditionally organized power and administration that was formed in the Moscow period could not ensure the mobilization of all resources - economic, military, technological in the conditions of the beginning of the modernization of society. The modernization of the state apparatus presupposed completely new principles for its construction. The main ones are usually identified as:
1) institutionalization of management, which found its expression in the creation new system institutions;
2) increasing the efficiency of management, achieved through unification (uniformity), centralization, differentiation of the management apparatus and its militarization;
3) changing the principles of staffing the apparatus of new institutions (colleges, provinces).
Foreign policy of Peter I. The main goal of Peter I's foreign policy was access to the Baltic Sea, which would provide Russia with a connection with Western Europe. In 1699, Russia, having entered into an alliance with Poland and Denmark, declared war on Sweden. The outcome of the Northern War, which lasted 21 years, was influenced by the Russian victory in the Battle of Poltava on June 27, 1709. and victory over the Swedish fleet at Gangut on July 27, 1714.
On August 30, 1721, the Treaty of Nystadt was signed, according to which Russia retained the conquered lands of Livonia, Estonia, Ingria, part of Karelia and all the islands of the Gulf of Finland and Riga. Access to the Baltic Sea was secured.
To commemorate the achievements in the Northern War, the Senate and Synod on October 20, 1721 awarded the Tsar the title of Father of the Fatherland, Peter the Great and Emperor of All Russia.
In 1723, after a month and a half of hostilities with Persia, Peter I acquired the western shore of the Caspian Sea.
Simultaneously with the conduct of military operations, the vigorous activity of Peter I was aimed at carrying out numerous reforms, the purpose of which was to bring the country closer to European civilization, increase the education of the Russian people, strengthen the power and international situation Russia. The great tsar did a lot, here are just the main reforms of Peter I.
Reform of public administration of Peter I
Instead of the Boyar Duma, in 1700 the Council of Ministers was created, which met in the Near Chancellery, and in 1711 - the Senate, which by 1719 had become the highest state body. With the creation of provinces, numerous Orders ceased to operate and were replaced by Collegiums, which were subordinate to the Senate. The secret police also operated in the management system - the Preobrazhensky order (in charge of state crimes) and the Secret Chancellery. Both institutions were administered by the emperor himself.
Administrative reforms of Peter I
Regional (provincial) reform of Peter I
The largest administrative reform of local government was the creation in 1708 of 8 provinces headed by governors, in 1719 their number increased to 11. The second administrative reform divided the provinces into provinces headed by governors, and the provinces into districts (counties) headed with zemstvo commissars.
Urban reform (1699-1720)
To govern the city, the Burmister Chamber was created in Moscow, renamed the Town Hall in November 1699, and magistrates subordinate to the Chief Magistrate in St. Petersburg (1720). Members of the Town Hall and magistrates were elected by election.
Estate reforms
The main goal of the class reform of Peter I was to formalize the rights and responsibilities of each class - the nobility, peasantry and urban population.
Nobility.
Decree on estates (1704), according to which both boyars and nobles received estates and estates.
Decree on Education (1706) - all boyar children are required to receive primary education.
Decree on single inheritance (1714), according to which a nobleman could leave an inheritance to only one of his sons.
Table of Ranks (1721): service to the sovereign was divided into three departments - army, state and court - each of which was divided into 14 ranks. This document allowed a lower-class person to earn his way into the nobility.
Peasantry
Most of the peasants were serfs. Serfs could enroll as soldiers, which freed them from serfdom.
Among the free peasants were:
state-owned, with personal freedom, but limited in the right of movement (i.e., by the will of the monarch, they could be transferred to serfs);
palace ones that belonged personally to the king;
possessional, assigned to manufactories. The owner had no right to sell them.
Urban class
Urban people were divided into “regular” and “irregular”. The regulars were divided into guilds: 1st guild - the richest, 2nd guild - small traders and wealthy artisans. Irregulars, or “mean people,” made up the majority of the urban population.
In 1722, workshops appeared that united masters of the same craft.
Judicial reform of Peter I
The functions of the Supreme Court were carried out by the Senate and the College of Justice. In the provinces there were court appeal courts and provincial courts headed by governors. Provincial courts dealt with the cases of peasants (except for monasteries) and townspeople not included in the settlement. Since 1721, court cases of townspeople included in the settlement were conducted by the magistrate. In other cases, cases were decided by the zemstvo or city judge alone.
Church reform of Peter I
Peter I abolished the patriarchate, deprived the church of power, and transferred its funds to the state treasury. Instead of the position of patriarch, the tsar introduced a collegial highest administrative church body - the Holy Synod.
Financial reforms of Peter I
The first stage of Peter I's financial reform boiled down to collecting money for maintaining the army and waging wars. Benefits from the monopoly sale of certain types of goods (vodka, salt, etc.) were added, and indirect taxes were introduced (bath taxes, horse taxes, beard taxes, etc.).
In 1704 it was held currency reform, according to which the kopeck became the main monetary unit. The fiat ruble was abolished.
Tax reform of Peter I consisted of a transition from household taxation to per capita taxation. In this regard, the government included in the tax all categories of the peasant and townspeople, who had previously been exempt from tax.
Thus, during tax reform of Peter I a single cash tax (poll tax) was introduced and the number of taxpayers was increased.
Social reforms of Peter I
Education reform of Peter I
In the period from 1700 to 1721. Many civilian and military schools were opened in Russia. These include the School of Mathematical and Navigational Sciences; artillery, engineering, medical, mining, garrison, theological schools; digital schools free training children of all ranks; Maritime Academy in St. Petersburg.
Peter I created the Academy of Sciences, under which the first Russian university was established, and with it the first gymnasium. But this system began to operate after the death of Peter.
Reforms of Peter I in culture
Peter I introduced a new alphabet, which facilitated learning to read and write and promoted book printing. The first Russian newspaper Vedomosti began to be published, and in 1703 the first book in Russian with Arabic numerals appeared.
The Tsar developed a plan for the stone construction of St. Petersburg, paying special attention to the beauty of architecture. He invited foreign artists, and also sent talented young people abroad to study “arts”. Peter I laid the foundation for the Hermitage.
Socio-economic reforms of Peter I
To boost industrial production and develop trade relations with foreign countries, Peter I invited foreign specialists, but at the same time encouraged domestic industrialists and traders. Peter I sought to ensure that more goods were exported from Russia than were imported. During his reign, 200 plants and factories operated in Russia.
Reforms of Peter I in the army
Peter I introduced annual recruitment of young Russians (from 15 to 20 years old) and ordered the training of soldiers to begin. In 1716, the Military Regulations were published, outlining the service, rights and responsibilities of the military.
As a result military reform of Peter I a powerful regular army and navy were created.
Peter's reform activities had the support of a wide circle of the nobility, but caused discontent and resistance among the boyars, archers and clergy, because the transformations entailed the loss of their leadership role in public administration. Among the opponents of Peter I's reforms was his son Alexei.
Results of the reforms of Peter I
A regime of absolutism has been established in Russia. During the years of his reign, Peter created a state with a more advanced management system, a strong army and navy, and a stable economy. There was a centralization of power.
Rapid development of foreign and domestic trade.
The abolition of the patriarchate, the church lost its independence and authority in society.
Tremendous progress has been made in the fields of science and culture. The task has been set national importance- the creation of Russian medical education, and also the beginning of Russian surgery.
Features of the reforms of Peter I
The reforms were carried out according to the European model and covered all spheres of activity and life of society.
Lack of a reform system.
