Grand Duchess Sophia (1455-1503) from the Greek Palaiologan dynasty was the wife of Ivan III. She came from a line of Byzantine emperors. By marrying a Greek princess, Ivan Vasilyevich emphasized the connection between his own power and that of Constantinople. Once upon a time, Byzantium gave Christianity to Rus'. The marriage of Ivan and Sofia closed this historical circle. Their son Basil III and his heirs considered themselves successors to the Greek emperors. To transfer power to her own son, Sophia had to wage many years of dynastic struggle.
The exact date of birth of Sofia Paleolog is unknown. She was born around 1455 in greek city Mistre. The girl's father was Thomas Palaiologos, the brother of the last Byzantine emperor Constantine XI. He ruled the Despotate of Morea, located on the Peloponnese peninsula. Sophia's mother, Catherine of Achaia, was the daughter of the Frankish prince Achaea Centurion II (Italian by birth). The Catholic ruler conflicted with Thomas and lost a decisive war to him, as a result of which he lost his own possessions. As a sign of victory, as well as the annexation of Achaea, the Greek despot married Catherine.
The fate of Sofia Paleolog was determined by dramatic events that happened shortly before her birth. In 1453, the Turks captured Constantinople. This event marked the end of a thousand years of history Byzantine Empire. Constantinople was at the crossroads between Europe and Asia. Having occupied the city, the Turks opened their way to the Balkans and the Old World as a whole.
If the Ottomans defeated the emperor, then the other princes did not pose a threat to them at all. The Despotate of Morea was captured already in 1460. Thomas managed to take his family and flee from the Peloponnese. First, the Palaiologos came to Corfu, then moved to Rome. The choice was logical. Italy became the new home for many thousands of Greeks who did not want to remain under Muslim citizenship.
The girl's parents died almost simultaneously in 1465. After their death, the story of Sofia Paleolog turned out to be closely connected with the story of her brothers Andrei and Manuel. The young Palaiologos were sheltered by Pope Sixtus IV. In order to enlist his support and ensure a calm future for the children, Thomas, shortly before his death, converted to Catholicism, abandoning the Greek Orthodox faith.
The Greek scientist and humanist Vissarion of Nicea began training Sophia. He was most famous for being the author of the draft union of the Catholic and Orthodox churches, concluded in 1439. For the successful reunification (Byzantium made this deal, being on the verge of destruction and hoping in vain for help from the Europeans), Vissarion received the rank of cardinal. Now he became the teacher of Sophia Paleologus and her brothers.
Biography of the future Moscow Grand Duchess With early years bore the stamp of Greco-Roman duality, of which Vissarion of Nicea was an adherent. In Italy she always had a translator with her. Two professors taught her Greek and Latin. Sophia Palaiologos and her brothers were supported by the Holy See. Dad gave them more than 3 thousand ecus a year. Money was spent on servants, clothes, a doctor, etc.
The fate of Sofia's brothers turned out to be exactly the opposite of each other. As the eldest son of Thomas, Andrei was considered the legal heir of the entire Palaiologan dynasty. He tried to sell his status to several European kings, hoping that they would help him regain the throne. As expected, the crusade did not happen. Andrei died in poverty. Manuel returned to his historical homeland. In Constantinople, he began to serve the Turkish Sultan Bayazid II, and according to some sources, he even converted to Islam.
As a representative of the extinct imperial dynasty, Sophia Palaiologos from Byzantium was one of the most enviable brides in Europe. However, none of the Catholic monarchs with whom they tried to negotiate in Rome agreed to marry the girl. Even the glory of the Palaiologos name could not overshadow the danger posed by the Ottomans. It is precisely known that Sophia’s patrons began to match her with the Cypriot King Jacques II, but he responded with a firm refusal. Another time, the Roman Pontiff Paul II himself proposed the girl’s hand to the influential Italian aristocrat Caracciolo, but this attempt at a wedding also failed.
In Moscow, they learned about Sofia in 1469, when the Greek diplomat Yuri Trachaniot arrived in the Russian capital. He proposed to the recently widowed but still very young Ivan III the project of marriage with the princess. The Roman Epistle delivered by the foreign guest was composed by Pope Paul II. The Pontiff promised Ivan support if he wanted to marry Sophia.
What made Roman diplomacy turn to the Moscow Grand Duke? In the 15th century, after a long period of political fragmentation and Mongol yoke Russia reunited and became a major European power. In the Old World there were legends about the wealth and power of Ivan III. In Rome, many influential people hoped for the help of the Grand Duke in the struggle of Christians against Turkish expansion.
One way or another, Ivan III agreed and decided to continue negotiations. His mother Maria Yaroslavna reacted favorably to the “Roman-Byzantine” candidacy. Ivan III, despite his tough temperament, was afraid of his mother and always listened to her opinion. At the same time, the figure of Sophia Palaeologus, whose biography was connected with the Latins, did not please the head of the Russian Orthodox Church, Metropolitan Philip. Realizing his powerlessness, he did not oppose the Moscow sovereign and distanced himself from the upcoming wedding.
The Moscow embassy arrived in Rome in May 1472. The delegation was headed by the Italian Gian Batista della Volpe, known in Russia as Ivan Fryazin. The ambassadors were met by Pope Sixtus IV, who had recently replaced the deceased Paul II. As a token of gratitude for the hospitality shown, the pontiff received a gift a large number of sable fur.
Only a week passed, and a solemn ceremony took place in the main Roman Cathedral of St. Peter, at which Sophia Paleologus and Ivan III became engaged in absentia. Volpe played the role of groom. While preparing for an important event, the ambassador made a serious mistake. Catholic rite required the use wedding rings, but Volpe did not prepare them. The scandal was hushed up. All the influential organizers of the engagement wanted to complete it safely and turned a blind eye to the formalities.