Reforms were carried out mainly through harsh exploitation and coercion.
Peter, impatient by nature, innovated at a rapid pace.
Reasons for the reforms of Peter I
By the 18th century, Russia was a backward country. She was significantly inferior Western European countries in terms of production volume in industry, level of education and culture (even in the ruling circles there were many illiterate people). The boyar aristocracy, which headed the state apparatus, did not meet the needs of the country. Russian army, consisting of archers and noble militia, was poorly armed, untrained and could not cope with its task.
The main result of the entire set of Peter's reforms was the establishment of a regime of absolutism in Russia, the crown of which was the change in 1721. The title of the Russian monarch - Peter declared himself emperor, and the country became
be called Russian Empire. Thus, what Peter was aiming for all the years of his reign was formalized - the creation of a state with a coherent system of governance, a strong army and navy, a powerful economy, influencing international politics. As a result of Peter's reforms, the state was not bound by anything and could use any means to achieve its goals. As a result, Peter came to his ideal of government - a warship, where everything and everyone is subordinated to the will of one person - the captain, and managed to lead this ship out of the swamp into the stormy waters of the ocean, bypassing all the reefs and shoals. Russia became an autocratic, military-bureaucratic state, in which the central role belonged to the nobility. At the same time, Russia's backwardness was not completely overcome, and reforms were carried out mainly through brutal exploitation and coercion. The complexity and inconsistency of Russia's development during this period also determined the inconsistency of Peter's activities and the reforms he carried out. On the one hand, they had enormous historical meaning, since they contributed to the progress of the country and were aimed at eliminating its backwardness. On the other hand, they were carried out by serf owners, using serfdom methods and were aimed at strengthening their dominance. Therefore, the progressive transformations of Peter’s time from the very beginning carried conservative features, which in the course of further development countries were becoming increasingly stronger and could not ensure the elimination of socio-economic backwardness. As a result of Peter's reforms, Russia quickly caught up with those European countries where the dominance of feudal-serf relations remained, but it could not catch up with those countries that took the capitalist path of development Transformative activities Petra was distinguished by her indomitable energy, unprecedented scope and determination, courage in breaking down outdated institutions, laws, foundations and way of life and way of life. The family of Peter the Great in the history of Russia is difficult to overestimate. No matter how you feel about the methods and style of his reforms, one cannot help but admit that Peter the Great is one of the most notable figures in world history.
Firstly, the result of reforms and transformations was the strengthening of Russia's sovereign power, the strengthening of its economic potential and military power. Peter I completed the state building of the Russian Empire, begun by the Romanov dynasty. Thanks to his efforts, the former Muscovy turned into a strong European state with a regular army and navy, with a powerful and capable state apparatus, with a clear system of government.
Secondly, the legislative activity of Peter the Great's times strengthened the basis of the absolute monarchy in Russia, the unlimited power of the emperor. During the reign of Peter I, more than 3,000 legal acts were adopted concerning changes in public administration and other important areas of the state. Peter the Great enshrined his reforms in legislation so that there would be no return to the old, so that Russians would learn to live according to the law, in a new way, in a European way. The law under this monarch finally supplants the countless customs and traditions inherent in princely Rus'. Ignoring or non-compliance with the law began to be considered a crime. In addition, Peter I is the author of many regulations, tables, articles and other normative legal acts issued during the period of reforms. Suffice it to say that the General Regulations, which determined the rights and duties of officials, were subject to royal editing twelve times.
Thirdly, Peter I's perestroika changed many areas of Russian life. Thanks to his reforms, Russia became on a par with developed European countries.
Questions for self-control.
What were the prerequisites for the reforms of Peter I?
How did Peter I begin his reign?
Why did the first Azov campaign fail?
How did Peter I manage to take the Azov fortress?
Why did Peter I start the Northern War?
How did the king begin the reform of public administration and why?
Why did Peter I carry out military, tax, church and other
How did Peter I fight corruption?
What is the historical significance of the transformations of Peter I?
What titles were awarded to Peter I?
Russia after Peter the Great. After the death of Peter I, Russia entered a long period of palace coups. Palace coups were the only way to resolve the contradictions that arose among the political elites of that time.
By the end of the reign of Peter I, the tension in relations between the autocratic power, the ruling elite and the ruling class reached a critical level. This was caused, on the one hand, by a decrease in benefits for the nobility, and on the other, by the strengthening of autocratic power, the imperial form of government, which under Peter the Great was characterized by sharp pressure on the noble class. This led to the undermining of the social support of the autocracy and open discontent among the elite, which indicated a lack of unity within the ruling camp.
Already on the eve of the death of Peter I, January 25-26, 1725, a split arose among the highest ranks of the empire. One group (President of the Justice Collegium P. M. Apraksin, President of the Commerce Collegium D. M. Golitsyn, President of the Military Collegium N. I. Repnin, Senator V. L. Dolgoruky, President of the State Office Collegium I. A. Musin -Pushkin and Chancellor G.I. Golovkin) advocated the enthronement of Peter I’s grandson, Tsarevich Peter Alekseevich, and the establishment of a regency system - the rule of Peter I’s wife, Ekaterina Alekseevna, together with the Senate. Another group (His Serene Highness Prince A.D. Menshikov, Prosecutor General of the Senate P.I. Yaguzhinsky, General I.I. Buturlin, diplomat and head of the Secret Chancellery P.A. Tolstoy, Vice-President of the Synod F. Prokopovich, etc.) defended Catherine's candidacy as an autocratic empress.
The dispute went far, but assertiveness, skillful agitation and, most importantly, reliance at a critical moment on the Guards (Preobrazhensky and Semenovsky) regiments ensured the enthronement of Ekaterina Alekseevna after the death of Peter the Great on January 28, 1725.
Empress Catherine I(1725-1727), the daughter of a Lithuanian peasant, Marta Skavronskaya, in 1702 was among the prisoners taken by Peter’s army in Marienburg. Her marriage to Peter I in 1712 elevated her to the pinnacle of power. Nevertheless, neither in her outlook nor in her business qualities was she suitable for the role of Peter’s successor. The Empress, incapable of independent activity, essentially transferred her powers to selected dignitaries. By decree of February 8, 1726, a new supreme body was formed - Supreme Privy Council. It included A. D. Menshikov (in whose hands real power was concentrated), F. M. Apraksin, G. I. Golovkin, D. M. Golitsyn, A. I. Osterman and P. A. Tolstoy. Despite its representative composition and extensive competence, the Council was not a body limiting the autocracy, but was a bureaucratic institution placed under the control of the empress.
Refusal of Peter's reforms. The policy of the Supreme Privy Council was characterized by the rejection of the broad reform program of Peter I, which was recognized as too expensive for the state. Certain principles of the organization of public administration were revised, the taxation system was changed, and institutions dating back to Peter the Great were dismantled. Some colleges were abolished, others were merged, and magistrates were eliminated. All judicial and administrative power in the provinces was transferred to the governors, and in the provinces and districts - to the governors. The role of Peter the Great's Senate was also diminished.
“Higher authorities” reduced the size of the poll tax by 4 kopecks. and recalled military commands from the provinces, which under Peter represented a power parallel to the local administration with broad police functions. However, the expectation that provincial and district officials would cope with the collection of taxes and arrears turned out to be untenable. Therefore, from 1728, the regular sending of military teams to the counties to collect tax payments from the population was resumed.