In the summer of 1472, Sophia Paleologus, together with her retinue, the papal legate and Moscow ambassadors, set off on a long journey. At parting, she met with the pontiff, who gave the bride his final blessing. Of several routes, Sofia's companions chose the path through Northern Europe and the Baltics. The Greek princess crossed the entire Old World, coming from Rome to Lubeck. Sofia Palaeologus from Byzantium endured the hardships of a long journey with dignity - such trips were not the first time for her. At the insistence of the pope, all Catholic cities organized a warm welcome for the embassy. The girl reached Tallinn by sea. This was followed by Yuryev, Pskov, and then Novgorod. Sofia Paleolog, whose appearance was reconstructed by specialists in the 20th century, surprised Russians with her foreign southern appearance and unfamiliar habits. Everywhere the future Grand Duchess was greeted with bread and salt.
On November 12, 1472, Princess Sophia Paleologus arrived in the long-awaited Moscow. The wedding ceremony with Ivan III took place on the same day. There was an understandable reason for the rush. Sophia's arrival coincided with the celebration of the day of memory of John Chrysostom, the patron saint of the Grand Duke. So the Moscow sovereign gave his marriage under heavenly protection.
For the Orthodox Church, the fact that Sofia was the second wife of Ivan III was reprehensible. A priest who would officiate such a marriage had to risk his reputation. In addition, the attitude towards the bride as a foreign Latina has been entrenched in conservative circles since her appearance in Moscow. That is why Metropolitan Philip avoided the obligation to perform the wedding. Instead, the ceremony was led by Archpriest Hosiya of Kolomna.
Sophia Palaeologus, whose religion remained Orthodox even during her stay in Rome, nevertheless arrived with the papal legate. This envoy, traveling along Russian roads, defiantly carried in front of him a large Catholic crucifix. Under pressure from Metropolitan Philip, Ivan Vasilyevich made it clear to the legate that he was not going to tolerate such behavior that embarrassed his Orthodox subjects. The conflict was settled, but “Roman glory” haunted Sophia until the end of her days.
Together with Sofia, her Greek retinue came to Russia. Ivan III was very interested in the heritage of Byzantium. The marriage to Sophia became a signal for many other Greeks wandering in Europe. A stream of co-religionists arose who sought to settle in the possessions of the Grand Duke.
What did Sofia Paleolog do for Russia? She opened it to Europeans. Not only Greeks, but also Italians went to Muscovy. Masters and learned people. Ivan III patronized Italian architects (for example, Aristotle Fioravanti), who built a large number of architectural masterpieces in Moscow. A separate courtyard and mansions were built for Sophia herself. They burned down in 1493 during a terrible fire. The Grand Duchess's treasury was lost along with them.
In 1480, Ivan III escalated the conflict with the Tatar Khan Akhmat. The result of this conflict is known - after a bloodless stand on the Ugra, the Horde left Russia and never again demanded tribute from it. Ivan Vasilyevich managed to throw off the long-term yoke. However, before Akhmat left the possessions of the Moscow prince in disgrace, the situation seemed uncertain. Fearing an attack on the capital, Ivan III organized the departure of Sophia and their children to White Lake. Together with his wife there was the grand ducal treasury. If Akhmat had captured Moscow, she should have fled further north closer to the sea.
The decision to evacuate, which was made by Ivan 3 and Sofia Paleolog, caused outrage among the people. Muscovites began to recall with pleasure the “Roman” origins of the princess. Sarcastic descriptions of the empress's flight to the north were preserved in some chronicles, for example in the Rostov vault. Nevertheless, all the reproaches of his contemporaries were immediately forgotten after the news arrived in Moscow that Akhmat and his army had decided to retreat from the Ugra and return to the steppes. Sofia from the Paleolog family arrived in Moscow a month later.
Ivan and Sofia had 12 children. Half of them died in childhood or infancy. The remaining grown children of Sofia Paleolog also left behind offspring, but the Rurik branch, which began from the marriage of Ivan and the Greek princess, died out around the middle of the 17th century. The Grand Duke also had a son from his first marriage to the Tver princess. Named after his father, he is remembered as Ivan Mladoy. According to the law of seniority, it was this prince who was supposed to become the heir to the Moscow state. Of course, Sofia did not like this scenario, who wanted power to pass to her son Vasily. A loyal group of court nobility formed around her, supporting the princess’s claims. However, for the time being, she could not influence the dynastic issue in any way.
Since 1477, Ivan the Young was considered his father's co-ruler. He took part in the battle on the Ugra and gradually learned princely duties. For many years, Ivan the Young's position as the rightful heir was undeniable. However, in 1490 he fell ill with gout. There was no cure for “ache in the legs.” Then the Italian doctor Mister Leon was discharged from Venice. He undertook to cure the heir and vouched for success with his own head. Leon used rather strange methods. He gave Ivan a certain potion and burned his legs with red-hot glass vessels. The treatment only made the illness worse. In 1490, Ivan the Young died in terrible agony at the age of 32. In anger, Sophia's husband Paleologus imprisoned the Venetian, and a few weeks later he publicly executed him.
The death of Ivan the Young did not bring Sofia much closer to the fulfillment of her dream. The deceased heir was married to the daughter of the Moldavian sovereign, Elena Stefanovna, and had a son, Dmitry. Now Ivan III faced a difficult choice. On the one hand, he had a grandson, Dmitry, and on the other, a son from Sofia, Vasily.
For several years, the Grand Duke continued to hesitate. The boyars split again. Some supported Elena, others - Sofia. The first had significantly more supporters. Many influential Russian aristocrats and nobles did not like the story of Sophia Paleologus. Some continued to reproach her for her past with Rome. In addition, Sofia herself tried to surround herself with her native Greeks, which did not benefit her popularity.
On the side of Elena and her son Dmitry there was a good memory of Ivan the Young. Vasily’s supporters resisted: on his mother’s side, he was a descendant of the Byzantine emperors! Elena and Sofia were worth each other. Both of them were distinguished by ambition and cunning. Although the women observed palace decorum, their mutual hatred of each other was no secret to the princely entourage.
In 1497, Ivan III became aware of a conspiracy being prepared behind his back. Young Vasily fell under the influence of several careless boyars. Fyodor Stromilov stood out among them. This clerk was able to assure Vasily that Ivan was already going to officially declare Dmitry his heir. Reckless boyars suggested getting rid of their competitor or seizing the sovereign's treasury in Vologda. The number of like-minded people involved in the venture continued to grow until Ivan III himself found out about the conspiracy.
As always, the Grand Duke, terrible in anger, ordered the execution of the main noble conspirators, including clerk Stromilov. Vasily escaped prison, but guards were assigned to him. Sofia also fell into disgrace. Her husband heard rumors that she was bringing imaginary witches to her place and was trying to get a potion to poison Elena or Dmitry. These women were found and drowned in the river. The Emperor forbade his wife to come into his sight. To top it off, Ivan actually declared his fifteen-year-old grandson his official heir.
In February 1498, celebrations were held in Moscow to mark the coronation of young Dmitry. The ceremony in the Assumption Cathedral was attended by all the boyars and members of the grand ducal family with the exception of Vasily and Sofia. The disgraced relatives of the Grand Duke were pointedly not invited to the coronation. The Monomakh Cap was put on Dmitry, and Ivan III arranged a grand feast in honor of his grandson.
Elena's party could triumph - this was her long-awaited triumph. However, even supporters of Dmitry and his mother could not feel too confident. Ivan III was always distinguished by impulsiveness. Because of his tough temperament, he could throw anyone into disgrace, including his wife, but nothing guaranteed that the Grand Duke would not change his preferences.
A year has passed since Dmitry's coronation. Unexpectedly, the sovereign's favor returned to Sophia and her eldest son. There is no evidence in the chronicles about the reasons that prompted Ivan to reconcile with his wife. One way or another, the Grand Duke ordered the case against his wife to be reconsidered. During the repeated investigation, new circumstances of the court struggle were discovered. Some denunciations against Sofia and Vasily turned out to be false.
The sovereign accused the most influential defenders of Elena and Dmitry - princes Ivan Patrikeev and Simeon Ryapolovsky - of slander. The first of them was the chief military adviser to the Moscow ruler for more than thirty years. Ryapolovsky's father defended Ivan Vasilyevich as a child when he was in danger from Dmitry Shemyaka during the last Russian internecine war. These great merits of the nobles and their families did not save them.
Six weeks after the boyars' disgrace, Ivan, who had already returned favor to Sofia, declared their son Vasily the prince of Novgorod and Pskov. Dmitry was still considered the heir, but members of the court, sensing a change in the sovereign’s mood, began to abandon Elena and her child. Fearing the same fate as Patrikeev and Ryapolovsky, other aristocrats began to demonstrate loyalty to Sofia and Vasily.
Three more years passed, and finally, in 1502, the struggle between Sophia and Elena ended with the fall of the latter. Ivan ordered guards to be assigned to Dmitry and his mother, then sent them to prison and officially deprived his grandson of his grand-ducal dignity. At the same time, the sovereign declared Vasily his heir. Sofia was triumphant. Not a single boyar dared to contradict the decision of the Grand Duke, although many continued to sympathize with eighteen-year-old Dmitry. Ivan was not stopped even by a quarrel with his faithful and important ally - Elena's father and the Moldavian ruler Stefan, who hated the owner of the Kremlin for the suffering of his daughter and grandson.
Sofia Paleolog, whose biography was a series of ups and downs, managed to achieve the main goal of her life shortly before her own death. She died at the age of 48 on April 7, 1503. The Grand Duchess was buried in a sarcophagus made of white stone, placed in the tomb of the Ascension Cathedral. Sofia's grave was next to the grave of Ivan's first wife, Maria Borisovna. In 1929, the Bolsheviks destroyed the Ascension Cathedral, and the remains of the Grand Duchess were transferred to the Archangel Cathedral.
For Ivan, the death of his wife was a strong blow. He was already over 60. In mourning, the Grand Duke visited several Orthodox monasteries, where he diligently devoted himself to prayer. Last years life together darkened by disgrace and mutual suspicions of the spouses. Nevertheless, Ivan III always appreciated Sophia’s intelligence and her assistance in state affairs. After the loss of his wife, the Grand Duke, feeling the proximity of his own death, made a will. Vasily's rights to power were confirmed. Ivan followed Sophia in 1505, dying at the age of 65.
Dossier: father, Ivan III Vasilievich
Ivan Vasilyevich, the future Grand Duke and Sovereign of All Rus', was born on January 22, 1440, in the midst of the war for the great reign between his father Vasily II Vasilyevich of Moscow and the son of Yuri Dmitrievich of Zvenigorod (d. 1434) Dmitry Shemyaka. Just in the same 1440, Shemyaka’s brother, Dmitry the Red, died, and there were only two contenders for power.
A few years later, in 1446, Ivan's father Vasily II will be captured by his enemy, blinded, after which he will receive the nickname Dark. However, he will not accept defeat and will begin to create an anti-Shemyakin coalition. And although the boy grew up in a princely mansion, far from these shocks and troubles, who knows how he caught the anxieties and fears of adults, how he comprehended the conversations he accidentally overheard, and how he survived his father’s blindness?
In 1447, seven-year-old Ivan Vasilyevich for the first time felt like a pawn in a big political game: this year he was betrothed to the daughter of the Tver prince, Maria Borisovna, thereby securing, if not the support, then at least the neutrality of the mighty Tver. The wedding will take place later, in 1452, when the groom turns 12 years old (the bride was even younger).
In this regard, the fates of Sophia and the future Ivan III were a little similar: both from a young age learned that representatives of the imperial and grand ducal families are not the masters of their lives and their fates - nothing more than small coin in the plans of the powers that be. Maybe that’s why both later strived with such strength to become these same “ strongmen of the world this”, creators of their future?
Early marriage did not benefit Maria Tverskaya. In 1467 she died. She left only one son, Ivan, born on February 15, 1458. It was Ivan the Young who was considered the heir to the throne and the support of Ivan III. We see him next to the sovereign in many political actions since the late 1470s.
In the following lines it is hardly possible to describe all the deeds of Ivan III, who ascended the Moscow throne on March 28, 1462. Many volumes have been written about this. But it is still necessary to briefly talk about them so that the historical atmosphere in which the future Vasily III grew up becomes more understandable. According to the will of Vasily II, Ivan III received more than half of the country's territory, including such major centers like Moscow, Vladimir, Nizhny Novgorod, Suzdal, etc. The remaining possessions were distributed among his four brothers: Yuri, Andrei Bolshoi, Boris and Andrei Menshiy. Thus, the fighter for the centralization of the state - Vasily II the Dark - with his last will actually revived the appanage system.