Peter II. In May 1727, Catherine I died. According to her will, the eleven-year-old grandson of her emperor, Peter II, became the successor to the throne, and the Supreme Privy Council was appointed as the collective regent until the young sovereign came of age. This political combination was thought out and brilliantly implemented by Menshikov, who hoped to marry his daughter to the young emperor and thus finally establish himself as a real ruler under the heirs of Peter the Great.
Peter II reigned briefly, only three years from 1727 to 1730 . He showed no diligence or inclination for any other pursuits than hunting, so it seemed that he should become a plaything in the hands of a regent or guardian.
The first time after the accession of Peter II, everything went according to the will of Menshikov: he managed to establish petty guardianship over the tsar, achieve the betrothal of his daughter Maria to him, and for himself the title of generalissimo. However, already in the summer of 1727, when Menshikov lost his previous activity due to illness, a sudden turning point occurred: the emperor almost demonstratively avoided communication with his former mentor and did not hide the change in favor - father and son Dolgoruky became the new favorites. At a difficult moment, Menshikov had neither friends nor defenders, and the conspiracy against him was organized by his own nominee, Vice-Chancellor A. I. Osterman. In September 1727, Menshikov was arrested and exiled with his family to the Siberian village of Berezov, near the Arctic Circle. The untold wealth of the Menshikov family was confiscated, and part of it was spent on preparing the coronation of Peter II. After the experience, the Generalissimo died two years later.
The fall of Generalissimo Menshikov led to a regrouping of forces within the Supreme Privy Council: two Dolgorukys were included among its members. To strengthen their influence at court, they decided to repeat Menshikov’s move - to unite Peter II in marriage with Ekaterina Alekseevna Dolgoruka. The wedding was scheduled for January 19, but the night before the celebration, Peter II died, having lived less than fifteen years.
« Conditions""sovereigns". At an emergency meeting of the Council on the day of the death of Peter II, Prince D. M. Golitsyn took the initiative. He nominated the niece of Peter I, Duchess Anna Ivanovna. The intention of the political elite was that the new contender for the throne would be a reigning, but not an autocratic empress. This choice was dictated by the far-reaching plans of the “supreme leaders” - to limit the power of the empress. After unanimous approval of this intention, V.L. Dolgoruky was sent to Anna in Mitau with the text « Conditions" - the conditions under which she had to accept power.
« Conditions" contained the following requirements: without the consent of the Supreme Privy Council, not to declare war and not to make peace; do not approve the budget and do not introduce new taxes; not to promote to ranks higher than colonel; do not favor anyone with estates; do not appoint to court positions; do not deprive representatives of the nobility of life, honor and property without trial. The conditions of the political elite essentially led to the establishment of oligarchic rule - they also obliged the empress to maintain the Supreme Privy Council of 8 people and transfer the army and guard to its full subordination.
Having received Anna Ivanovna’s consent, on February 2, at an extended meeting of the council with the participation of the highest officials of the state, the “higher-ups” announced the draft state structure, but it aroused distrust and even protest among those present. Then the “higher-ups” allowed the nobility to take part in the discussion of the upcoming form of government and express their thoughts. Seven counter-projects developed by noble circles showed, on the one hand, non-resistance to the very plan of limiting autocracy, and on the other, hostility towards the Supreme Privy Council, which was striving to establish itself in power.
At the same time, defenders of the absolutist system developed vigorous activity, and first of all F. Prokopovich and A. I. Osterman, who secretly sent Anna detailed reports and advice. Their active actions allowed Anna to easily master the situation. Relying on the support of the guard and the growing ranks of her supporters, on February 25 in the Kremlin Palace she publicly tore up the text of the conditions and proclaimed herself an autocratic empress.
The reign of Anna Ivanovna (1730-1740). Anna, poorly educated and narrow-minded, who preferred rough fun to state affairs, such as shooting birds from the windows of the palace, and enjoying the fights of jesters, handed over the reins of government to her inner circle.
Empress and narrow circle her entourage controlled all official movements in the guard and showed all sorts of attention to the guards. In addition to the old guards regiments (and partly in opposition to them), new ones were formed: Izmailovsky and Horse Guards.
In 1731, to investigate political crimes, the Office of Secret Investigative Affairs was established, equal to a collegium and removed from the control of the Senate. Under Anna Ivanovna, the Chancellery became a weapon for suppressing those dissatisfied with her rule. It is characteristic that a significant part of the cases examined in it, using the so-called biased questioning and torture in the dungeon, were among representatives of the upper classes.
Cabinet of Ministers. In 1731, “for the best and most decent administration of all state affairs,” a Cabinet of Ministers was formed consisting of three persons: Chancellor G. I. Golovkin, Vice Chancellor A. I. Osterman and Actual Privy Councilor of Prince A. M. Cherkassky. After Golovkin’s death, his place was successively occupied by P. I. Yaguzhinsky, A. P. Volynsky and A. P. Bestuzhev-Ryumin. Having crushed the Senate, the Synod, and the collegiums, the Cabinet always retained the last word in matters of national importance. From the mid-30s. three signatures of the cabinet ministers were recognized as equivalent to the signature of the empress. A prominent role in the adoption management decisions At that time, the Empress' favorite was played by Chief Chamberlain E. Biron, a minor Courland nobleman who later received the title of Duke of Courland from the Empress. His policy at the royal court went down in history as “Bironovism.”
The nobles received significant relief. In 1730, those clauses of the decree on single inheritance of 1714 were repealed, which established the principle of inheritance of the estate by one son and thereby limited the right to dispose of land property. In 1731, the Land Noble Corps of Cadets was established, after which noble offspring were given the opportunity to serve in officer ranks. Since 1736 terms military service nobles were reduced to 25 years.
However, things in the state were going in such a way that they attracted condemnation even from those close to the throne. Thus, Field Marshal B. X. Minich, president of the Military Collegium, valued by the empress, was forced to admit that “the Cabinet and in general the entire way of government under Anna Ivanovna were imperfect and even harmful to the state.” Throughout the decade, arrears grew chronically. Temporary workers, both foreigners and Russians, emptied the treasury with impunity. Due to persistent budget deficits, the government was forced to pay civil officials' salaries for some years in inferior quality Siberian and Chinese goods.
At the same time, colossal sums were spent on maintaining the court, where lavish festivities were endlessly held. Discontent affected all levels of society. A reflection of this phenomenon was the case of Artemy Petrovich Volynsky.
CONSPIRACY. In the “General Project for the Correction of Internal State Affairs,” drawn up by the conspirators, it was proposed to cleanse the state apparatus of foreigners and give wide road representatives of the Russian nobility, restore the leadership role of the Senate among government agencies, improve the legal system in the country by codifying laws, and establish a university and academies for the clergy in order to spread education. In many ways, the proposals of Volynsky and his comrades anticipated the real policy of enlightened absolutism and were progressive for their time. It is possible that in order to implement his plans, Volynsky envisaged the possibility of enthroning the daughter of Peter I, Princess Elizabeth, to the throne. However, all these intentions were stopped by Biron and Osterman, who no longer wanted to put up with the zealous cabinet minister. In 1740 Volynsky was arrested and executed. Other members of the seditious circle were also subjected to severe punishment.
The end of Bironovism. In October 1740, Anna Ivanovna died. According to the will, Anna's great-nephew, two-month-old baby Ivan Antonovich, was proclaimed emperor, and E.I. Biron was proclaimed regent. The baby's parents were removed from power. The height to which Biron ascended also predetermined his fall. The power-hungry Duke of Courland no longer suited not only the Russians, but also the Germans. On November 8, 1740, relying on a detachment of 80 guards, Field Marshal B. X. Minich overthrew Biron. The German Anna Leopoldovna of Brunswick, the mother of the proclaimed child emperor, temporarily became the ruler. Field Marshal Minich himself was soon dismissed. The leading role in the government passed to Vice-Chancellor Osterman.