Ivan III saw this as a threat of a new internecine war. Therefore, he decided to conquer as many principalities and lands of Rus' as possible to his power. Initially, the mechanism for collecting territories was the absorption of weaker ones by the stronger Moscow Principality. That is, Ivan III seemed to be building his huge personal fiefdom. However, changes political system, which accompanied this process, turned out to be so serious that in their course a fundamentally new formation arose - a unified Russian state.
The scale and speed of land gathering is impressive. Around 1464, the Yaroslavl principality was annexed, in 1471–1478 - Velikiy Novgorod, in 1472 - Perm, in 1474 - Rostov, in 1485 - Tver, in 1489 - Vyatka, in 1500 - Yugra land (Pechora-Ural region, inhabited by Khanty, Mansi, Nenets and Samoyeds ). In 1503, after the victory in the Russian-Lithuanian war, the Seversky lands went to Russia. In total, during the reign of Ivan III, the territory under his control grew more than six times (from 430 thousand square kilometers to 2800 thousand).
It is necessary to pay attention to two features of the process of unification of Russian lands under the rule of Moscow. First, it was largely violent. There was no queue of lands wishing to voluntarily join the State of All Rus'. The policy of the center was tough, it is not for nothing that the Rogozhsky chronicler spoke about the Moscow Kalitich dynasty in relation to more early events XIV century wrote: the Moscow princes, “... relying on their great strength, the Russian princes began to bring them to their will, and those who did not obey their will began to encroach on them with malice.”
But this anger in most cases concerned the elites. The local princely families and the regional service aristocracy associated with them suffered from the annexation to Moscow, which had to look for its place in the new, all-Russian hierarchy. To avoid resistance, Moscow widely practiced “withdrawal,” that is, the forced relocation of representatives of the local elite with their families to another place. Thus, corporate and service ties were destroyed and the aristocracy became harmless.
The ordinary population - peasants, townspeople and minor service people - were in most cases little affected by these changes (if they did not fall under punitive acts of intimidation, of which, however, there were few). Tax collectors and military commanders changed, but life and activities remained the same. Therefore, Moscow’s unification policy did not encounter serious resistance: local elites were unable to rouse their population to fight “aggression.”
Against this background, only one action stands out sharply, accompanied by a serious conflict with the population - the annexation of Veliky Novgorod (1471–1478). Here the second feature of the unification process clearly manifested itself. It can be described as tragedy of misunderstanding. The historical truth - the creation of a united Rus', a strong state capable of defending the freedom of the Russian people in the face of any enemies - was behind Moscow. But regional cultures, lands, peoples with their freedoms were supposed to form bricks into the majestic building of “All Rus'”. And where the political consciousness of the population was more developed - as, for example, in the Novgorod Republic with its veche traditions - “they didn’t want to go to Moscow”, they didn’t understand why they had to sacrifice their private, Novgorod ones, in the name of the triumph of the whole - but alien , Moscow.
The relationship between Moscow and Novgorod in the 15th century became more and more irreconcilable every year. The chronicle's assessment of the 1456 campaign of Grand Duke Vasily II against Novgorod is indicative. The governors of the Grand Duke of Moscow, who find themselves in the face of superior forces of the Novgorodians, say to themselves: “... we will die with them for the truth of our sovereign, and for their betrayal" That is, the concepts of “truth” (it is behind Moscow) and “treason” are opposed to the interests of Moscow (it is committed by Novgorodians).
It is clear that in the city on the Volkhov they looked at the situation diametrically opposite, from the point of view of protecting their rights and freedoms - but this was the tragedy of the misunderstanding, that the assessments were opposite and irreconcilable and consensus was possible only through the extermination or at least the subjugation of one of the sides The Moscow chronicler, describing the defeat of Novgorod, depicts its inhabitants lamenting that they were punished “for their treason against the Grand Duke.” That is, Novgorod’s freedom-loving motives were simply not considered or perceived in Moscow: what kind of struggle for freedom is there? - it was the devil who misled them, and only defeat forced them to sober up and repent.
The assessments and selection of facts that are given about the events of 1471 in the Moscow chronicle are indicative. The Moscow chronicler calls supporters of Novgorod independence “... traitors taught by the devil, deceivers worse than demons.” He draws attention to the arrival in Novgorod of the Lithuanian prince Mikhail Olelkovich, son Prince of Kyiv Alexander Vladimirovich, a descendant of the famous Olgerd - here he is, an undoubted sign of impending treason! The chronicler depicts the clashes in November 1470 at the Novgorod assembly of the “pro-Moscow” and “Pro-Lithuanian” “parties” as a triumph of the treachery of traitors: the “Lithuanians” won, hiring special people who, in a stampede, stabbed their opponents with awls - “shilnikov”. People in the crush screamed in pain, and others thought that they were shouting to vote for the decisions the traitors needed.
On June 6, 1471, the campaign of Moscow troops began under the command of D. D. Kholmsky and F. D. Khromy against the rebellious Novgorod. Soon two more groups emerged - under the leadership of Striga-Obolensky and Ivan III himself. The forces of the Tver principality also moved against Novgorod. Russa was taken and burned, and the Novgorodian ship army was defeated on Lake Ilmen. The governors ordered the captured Novgorodians to “cut their noses, ears and lips.”
This cruel act, if it actually took place, shows in what semantic context the Muscovites assessed the behavior of the Novgorodians. The Bible says: “Thus says the Lord God: Behold, I will stir up against you your lovers, from whom your soul has turned away, and I will bring them against you from all sides... handsome young men, governors and city rulers, dignitaries and eminents, all skilled horsemen. And they will come against you with weapons, with horses and chariots and with a multitude of people, and they will surround you in armor, with shields and helmets, and I will hand you over to them for judgment, and they will judge you with their judgment. And I will turn My jealousy against you, and they will deal with you fiercely: They will cut off your nose and ears, and the rest of you will fall by the sword.; They will take your sons and your daughters, and the rest of you will be devoured by fire; and they will strip you of your clothes, and take away your garments. And I will put an end to your lewdness and your fornication... For thus says the Lord God: Behold, I am delivering you into the hands of those whom you have hated, into the hands of those from whom your soul has turned away. And they will treat you cruelly, and they will take from you everything that you have acquired through your labors... This will be done to you because of your fornication with the nations whom you defiled yourself with idols" ( Ezek. 23:22–30).
The Prophet Ezekiel spoke here about Jerusalem, which, for its sins, primarily the sin of unfaithfulness to God, was overthrown and subjected to invasion by foreigners. That is, in the eyes of Moscow, Novgorod was a “traitor to the faith,” who was simply obliged for his sin, for desecrating the purity of Orthodoxy by contacts with Catholic Lithuania, to be subject to shameful violence and plunder. Muscovites, performing a terrible ritual on the banks of the Sheloni River and cutting off the noses and ears of Novgorodians, felt like performers God's judgment. We don’t know what the Novgorodians felt and thought, but it’s unlikely that they felt that they and their city were a biblical harlot who deserved Heavenly punishment... The Moscow chronicler further writes that as a sign of contempt for the traitors, Muscovites did not take their armor for themselves, as required medieval tradition, and they threw defiled weapons into the water. Novgorodians who came to the banks of the Shelon to defend their freedom were perceived as carriers of dirt and sin.
The tragedy of misunderstanding - in other words it is difficult to call it. And the era of Vasily’s father, Ivan III, was saturated with such tragedies. Probably, it was impossible otherwise - great states are always built with iron and blood. The State of All Rus' of Ivan III is still relatively soft version compared to the bloody scenarios of the unification of England in the Wars of the Roses or the Burgundian Wars in France (1). But this did not make it any easier for the Novgorodians (and others).
Territorial growth was accompanied by the creation of an all-Russian administrative apparatus, an all-Russian Code of Law (1497), and state symbols (a double-headed eagle, first mentioned in 1497). Foreign policy was also successful: Russia overthrew Tatar yoke, won two wars with Lithuania (1487–1494 and 1500–1503), one war with the Livonian Order (1500–1503). In 1487, Kazan came under Russian protectorate. It was under Ivan III that permanent diplomatic relations were established between Russia as a single sovereign state and the European powers: in 1491 - with the Holy Roman Empire, in 1493 - with Denmark, in 1496 - with Turkey, etc.
Moreover, the Grand Duke used dynastic marriages as a political tool: in 1483, Ivan the Young married Elena Voloshanka, the daughter of the Moldavian ruler Stefan. Thus, a political union was concluded between Russia and Moldova, to which Hungary joined. That is, Ivan III entered the international arena as the creator and participant of European military-political coalitions.
What were the character traits, personality traits of this person? Among the main ones, I would name intelligence and the ability to quickly make decisions, focusing on the situation. Ivan III was not a brave man at all - according to some sources, in 1480, with the news of the approach of the Tatar army of Khan Akhmat, he wanted to flee Moscow, but the boyars, townspeople and the church clearly explained to him that he would have to fight, there was no turning back. Ivan III realized that allowing himself to chicken out would be much worse than taking a risk and taking up arms against the Tatars - in 1480, the Moscow prince who fled from the enemy simply would not have had a future. Ivan III was able to understand this, overcome his fear, reject the crafty advice of the “money lovers” who whispered to the prince that the Tatars could not be defeated - he stepped forward and won. This episode very clearly characterizes Ivan Vasilyevich and provides an answer to the question of why he was able to become “the sovereign of all Rus'.” Because in critical situations was able to quickly accept the right decision and sacrifice personal feelings and emotions in the name of national goals.
Ivan III was a very tough politician - it is not for nothing that the nickname “Terrible” was first recorded as referring specifically to this ruler. He could show strength of character and even rancor (he never forgave Metropolitan Philip for his hostility towards Sophia Paleologus). He was distinguished by his broad outlook, insight and foresight, pride and at the same time flexibility. However, he was not a stranger to emotions - at the end of his life he suffered a stroke due to a fit of anger during a discussion with the monks of a trivial land dispute. He perceived the illness as a sign from above, began to repent of his sins, forgive those who had been disgraced (which complicated the political situation in the country and caused considerable annoyance to his son, Grand Duke Vasily III).
We don't know the details family life Ivan III. What is clear is that it was not easy and was to a very large extent subject to the principle of political expediency. The victims of this principle first became the brothers of Ivan III, whose appanage rights and land holdings were severely curtailed. In 1486, the brothers officially recognized Ivan III as their master and sovereign of all Rus'. This helped them little: in 1491 Andrei Bolshoi was arrested, and two years later he died in prison in chains. The relationship with Sophia Paleolog was not cloudless: there is a known case when the Grand Duke put her in disgrace, and ordered the “women” close to her to be drowned in the Moscow River (more on this will be discussed below). But most big problem at the end of his life, when relations with his brothers were more or less settled (mainly as a result of the death of the latter), the question for Ivan III became: what to do with his own children?
The Sovereign of All Rus', Ivan 3, was born in an era filled with dramatic events associated with the incessant raids of the Tatars and the cruel struggle of appanage princes, full of treachery and betrayal. He entered the history of Russia as This fully expresses his role in the formation of a state that later occupied a sixth of the world.
On a frosty winter day on January 22, 1440, the ringing of bells floated over Moscow - the wife of Grand Duke Vasily II, Maria Yaroslavna, was safely delivered of her pregnancy. The Lord sent the ruler a son-heir, named Ivan in holy baptism in honor of St. John Chrysostom, whose memory was to be celebrated in the coming days.
The joys of the young prince’s happy and carefree childhood came to an end when, in 1445, near Suzdal, his father’s squad was completely defeated by Tatar hordes, and the prince himself was captured by Khan Ulu-Muhammad. Residents of Moscow and its temporary ruler Dmitry Yuryevich Shemyaka were in anticipation of an imminent invasion of adversaries on their city, which inevitably gave rise to panic and a feeling of despair.