The authority of government power, which had become a toy in the hands of political adventurers, mostly foreigners, was falling ever lower. Under these conditions, memories of the great king-transformer became almost nostalgic.
Elizaveta Petrovna (1741-1761). Hopes for the revival of the glorious traditions of Peter I were increasingly associated with the name of his daughter Elizaveta Petrovna. On the night of November 25, 1741, the grenadier company of the Preobrazhensky Regiment, led by the princess, entered the palace. Representatives of the Brunswick family were arrested. Elizabeth ascended the throne. The palace coup of 1741 was anti-Western in nature; Elizabeth was supported mainly by the lower ranks of the guards.
Elizaveta Petrovna, who from a young age passionately loved dresses, dances, and masquerades, and in her mature years was seriously ill and infirm, was incapable of systematic studies and control over state affairs. Nevertheless, she was not alien to a sound understanding of state interests and practical savvy, manifested in the ability to find and bring together capable and knowledgeable people.
The new government immediately had to face difficult problems: disrupted finances, confusion in the field of legislation and management, mass escapes of peasants. The government tried to defuse the situation - by decree of 1741, all arrears for 17 years were forgiven, the amount of the poll tax was temporarily reduced by 10 kopecks. In subsequent years, the government tried, without raising the per capita tax rate, to increase government revenues by raising prices for salt and wine. This method of reorienting budget revenues from direct to indirect taxation, practiced in many European countries, contributed to the development of commodity-money relations. For the same purposes, the government took some other measures: the destruction of internal customs in 1754, the restoration of magistrates. In 1754-1762 A special Legislative Commission worked on drawing up a new code of law. An important aspect of its activities was the revision of part of the legislative material from the point of view of the interests of the merchants and the promotion of commercial and industrial entrepreneurship in the country.
At the origins of most of the useful undertakings of the Elizabethan reign stood a prominent statesman P. I. Shuvalov. He sought to direct the attention of government circles to the needs and requirements of the merchants. However, the figure of Shuvalov, a large landowner, factory owner, farmer and playmaker, sometimes aroused hostility even in the palace, which undoubtedly complicated the position of Shuvalov the reformer. The main center for the preparation of major bills, as well as all any significant events of 1741-1761, was the Senate, restored by Elizabeth to the significance that it had under Peter I.
Conference at Elizaveta Petrovna. At the same time, Elizaveta Petrovna did not abandon the practice of imperial councils. Since 1741, the so-called meeting of ministers and generals of 11 people was periodically convened. In 1756, a new supreme body was created - the Conference at the Highest Court. The development and implementation of measures to counter Prussia, which Russia faced in the Seven Years' War, was at the forefront of her work. The activities of the Conference during the war years covered a wide variety of areas: army leadership, finance, personnel issues, as well as matters beyond the competence of the Senate. The influence of the Conference was also determined by the fact that it included key figures of public administration: the heads of the foreign policy department M. I. Vorontsov and A. P. Bestuzhev-Ryumin, the Prosecutor General of the Senate N. Yu. Trubetskoy, the Felzeichmeister General (chief of artillery) P I. Shuvalov and the head of the Secret Chancellery A. I. Shuvalov.
Domestic policy under the patronage of Elizabeth's favorites A.G. Razumovsky and I.I. Shuvalov, it was characterized by a significant expansion of noble benefits, especially in the 50s. XVIII century At this time, noble loan banks were established, providing landowners with cheap loans for economic and other needs. The nobility received a monopoly on wine production. In addition, the general land surveying carried out by the central government resulted in a significant increase in noble land ownership. In total, the area of noble land ownership in Russia increased by 50 million dessiatines. Finally, in 1760, a decree was issued allowing landowners to exile serfs to Siberia for “insolent” actions, with the subsequent counting of the exiled person as a recruit surrendered to the state.
The first university in Russia. But simultaneously with pro-noble and pro-serfdom tendencies, features characteristic of enlightened absolutism appeared in the policy of the supreme power. The most striking act of this kind was the foundation in 1755 in Moscow, according to the project of M. V. Lomonosov, of the first university in Russia. Elizaveta Petrovna’s favorite, the enlightened nobleman and philanthropist I. I. Shuvalov, was appointed its curator.
Peter's reign III(December 25, 1761 – June 28 1762). On December 25, 1761, Elizaveta Petrovna died. Her successor was her nephew Pyotr Fedorovich, the son of Anna Petrovna’s elder sister and the Holstein Duke Karl Friedrich, who ascended the Russian throne under the name Peter III.
Pyotr Fedorovich, declared at the end of 1741 the heir to the Russian throne and raised at the court of his aunt, was nevertheless ill prepared for new role. A superficial education and a weak understanding of Russia, combined with natural impulsiveness and a special penchant for military drill, undermined the tsar’s position and prevented the implementation of his good intentions.
The short reign of Peter III was marked by the intensification of all forms of government activity. In less than six months, a number of decrees were issued, reflecting urgent needs to change the system of power and expand its trustee functions. Among them were: the destruction of the Secret Chancellery and the cessation of the persecution of schismatics, the abolition of trade monopolies that hampered the development of entrepreneurship, the proclamation of freedom of foreign trade, the transfer of monastic and church estates to the jurisdiction of a special College of Economy.
By the Manifesto of February 18, 1762, the nobility was exempted from compulsory public service. This event caused massive rejoicing among the nobles. However, this measure was not enough to ensure the stability of power. Peter III's position was undermined by his harsh treatment of the highest imperial bureaucracy, associated with the desire to restore loose discipline in the central government, as well as attempts to restore order in the guard, which he compared to the army of the Turkish Janissaries.
Impulsive lawmaking and the desire to personally delve into all matters, which did not always correspond to the practical capabilities and abilities of the emperor himself, significantly complicated his position. These shortcomings could be balanced by collegial supreme body government controlled. However, such a body - the Imperial Council of 9 people was created only at the end of the reign of Peter III, in May 1762, and was no longer able to radically change the situation. By that time, a hostile political group had formed behind the emperor’s back, which overthrew him from the throne June 28, 1762 The conspiracy was led by the wife of Peter III, Grand Duchess Ekaterina Alekseevna, née Princess of Anhalt-Zerbst, her favorite G. G. Orlov and his brothers, Field Marshal K. G. Razumovsky, N. I. Panin, the teacher of the young Grand Duke Paul, and about 40 guards officers. On July 6, the deposed monarch was killed by his wife’s minions in Ropshinsky Castle. Another empress appeared on the Russian throne.
In the period from 1725 to 1762, there were 6 emperors and empresses on the Russian throne. The intensity of government reforms slows down during this period. Political instability, caused by frequent changes of power and the composition of the political elite, did not allow concentrating on solving the problems facing Russia.
Public administration, economy and finance were not in the best condition. The most important state problems have not been resolved for years. Luxury imperial court sharply contrasted with the miserable condition of the vast majority of Russians. A typical example: not even half of what was officially spent on maintaining the imperial stables was allocated for the development of education in the country.
However, the state mechanism launched by the first emperor Peter the Great continued to work properly. He allowed women to lead the empire. Five women, including those of foreign origin, ruled Russia in the 18th century for 70 years. If it were not for the brightest figure of Peter I, the 18th century could rightfully be called the female century.
Having taken the royal throne with the help of guards and favorites, the female rulers of Russia created a special institution of supreme power and governance - favoritism. It consisted in the ability of the favorite, that is, the favorite of a high-ranking official, in this case the empress, to decisively influence the adoption of government decisions, the implementation or curtailment of government reforms. This left a certain imprint on the political system of the state. Contemporaries noted the unsystematic decision-making, often contradictory to each other, the mediocrity and laziness of the bureaucracy. This is written about in detail in the work of Prince M.M. Shcherbatov, which is called “On the Damage of Morals in Russia.”
Anna Ivanovna's favorite groom Biron, by the grace of the empress, becomes a count, chief chamberlain, and then takes a direct part in governing the state. Another empress, Elizaveta Petrovna, showered honors on her favorite A.G. Razumovsky. The former court singer began to own huge estates with 100 thousand serf souls. Lacking military and diplomatic talents, he happily accepted count's title and the rank of Field Marshal, granted by the Empress. At the same time, Alexey Grigorievich was almost not involved in government affairs.
Six palace coups carried out in 1725-1762 served as clear evidence of the increased capabilities of the court-bureaucratic opposition and the guard - its striking force. The threat of palace coups confronted the supreme power with the need to take into account the class demands of the nobility as fully as possible, and also forced them to look for ways to solve state problems that would not be rejected by its most active groups.
In the history of Peter's reforms, researchers distinguish two stages: before and after 1715. At the first stage, the reforms were mainly chaotic in nature and were caused primarily by the military needs of the state related to the conduct of the Northern War, were carried out mainly by violent methods and were accompanied by active government intervention in economic affairs. Many reforms were ill-conceived and hasty, which was caused both by failures in the war and by the lack of personnel, experience, and pressure from the old conservative apparatus of power. At the second stage, when military operations had already been transferred to enemy territory, the transformations became more systematic. The apparatus of power was further strengthened, manufactories no longer only served military needs, but also produced consumer goods for the population, state regulation of the economy weakened somewhat, and traders and entrepreneurs were given a certain freedom of action. Basically, the reforms were subordinated to the interests not of individual classes, but of the state as a whole: its prosperity, well-being and inclusion in Western European civilization. The goal of the reforms was for Russia to acquire the role of one of the leading world powers, capable of competing with Western countries militarily and economically. The main tool for carrying out reforms was consciously used violence.
Military reform
The main content of the military reform was the creation of a regular Russian army and Russian navy recruited on the basis of conscription. Previously existing troops were gradually abolished, and their personnel were used for new formations. The army and navy began to be supported by the state. To manage the armed forces, instead of orders, the Military Collegium and the Admiralty Collegium were established; The position of commander-in-chief was introduced (in wartime). A unified training system was established in the army and navy, and military educational institutions were opened (navigation, artillery, and engineering schools). The Preobrazhensky and Semenovsky regiments, as well as a number of newly opened special schools and the Naval Academy, served to train officers. The organization of the armed forces, the main issues of training, and methods of conducting combat operations were legislatively enshrined in the Military Charter (1716) and the Naval Charter Book (1720). In general, the military reforms of Peter I contributed to the development of military art and were one of the factors that determined the success of the Russian army and the fleet in the Northern War.
Reforms in the economy covered agriculture, large and small production, craft, trade and financial policy. Agriculture under Peter I developed slowly, mainly in an extensive way. In the economic sphere, the concept of mercantilism dominated - encouraging the development of domestic trade and industry with an active foreign trade balance. The development of industry was dictated solely by the needs of warfare and was Peter's special concern. During the first quarter of the 18th century. 200 manufactories were created. The main attention was paid to metallurgy, the center of which moved to the Urals. The growth of industrial production was accompanied by increased feudal exploitation, widespread use forced labor in factories: the use of serfs, purchased (possession) peasants, as well as the labor of the state (black-growing) peasantry, which was assigned to the plant as a permanent source of labor. In 1711, vocational schools were established at the manufactories. By decrees of 1722, a guild system was introduced in cities. The creation of workshops testified to the patronage of the authorities for the development of crafts and their regulation. In the field of domestic and foreign trade, a large role was played by the state monopoly on the procurement and sale of basic goods (salt, flax, hemp, furs, lard, caviar, bread, etc.), which significantly replenished the treasury. The creation of merchant “companies” and the expansion of trade relations with foreign countries were encouraged in every possible way. Peter's government paid great attention to the development of waterways - the main form of transport at that time. Active construction of canals was carried out: Volga-Don, Vyshnevolotsky, Ladoga, work began on the construction of the Moscow-Volga canal.
Financial policy state during the reign of Peter I was characterized by unprecedented tax oppression. The growth of the state budget, necessary for waging war, active domestic and foreign policy, was achieved through the expansion of indirect taxes and an increase in direct taxes. Special “profit-makers” led by A. Kurbatov were looking for ever new sources of income: bath, fish, honey, horse and other taxes were introduced, including a tax on beards. In total, indirect collections by 1724 numbered up to 40 species. Along with these levies, direct taxes were also introduced: recruitment, dragoon, ship and special “fees”. Considerable income was generated by minting coins of lighter weight and reducing the silver content in them. The search for new sources of income led to a radical reform of the entire tax system - the introduction of a poll tax, which replaced household taxation. As a result of this, firstly, the amount of tax revenue from peasants almost doubled. Secondly, the tax reform became important stage serfdom in Russia, extended it to those segments of the population that were previously free (“walking people”), or could gain freedom after the death of the master (bonded slaves). Thirdly, a passport system was introduced. Every peasant who went to work more than 30 miles from his place of residence was required to have a passport indicating the period of return.
Reorganization of public administration.
The strengthening of the absolute monarchy required a radical restructuring and extreme centralization of the entire system of public administration, its highest, central and local bodies. The king was at the head of the state. In 1721, Peter was proclaimed emperor, which meant a further strengthening of the power of the tsar himself. In 1711, instead of the Boyar Duma and the Council of Ministers, which had replaced it since 1701, the Senate was established. It included nine dignitaries closest to Peter I. The Senate was instructed to develop new laws, monitor the country's finances, and control the activities of the administration. In 1722, the leadership of the work of senators was entrusted to the prosecutor general, whom Peter I called “the eye of the sovereign.” In 1718 - 1721, the cumbersome and confusing system of command administration of the country was transformed. Instead of fifty orders, whose functions often overlapped and did not have clear boundaries, 11 boards were established. Each board was in charge of a strictly defined branch of management. The Collegium of Foreign Affairs - for external relations, the Military Collegium - for the land armed forces, the Admiralty Collegium - for the fleet, the Chamber Collegium - for revenue collection, the State Collegium - for state expenses, the Patrimonial Collegium - for noble land ownership, the Manufacturer Collegium - for industry, except for metallurgy, which was in charge of the Berg Collegium . In fact, as a collegium, there was a Chief Magistrate in charge of Russian cities. In addition, the Preobrazhensky Prikaz (political investigation), the Salt Office, the Copper Department, and the Land Survey Office operated. Along with the strengthening of the central management apparatus, reform of local institutions. Instead of the voivodeship administration, a provincial management system was introduced in 1708 - 1715. Initially, the country was divided into eight provinces: Moscow, St. Petersburg, Kyiv, Arkhangelsk, Smolensk, Kazan, Azov and Siberian. They were headed by governors who were in charge of the troops and administration of the subordinate territories. Each province occupied a huge territory and was therefore divided into provinces. There were 50 of them (headed by a governor). The provinces, in turn, were divided into counties. Thus, a single centralized administrative-bureaucratic system of management emerged for the entire country, in which the decisive role was played by the monarch, who relied on the nobility. The number of officials has increased significantly. The costs of maintaining the administrative apparatus have also increased. The General Regulations of 1720 introduced a uniform system of office work in the state apparatus for the entire country.