However, this time the Lord averted the misfortune, and after some time Prince Vasily returned, but for this the Muscovites were forced to send a ransom to the Horde, which amounted to an unaffordable amount for them. Supporters of Dmitry Shemyaka, who had acquired a taste for power, took advantage of the dissatisfaction of the city residents and formed a conspiracy against their rightful ruler.
It tells how, on the way to a pilgrimage to the Trinity-Sergius Lavra, Vasily III was treacherously captured and, by order of Shemyaka, blinded. This was the reason for the nickname “Dark” that took root behind him, with which he is known to this day. To justify their actions, the conspirators started a rumor that Vasily deliberately brought the Tatars to Rus' and gave them the cities and volosts under his control.
The future Grand Duke Ivan III Vasilyevich, together with his younger brothers and boyars who remained loyal to his father, fled from the usurper in Murom, but he soon managed to cunningly lure the young prince to Moscow, and then send him to Uglich, where his father languished in captivity. It is difficult to establish the reason for his further actions - whether he was afraid of the wrath of the Lord or, more likely, had his own benefits, but only after several months Shemyaka freed the prisoner he had blinded and even granted him Vologda as his appanage.
The calculation that blindness and the months spent behind bars broke the prisoner turned out to be a fatal mistake for Shemyaka, which later cost him his life. Once free, Vasily and his son went to the Tver prince Boris and, having concluded an alliance with him, soon appeared in Moscow at the head of a large squad. The usurper's power fell, and he himself fled to Uglich. For greater security, the six-year-old Prince Ivan was engaged to Boris’s daughter, Princess Marya, who by that time was only four years old.
In those ancient times, children grew up early, and it is not surprising that already at the age of nine the heir begins to be called the Grand Duke, and in 1452, the future sovereign of all Rus', Ivan 3, leads the army sent by his father to capture the Ustyug fortress of Kokshengu, where he shows himself to be a fully established commander.
Having captured the citadel and plundered the city, Ivan returns to Moscow. Here, in the presence of the highest clergy and in the presence of a large crowd, he, a twelve-year-old groom, was married to his ten-year-old bride. At the same time, the prince’s loyal people poisoned Shemyaka, who was hiding there, in Uglich, which put an end to his claims to power and stopped the bloody civil strife.
In subsequent years, Ivan III Vasilyevich becomes co-ruler of his father Vasily II and, like him, is called the Grand Duke. Coins from that era with the inscription “donate all Rus'” have survived to this day. During this period, his reign was a chain of incessant military campaigns, in which, led by the experienced commander Fyodor Basenko, he mastered the art of military leadership, the skills in which would be so necessary for him later.
In 1460, Vasily the Dark died, having drawn up a will before his death, according to which the reign of Ivan Vasilyevich III extended to most of the cities of the country. He did not forget the rest of his sons, giving each of them their own fiefdoms. After his death, Ivan exactly fulfilled his father’s will, distributing to each of the brothers the lands due to him, and became the new sole ruler of the Moscow principality.
Having early found himself drawn into internal political strife and external civil strife, twenty-year-old Ivan III Vasilyevich, having received full power after the death of his father, was a fully established ruler. Having inherited from Vasily II a huge, but administratively weakly organized principality, from the first days of his reign he took a hard line to strengthen and expand it.
Having assumed full power, Ivan first of all took care of strengthening the general position of the state. To this end, he confirmed the previously concluded agreements with the Tver and Belozersky principalities, and also strengthened his influence in Ryazan by placing his own man in charge and, moreover, marrying off his own sister.
In the early seventies, Ivan III began the main task of his life - annexing the remaining Russian principalities to Moscow, the first of which was the possession of the Yaroslavl prince Alexander Fedorovich, who died in 1471. His heir considered it good, having received the rank of boyar, to become a faithful servant of the Moscow ruler.
The Yaroslavl principality was followed by the Dmitrov principality, which also came under the jurisdiction of the Grand Duke of Moscow. Soon the Rostov lands joined him, the princes of which preferred to join the serving nobility of their powerful neighbor.
A special place in the series of “gathering Russian land,” as this process later came to be called, is occupied by Moscow’s seizure of the hitherto independent Novgorod, which, unlike numerous appanage principalities, was a free trading and aristocratic state. The capture of Novgorod stretched over a fairly long period, from 1471 to 1477, and included two military campaigns, the first of which ended only with the payment of a significant indemnity by the Novgorodians, and the second led to the complete loss of independence of this ancient city.
It was the end of the Novgorod campaigns that became that milestone in history when Ivan 3 became the Sovereign of All Rus'. This happened partly by accident. Two Novgorodians who arrived in Moscow on business, when writing a petition addressed to the Grand Duke, contrary to the previously accepted address “sir,” used the word “sovereign.” Whether it was an accidental mistake or deliberate flattery, but everyone, and especially the prince himself, liked such an expression of loyal feelings. It is customary to date Ivan’s adoption of the 3rd title of Sovereign of All Rus' to this time.
During the period when the sovereign of all Rus', Ivan 3, was at the head of the Moscow principality, the most important event in history occurred, which put an end to the power of the Horde. It is known as It was preceded by a series internal conflicts within the Tatar state itself, which resulted in its collapse and significant weakening. Taking advantage of this, Ivan 3, the first sovereign of all Rus', refused to pay the established tribute and even ordered the execution of the ambassadors sent to him.
Such previously unheard-of audacity gave rise to the Tatar Khan Akhmat, having previously agreed with the Lithuanian ruler Casimir, to begin a campaign against Rus'. In the summer of 1480, he crossed the Oka with a large army and encamped on the shore. People hurried to meet him. Russian army, which was personally headed by Ivan 3, Sovereign of All Rus'. Briefly describing the subsequent events, it should be noted that they did not develop into large-scale military operations, but were reduced only to a series of enemy attacks repulsed by the Russians.
Having stood on the Ugra until the onset of winter, without waiting for the help promised by Casimir and fearing the princely squads waiting for them on the opposite bank, the Tatars were forced to retreat. Pursued by the Russians, they went deep into the Lithuanian lands, which they mercilessly plundered in retaliation for the prince’s violation of his obligations.