The Church and the liquidation of the patriarchate.
After the death of Patriarch Adrian in 1700, Peter I decided not to appoint a new patriarch. The Ryazan Metropolitan Stefan Yavorsky was temporarily placed at the head of the clergy, although he was not vested with patriarchal powers. In 1721, Peter approved the “Spiritual Regulations”, developed by his supporter, Pskov Bishop Feofan Prokopovich. According to the new law, a radical church reform was carried out, eliminating the autonomy of the church and completely subordinating it to the state. The patriarchate in Russia was abolished, and a special Spiritual College was established to govern the church, which was soon transformed into the Holy Governing Synod to give greater authority. He was in charge of purely church affairs: interpretation of church dogmas, orders for prayers and church service, censorship of spiritual books, fight against heresies, management educational institutions and removal of church officials, etc. The Synod also had the functions of a spiritual court. All property and finances of the church, the lands assigned to it and the peasants were under the jurisdiction of the Monastic Prikaz, subordinate to the Synod. Thus, this meant the subordination of the church to the state.
Social politics.
In 1714, the “Decree on Single Inheritance” was issued, according to which the noble estate was equal in rights to the boyar estate. The decree marked the final merger of the two classes of feudal lords. From that time on, secular feudal lords began to be called nobles. The decree on single inheritance ordered the transfer of fiefs and estates to one of the sons. The remaining nobles had to perform compulsory service in the army, navy or government bodies. In 1722, the “Table of Ranks” was published, dividing the military, civil and court services. All positions (both civilian and military) were divided into 14 ranks. It was possible to achieve each subsequent rank only by completing all the previous ones. An official who reached the eighth grade (collegiate assessor) or an officer received hereditary nobility (until the middle of the 19th century). The rest of the population, excluding the nobility and clergy, was obliged to pay taxes to the state.
Under Peter I, a new structure of society emerged, in which the principle of regulation by state legislation is clearly visible. Reforms in the field of education and culture. State policy was aimed at educating society and reorganizing the education system. At the same time, enlightenment acted as a special value, partly opposed to religious values. Theological subjects at school gave way to natural sciences and technology: mathematics, astronomy, geodesy, fortification, and engineering. The first to appear were the Navigation and Artillery schools (1701), the Engineering School (1712), and the Medical School (1707). To simplify the learning process, the complex Church Slavonic font was replaced with a civil one. The publishing business developed, printing houses were created in Moscow, St. Petersburg and other cities. The foundations for the development of Russian science were laid. In 1725, the Academy of Sciences was created in St. Petersburg. A lot of work has been done to study the history, geography and natural resources of Russia. The promotion of scientific knowledge was carried out by the Kunstkamera, opened in 1719, the first Russian natural history museum. On January 1, 1700, a new chronology according to the Julian calendar was introduced in Russia. As a result of the calendar reform, Russia began to live at the same time as Europe. There was a radical breakdown of all traditional ideas about the everyday way of life of Russian society. The Tsar, by order of command, introduced hair shaving, European clothing, and the compulsory wearing of uniforms for military and civil officials. The behavior of young nobles in society was regulated by Western European norms, set out in the translated book “The Honest Mirror of Youth.” In 1718, a Decree appeared on holding assemblies with the mandatory presence of women. Assemblies were held not only for fun and entertainment, but also for business meetings. Peter's reforms in the sphere of culture, life and morals were often introduced by violent methods and were of a clearly political nature. The main thing in these reforms was to respect the interests of the state.
Significance of reforms: 1. The reforms of Peter I marked the establishment of an absolute monarchy, in contrast to the classical Western one, not under the influence of the genesis of capitalism, the balancing of the monarch between the feudal lords and the third estate, but on a serf-noble basis.
2. The new state created by Peter I not only significantly increased the efficiency of public administration, but also served as the main lever for the modernization of the country. 3. Based on some trends that emerged in the 17th century. in Russia, Peter I not only developed them, but also in a minimal historical period of time brought it to a qualitatively more high level, turning Russia into a powerful power.
The price for these radical changes was the further strengthening of serfdom, the temporary inhibition of the formation of capitalist relations and the strongest tax and tax pressure on the population. Multiple increases in taxes led to the impoverishment and enslavement of the bulk of the population. Various social uprisings - the revolt of the archers in Astrakhan (1705 -1706), the uprising of the Cossacks on the Don under the leadership of Kondraty Bulavin (1707 - 1708), in Ukraine and the Volga region - were directed not so much against the transformations as against the methods and means of their implementation.
Elena Anufrieva
The main result of the entire set of Peter's reforms was the establishment of a regime of absolutism in Russia, the crown of which was the change in the title of the Russian monarch in 1721 - Peter declared himself emperor, and the country began to be called the Russian Empire. In this way, what Peter was aiming for all the years of his reign was formalized - the creation of a state with a coherent system of governance, a strong army and navy, a powerful economy, influencing international politics. As a result of Peter's reforms, the state was not bound by anything and could use any means to achieve its goals. As a result, Peter came to his ideal government system- a warship, where everything and everyone is subordinated to the will of one person - the captain, and managed to lead this ship out of the swamp into the stormy waters of the ocean, bypassing all the reefs and shoals.
Russia became an autocratic, military-bureaucratic state, in which the central role belonged to the nobility. At the same time, Russia's backwardness was not completely overcome, and reforms were carried out mainly through brutal exploitation and coercion.
The role of Peter the Great in the history of Russia is difficult to overestimate. No matter how you feel about the methods and style of his reforms, one cannot help but admit that Peter the Great is one of the most prominent figures in world history.
In conclusion, we can quote the words of Peter’s contemporary, Nartov:
"... and although Peter the Great is no longer with us, his spirit lives in our souls, and we, who had the good fortune to be with this monarch, will die faithful to him and bury our ardent love for the earthly god with us. We proclaim without fear about our father so that noble fearlessness and truth were learned from him."
The personality of Peter I (1672-1725) rightfully belongs to the galaxy of prominent historical figures on a global scale. Lots of research and works of art dedicated to the transformations associated with his name. Historians and writers have assessed the personality of Peter I and the significance of his reforms in different, sometimes even contradictory, ways.
Already the contemporaries of Peter I were divided into two camps: supporters and opponents of his reforms. The dispute continued later. In the 18th century M.V. Lomonosov praised Peter and admired his activities. And later, the historian Karamzin accused Peter of betraying the “truly Russian” principles of life, and called his reforms a “brilliant mistake.”
At the end of the 17th century, when the young Tsar Peter I came to the Russian throne, our country was experiencing a turning point in its history. In Russia, unlike the main Western European countries, there were almost no large industrial enterprises capable of providing the country with weapons, textiles, and agricultural implements. It had no access to the seas - neither the Black nor the Baltic, through which it could develop foreign trade. Russia also did not have its own navy to guard its borders. The land army was built according to outdated principles and consisted mainly of noble militia. The nobles were reluctant to leave their estates for military campaigns; their weapons and military training lagged behind the advanced European armies.
There was a fierce struggle for power between the old, well-born boyars and the serving nobles. There were continuous uprisings of peasants and urban lower classes in the country, who fought against both the nobles and the boyars, since they were all feudal serfs. Russia attracted the greedy gaze of neighboring states - Sweden, the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, which were not averse to seizing and subjugating Russian lands.
It was necessary to reorganize the army, build a fleet, take possession of the sea coast, create a domestic industry, and rebuild the system of government of the country.
To radically break the old way of life, Russia needed an intelligent and talented leader, an extraordinary person. This is how Peter I turned out.
Peter not only comprehended the dictates of the times, but also devoted to the service of this command all his extraordinary talent, the tenacity of an obsessed person, the patience inherent in the Russian people and the ability to give the matter a state scale. Peter imperiously invaded all spheres of the country's life and greatly accelerated the development of the principles he inherited.
The history of Russia before and after Peter the Great saw many reforms. The main difference between Petrine reforms and the reforms of the previous and subsequent times was that Petrine reforms were comprehensive in nature, covering all aspects of the life of the people, while others introduced innovations that concerned only certain spheres of life of society and the state
With the passing of Peter the Great, perhaps the most important era in the development of the Russian state ended. Pyotr Alekseevich made a radical revolution in the political culture of the state, for instead of the sacred person of the All-Russian autocrat, the “first citizen” of this society appeared before society, an imperious but energetic citizen, pulling up the mountain for ten, as I.T. accurately said about him. Pososhkov, while millions were pulled downhill. The image of the tsar-worker, who was both a carpenter and a blacksmith, striking the imagination of the people, combined with vivid manifestations of fanatical service to the Fatherland, had a huge inspiring impact in that era and played the role of a powerful impulse to activate huge masses of people.
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Introduction
The historical role of Peter the Great is enormous and ambiguous. He was proclaimed a national genius, educator, savior of Russia, revolutionary, “Napoleon and Robespierre” (Pushkin), called the Antichrist, a hater of everything Russian, a destroyer and a blasphemer. The legendary reformer tsar radically changed the course of Russian history.
Having defeated Sweden and introduced the progressive achievements of the West into Russian society, Peter expanded the geographical, cultural and economic borders of his country. Russia received a key role in the international arena and acquired the status of a great empire.
At the same time, the reforms placed a heavy burden on the common people. Many people died from backbreaking labor, executions and torture. St. Petersburg, built by Peter, is still considered “a city built on bones.”
Having spent most of his life traveling and on military campaigns, Peter was an enemy of palace ceremonies and any conventions. He welcomed the frankness of his subjects and adored the relaxed atmosphere of revels. Unpretentious in everyday life, the king loved to work in the open air. Contemporaries recalled that Peter knew 14 crafts perfectly. He combined a cheerful disposition and painful attacks of anger. He liked wine, women, rude jokes. An active, active and despotic ruler did not try to understand those around him. During Peter's lifetime, few people dared to openly criticize his policies. A powerful emperor and a born warrior, he amazed the world with boundless imperial ambitions. Peter the Great resembled the vast Russia he ruled.
Power struggle
Birth of Peter and death of FyodorIII
30 On May 1672, the wife of the Russian Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich Natalya Naryshkina gave birth to a son, Peter, who in the future would be called the Great. A little later, she gave the sovereign two more daughters. In 1676, when the prince was 4 years old, Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich died.
The main contender for the throne was Alexei Mikhailovich's son from his first marriage, Tsarevich Fedor, who by that time was 15 years old. On June 21, 1676, Feodor III was elevated to the throne. Power in the state passed to the Miloslavskys, the family of the first wife of Alexei Mikhailovich. Tsarina Natalya Naryshkina with her relatives and young children were exiled to the village of Preobrazhenskoye near Moscow. Since the throne was inherited, blood relatives of the royal family waged an endless struggle for power at court.
The question arose of who should be king: the older, sickly Ivan Alekseevich or the healthy younger brother, Tsarevich Peter. John was semi-paralyzed and could not hope for a long life. Feodor III, although he called Peter his successor, died on April 27, 1682 at the age of 20, without having time to issue a decree appointing the next tsar.
Bloody riot and accession of Sophia
Left without an official heir to the throne, the royal court plunged into intrigue. The higher clergy and aristocracy split into two warring camps. As a result, young Peter ended up on the throne.
On the day of the coronation, a rumor spread throughout the capital: “The Naryshkins poisoned Tsar Fyodor and strangled Tsarevich John.” A riot broke out, and the royal palace was captured by the Streltsy army. Called to defend the throne, the archers sought to dictate their terms to the authorities. The instigators of the Streltsy rebellion were Princess Sophia and her lover, Prince Vasily Golytsyn.
In the hope of calming the rioters, Queen Natalya came out to the archers, leading John and Peter by the hands. In the first hours of the riot, several Naryshkin supporters were killed. Standing on the porch, 10-year-old Peter watched as the palace square was drowned in blood. The Sagittarius insisted on recognizing John and Peter as kings during the regency of Sophia during their childhood.
Childhood
Since childhood, the prince was distinguished by his curiosity. In addition to home teachers, he studied science and crafts from numerous masters, including foreign specialists who inhabited the village of Preobrazhenskoye. Most of all, Peter was interested in shipbuilding and shipbuilding. He equipped his “amusing army” of fellow commoners with military weapons and uniforms, and over time turned them into a real regiment of soldiers. Queen Natalya was wary of friendship with foreigners and commoners. In January 1682, hoping to bring her son to reason, she married 17-year-old Peter to 20-year-old Evdokia Lopukhina.
On the threshold of big politics
Overthrow of Sophia
Under Sophia, the position of royal power was precarious. Military campaigns against the Crimean theater, organized by her favorite Prince Golitsyn, ended in failure. And although the princess herself tried to proclaim these companies “very successful,” the truth soon became known. This caused discontent among the people, who increasingly supported the growing Peter.
Sophia understood that the older Peter got, the more her power weakened. In a desperate attempt to strengthen her position in the summer of 1689, the princess ordered the Streltsy regiments to capture Preobrazhensoe and kill all Peter's supporters. If successful, this foray of the archers should, like 7 years ago, end in great bloodshed. However, the day before the “case,” on August 6, two archers defected to Peter’s camp and reported to him about Sophia’s plans. Having learned about the impending treason, Peter took refuge from the rebels in the Trinity-Sergius Monastery. The very next day, the Preobrazhensky regiment he had assembled and Peter’s supporters from the archers arrived there.
Patriarch Joachim himself, and after him most of the Streltsy army also sided with Peter, and the rebellious princess had to admit defeat. By order of Peter, Sophia was imprisoned in the Novodevichy Convent under strict supervision. “Being in constant fasting and prayer,” John V did not want to take part in the government and actually gave power into the hands of Peter.
"Frivolous" young man
“The Tsar, who has overthrown the old government, will actively create a new government,” many thought after Sophia’s defeat. However, these hopes were not realized. In the first years of his reign, Peter almost did not participate in the affairs of the state, giving powers to Queen Natalya and her entourage from the Naryshkin family. Peter used his power only to expand, strengthen and equip the army.
Spending all his time on maneuvers, Peter now rarely visited Moscow and completely stopped seeing his wife, who in 1690 gave birth to his son Alexei. He became friends with his sweetheart, Anna Mons. Peter fell in love with a free life and became a frequent guest in the German settlement near Preobrazhensky. In January 1694, Tsarina Natalya died without seeing her son “come to his senses.” The young king turned 22 years old, and the day of his formation as big politician was close.
Sudden awakening
Meanwhile, the political situation worsened. The weakening of tsarist power played into the hands of numerous external enemies. However, Peter, who had not ruled the state before, seemed to wake up. On January 25, 1695, he begins a military campaign against Turkey. The goal of the move was declared to be the capture of the Azov fortress, the most important stronghold at the confluence of the Don into the Sea of Azov.