This was not only the last major invasion of steppe nomads into Rus', ending the period Tatar-Mongol yoke, but also a significant weakening of the Principality of Lithuania, which constantly threatened the western borders of the state. From this period, the conflict with him became particularly acute, since the annexation of significant territories by Ivan III to the Moscow Principality was in conflict with the plans of the Lithuanian rulers.
The intelligent and far-sighted politician Ivan III Vasilyevich, whose years of reign became a period of incessant struggle for the independence of the Russian state, in order to suppress the aggression of the Lithuanians, entered into an alliance with the one that had separated from the once mighty Golden Horde as a result of internecine struggle. According to the agreements concluded with Moscow, its rulers more than once devastated territories hostile to the Russians with their raids, thereby weakening their potential opponents.
The relationship between the Sovereign of All Rus' and the Tatars was much worse. Frequent raids by the Tatars forced the Russians to take a number of retaliatory actions that ended in failure. This problem remained insoluble until the end of the reign of Ivan III and was inherited by his successor.
The annexation of Novgorod to the Moscow Principality gave rise to new problem- Livonia became the northwestern neighbor of the Russians. The history of relations with this state has known different stages, among which relatively peaceful periods were replaced by armed conflicts. Among the measures taken by the Sovereign of All Rus' Ivan 3 for border security, the most important place is occupied by the construction of the Ivangorod fortress on the Narva River in 1492.
After the conquest of Novgorod, when Ivan 3 began to be called the Sovereign of All Rus', his annexation of new lands intensified significantly. Beginning in 1481, the Principality of Moscow was expanded to include territories that previously belonged to the Vologda ruler Andrei Menshoy, and then to the Vereisky prince Mikhail Andreevich.
A certain difficulty was the subordination of the Tver principality to Moscow, which ultimately resulted in an armed conflict that ended in Ivan’s victory. The Ryazan and Pskov lands also failed to maintain their independence, the ruler of which, after a long but unsuccessful struggle, was the Moscow Prince Ivan III Vasilyevich.
The biography of this outstanding ruler of the Russian land is inextricably linked with the transformation of the relatively small appanage principality he inherited into a powerful state. It was this state that became the basis of all future Russia, in the chronicle of which he entered as Ivan the Great. In terms of the scale of the transformations he accomplished, this ruler ranks among the most honored figures in Russian history.
He completed his life's journey on October 27, 1505, only briefly outliving his wife Sophia Paleologus. Anticipating his imminent death, Ivan the Great retired. He devoted his last months to visiting holy places. The ashes of the “gatherer of the Russian land” have been resting for four centuries in the Archangel Cathedral, located on the territory of the Moscow Kremlin, the walls of which were erected during his reign and remained for centuries a monument to the era, the creator of which was Ivan III. The title of Sovereign of All Rus' after him became permanent everyday life and belonged to everyone who happened to ascend to the Russian throne.
Ivan III Vasilyevich (1440-1505) - Grand Duke of Moscow (from 1462). Born on January 22, 1440 in Moscow. Father - Vasily II the Dark, mother - Maria Yaroslavna, Borovsk princess. In 1445, after his father was blinded during the struggle for succession to the throne by his nephew Dmitry Shemyaka, Ivan was taken to the city of Pereyaslav-Zalessky, then to the city of Uglich, and from there, together with his mother and father, to Tver.
In 1446 he was engaged to the Tver princess Marya Borisovna. In 1448 “he went with the regiments to repel the Kazan people from the Vladimir and Murom lands.” In 1450 he was declared co-ruler of the father of Vasily II the Dark. In 1452 he was married to Princess Maria Borisovna. In 1459, with his army, he drove the Tatars from the banks of the Oka. In 1460, having provided assistance to the Pskovites from the raids of their neighbors, he was named Prince of Pskov. In 1462, after the death of his father, he officially became the Grand Duke of Moscow, continuing his father’s fight against the separatism of the appanage princes to unite the Russian lands into a sovereign state.
In 1463, the Yaroslavl principality was annexed to Moscow, although in 1464 it had to confirm the independence of Ryazan and Tver. In 1467 he sent an army to Kazan, but the campaign was unsuccessful. In April of the same year, his wife Marya Borisovna died (possibly poisoned), from whose marriage there was a nine-year-old son - the soon-to-be co-ruler of Ivan III, and then the Tver prince Ivan the Young. From 1468, Ivan III began to go with him on military campaigns, and later, during his campaigns, he left his son to rule (“in charge”) of Moscow.
In 1468, the Russians, having penetrated Belaya Voloshka, found themselves east of Kazan. In 1470, Ivan Vasilyevich, having quarreled with Novgorod, demanded a ransom from the city. July 14, 1471 at the Battle of the River. Sheloni defeated the Novgorodians, who promised to pay Moscow 80 pounds of silver.
In the summer of 1472, having repelled the invasion of Khan Akhmet in the south, Moscow troops in the northeast invaded the lands of Great Perm. The Perm land came under the rule of the Moscow Grand Duke. This opened the way for Moscow to the North with its fur wealth, as well as towards the Kama River and the seizure of the eastern lands of the Kazan Khanate to weaken the Horde.
In November 1472, at the suggestion of the Pope, Ivan III married the niece of the last Byzantine Emperor Constantine Paleologus, Sophia Fomineshna Palaiologos. After the wedding, Ivan III “commanded” the Moscow coat of arms with the image of St. George slaying the serpent to be combined with a double-headed eagle - the ancient coat of arms of Byzantium. This emphasized that Moscow was becoming the heir to the Byzantine Empire. The idea that arose then about the worldwide role of “Moscow - the third Rome” led to the fact that Ivan III began to be viewed as “the king of all Orthodoxy”, and the Russian Church as the successor of the Greek Church. In addition to the coat of arms with a double-headed eagle, Monomakh's cap with barms became an attribute of royal power during the ceremony of crowning the kingdom. (According to legend, the latter were sent to Ivan III by the Byzantine emperor).