The tsar’s bold plan was not destined to come true: the Azov fortress withstood the onslaught of the Russian army. Peter was able to analyze the reasons for the defeat and draw the necessary conclusions. He realized that the first campaign had failed due to the lack of a fleet, and already in the fall of the same year he began preparations for a new attack. Peter built a flotilla of rowing galleys with unprecedented speed. In January 1696, his brother Ivan died, but this did not stop military preparations.
The Russian flotilla approached Azov at the mouth of the Don and blocked the river passage for Turkish ships. Unable to withstand the blockade, the fortress began to weaken without supplies and help. Without waiting for the final assault, in July 1696 the Azov fortress surrendered.
Big reforms
"Great Embassy"
5 months after the capture of Azov, in December 1696, Peter sent the “Great Embassy” to Europe. A Swiss man had given him the idea for the trip two years earlier. Seizing on it, the young king decided to go to Europe, in the depths of his soul cherishing the idea of finding allies in the fight against Turkey.
It must be said that in those days it was not customary in Rus' to travel abroad. Anticipating protests from conservatives. Peter hastily assembled a delegation and secretly left the country.
The “great embassy” included 250 people: 3 plenipotentiary ambassadors, 36 volunteers who were supposed to collect foreign knowledge, 70 soldiers. The sovereign himself traveled in the name of the sergeant of the Preobrazhensky regiment Pyotr Mikhailov. The Tsar pursued two goals: to study while remaining incognito, and, if necessary, to “adjust” political negotiations.
Before leaving, Peter was informed about the conspiracy. The Sagittarius were going to declare the king an “unchrist” who was destroying Russia, kill him and return Sophia to the throne. Peter drowned another riot in blood: the four main conspirators were beheaded.
Having restored order in the capital, Peter set off on a trip on March 10. It’s funny, but by that time all foreign diplomats already knew that the Russian Tsar was going to Europe.
Curious traveler
The “Grand Embassy” visited Germany and crossed through Holland to England. Then, again bypassing Holland, he visited Vienna. In Holland, Peter hired more than 600 people into Russian service. different masters and specialists (from vice admiral to ship's cook), having spent huge amounts of money. When the delegation gathered in Venice, an urgent report came from Russia about another Streltsy riot.
The king spent more than a year abroad. He either learned the wisdom of shipbuilding in the costume of a Dutch sailor, or established diplomatic relations with potential allies against the Ottoman Empire.
By the end of the embassy, Peter realized that his main opponent in the near future would not be the Turks, but the Swedes. Russia had to break through to the Baltic Sea. During the trip, Peter concluded an agreement with King Augustus II of Poland to start a war with Sweden.
Cutting beards down to the neck
On August 25, 1698, Tsar Peter returned to Moscow. The very next day, having gathered the court nobility, he suddenly grabbed scissors and began to trim the beards of the boyars. For the tsar, who had seen European life, the ancient principle of the Russian boyars - “cutting the beard of a sinner” - seemed barbaric. The boyars experienced terrible horror during this “execution.”
Following the beards, heads flew. From September to January of the following year, more than a thousand rebels were executed. Their corpses were displayed under the walls of the Kremlin for several months. Despite Sophia's involvement in the Streltsy rebellion, her guilt was not proven. Peter forced his sister to become a nun and imprisoned her in the Novodevichy Convent. The same fate befell his wife Evdokia. The Tsar entrusted the care of his son Alexei to his older sister Natalya.
Having put an end to the rebels, Peter waged a fight against the old Russian way of life, gradually introducing the nobility to education and European secular culture. He issued a decree that everyone, except priests and peasants, was obliged to shave their beards. In December 1699, the Julian calendar was introduced in Russia. “Russia needs reforms!” - the king repeated.
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As a result of the reforms carried out by Peter the Great, Russia was able to move forward along the Western path of development - this is an indisputable fact that most historians agree with today.
The economic and industrial gap between the Russian state and the advanced countries of Europe was significantly reduced, the new Russian fleet won many victories in significant battles, and the renewed regular army was not inferior (or even better) to others in discipline and skills. In such a situation, the powerful Western powers had to reckon with the opinion of the Emperor of Russia. At the same time, the conquest of access to the Baltic Sea (the so-called “window to Europe”) was able to ensure established trade relations with Europe, which led to the rapid development of the cultural life of Russian society. The construction of a new capital with the best examples of European architecture, the development of the Urals, the creation of the Academy of Sciences, as well as the first museum and newspaper business - all this became possible precisely thanks to the reforms of Peter the Great.
However, many researchers argue that the importance of the reforms is exaggerated. According to their opinion, thanks to Peter’s transformations, the noble class received enormous privileges and thereby moved even further away from the common people. This is what caused the strengthening of the absolute power of landowners over serfs. At the same time, in Europe during the same time period there were completely different trends.
External signs, imposed by the tsar on the nobles (powder and wigs, European clothes and speech clogged with Dutch and French words) became not just attributes of culture. Simple people they began to see the landowners as strangers with their own way of life. It is worth noting that in European countries the Russian nobility was perceived as something alien. Thus, a special barrier separating the people from the authorities began to be strengthened in the state, which led to the active development of bureaucracy and embezzlement.
It was during the reign of Peter the Great that absolutism was finally formalized, which is a form of government in which all power is concentrated in the hands of the monarch. The Tsar abolished any attempts at parliamentarism and even deprived the Church of its autonomy, making it one of the bodies governing the people. For example, according to the royal decree, priests were obliged to report to special authorities if they were confessed to crimes.
The industrialists and merchants, favored by the Russian monarch, were never able to fully become the European “third estate” and remained powerless before the instructions of officials.
It is worth recalling that the Russian people paid for Peter’s transformations. Some of the reforms led to hunger and poverty. These changes include a number of tax reforms. The state even had a special rank - profit-makers, who developed new mechanisms for generating profit and inventing new types of taxes.
Until the mid-nineteenth century, Ural manufactories used the labor of serfs. An indicator of new reforms and the continuation of previous ones were frequent popular riots and public discontent. For example, in 1705-1706, riots continued in Astrakhan. The reasons for this were excessive taxes and hard work in the fisheries, which were the consequences of the initial reforms of Peter the Great.
However, the last straw for the people was the signing by the tsar of a decree that prohibited the wearing of Russian dress and beard - things that were at that time an attribute of every Russian peasant. After mass unrest and the capture of Astrakhan, the tsar abolished all taxes, which became a call to action for other cities along the Volga.
Speaking about the significance of Peter’s reforms for the people and the state, it is necessary to consider another important issue - the so-called “case of Tsarevich Alexei.” After all, even in his own home and family, the king’s reforms caused a negative attitude.
Peter's son Alexei was an indecisive and timid young man, under the enormous influence of his own environment, most of which consisted of opponents of his father's reforms. Opposing changes in the state, the prince was forced to flee to Europe in 1716, from where he was soon taken away by the Russian ambassador. However, sensing a huge danger to his own policy, Peter was forced to take action.
Such measures were forcing the prince to abdicate the throne and a new reform - the “Decree on Single Inheritance”, which, however, he did not have time to use.
Thus, Peter's transformations had two sides. It cannot be denied that these changes were the beginning of the development of Russia. At the same time, the formation of a developed state was paid for by the common people, who were forced to starve and work to fill the state treasury, the funds of which were used not only to wage war, but also to enrich the new upper class.
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