The marriage with Sophia Paleologus contributed to increasing the authority of the Moscow prince among other Russian princes and facilitated his task of collecting Russian lands.
In 1473, Ivan III began to move his army westward towards Lithuania. In 1474, the Principality of Rostov annexed Moscow and concluded a friendly alliance with the Crimean Khan Mengli-Girey. In 1476, Ivan III took an important step towards liberation from the Horde, ceasing to pay it an annual monetary “exit” (“tribute”). In 1477, leaving Ivan the Young in Moscow, Ivan III went to Veliky Novgorod and, subjugating this city with its vast lands, by 1478 strengthened its position on the western borders. The symbol of Novgorod "liberty" - the veche bell - was taken to Moscow. Prominent representatives of the boyars, hostile to Moscow, including Marfa Boretskaya, were arrested and sent into exile in the “lower cities”.
In 1479, the most acute moment of Ivan III’s struggle with the appanage princes came, which the Horde Khan Akhmat took advantage of. When Ivan III and his army were on the western borders, the Horde moved towards Moscow. Ivan the Young, who was “in charge” of Moscow, led the regiments to Serpukhov and on June 8, 1480 became our r. Eel. Fearing for his son’s life, Ivan III ordered him to leave, but Ivan the Young began to “wait for the Tatars,” and Ivan III hastily began to strengthen his positions on the approaches to the river. Oka near Kolomna and Tarusa. On September 30, he arrived in Moscow to “make peace” with the appanage princes and mobilize them to fight the Tatars. In Moscow, Ivan III met the discontent of the people who were preparing to repel the invasion and began to “speak evilly” to him, demanding that he go to the troops to defend Moscow. On October 3, Ivan arrived with his detachment of troops on the left bank of the Ugra River at its confluence with the river. Oku (near Kaluga). In October 1480, Khan Akhmet also approached the Ugra, trying to cross to the left bank, but was repulsed by the Russians. A confrontation between Russians and Tatars began (“Standing on the Ugra”), which lasted until the end of the year. The Tatars did not dare to fight the main battle. The onset of frost, hunger strike, and lack of food forced Akhmet to leave. Standing on the river Eel actually put an end to the Horde yoke, which lasted more than 240 years.
In 1481, Ivan III conquered the lands of the Livonian Order, and in 1481-1482, the terms of the treaty letters of the Grand Duke with the appanage princes of the Moscow house were revised with the prospect of their annexation to Moscow. In 1485 Moscow annexed the Tver Principality, Ivan the Young was declared the Prince of Tver. In 1487, Russian troops captured Kazan, where in place of the captured Khan Ali, Ivan III placed his brother Muhammad-Emin, who was related by family ties to the Crimean Khan, which strengthened Ivan III’s relations with the Crimea and allowed him to launch a new offensive against Lithuania, which lasted from with a break until 1503.
Power-hungry and prudent, cautious and decisive at the right moment, Ivan III led consistently and purposefully both external and domestic policy aimed at creating a strong monarchical power. According to the Belozersk charter of Ivan III in 1488, all classes in Moscow and lands subordinate to Moscow turned out to be dependent on the Grand Duke; his possessions extended further and further: in 1489 Vyatka was conquered, the northeastern lands were absorbed by the Moscow principality.
As the power of the Moscow prince strengthened, his prestige in other countries strengthened. So, in 1489, Ivan III received the first friendly letter from the German Emperor Frederick III. The strengthening of Moscow's position in Europe further strengthened the political and ideological positions of Ivan III within the state. In 1490, he convened a church council to consider and condemn the heresy of the “Judaizers,” giving freedom to the Russian Orthodox Church in the fight against dissidents. In 1491 he imprisoned his brother the Uglich prince, and annexed his inheritance to Moscow. In the same year, having received the discovery of silver mines on the Tsylma River in the Pechersk region, he accelerated the completion of the construction of a secular building in the Kremlin - the Faceted Chamber for receiving foreign ambassadors and other special occasions.
In 1492, Ivan III managed to establish friendly relations with the Turkish Sultan, and in the west, to continue the interrupted war with Lithuania; there the borders were strengthened by the construction of a stone fortress in Ivan-gorod (near Narva). In 1494, the first stage of the war with Lithuania ended in peace and family union. But Ivan III could be irreconcilable and cruel: in 1495, irritated by the Livonian Order, he ordered all the Hanseatic merchants who were then in Moscow to be thrown into prison; in 1496, while fighting with the Swedes, he devastated Finland.
In the internal life of Moscow, Ivan III introduced major changes to the grand-ducal palace and patrimonial administration, changing it to the so-called “mandatory system”. New institutions - orders - grew out of the personal orders of the Grand Duke to persons from among the ruling class. In 1497, at the “order” of Ivan III, clerk Vladimir Gusev compiled the Sudebnik 1497 - a kind of code of feudal law (procedural, civil, criminal, etc.). The Code of Law defended the feudal landowners, oppressing the freedom of the peasants: now their transition from one landowner to another was limited by the so-called. “St. George’s Day” (the week before November 26 and the week after this date) and became common for all of Rus'. Under Ivan III, local land ownership expanded and the role of the nobility began to increase, although the service landowners were greatly inferior to the boyar nobility.
Ivan III sought to maintain contact with Constantinople. In 1497 he sent ambassadors there with gifts. But this did not stop him in 1498 from “putting disgrace” on his “Byzantine” wife Sophia Paleologus, who was accused (as it turned out later - by slander) of participating in an attempt on his princely power. Ivan III assigned guards to his wife and their eldest son Vasily, executed the alleged initiators of the conspiracy and solemnly crowned his grandson from the son of Ivan the Young, Dmitry, to the throne in the Assumption Cathedral. But already in 1499 he radically changed his decision: he made peace with Sophia and Vasily, and partly executed those who slandered them, and partly tonsured them as monks. Now Dmitry and Ivan the Young’s wife, Elena Voloshanka, suspected of participating in the conspiracy, were subjected to severe disgrace. Dmitry was put in a “stone” (prison), where he died “in want” 10 years later.
In 1499, another land was annexed to Moscow - Yugorskaya. In 1500, the war began again with the Lithuanians, who were defeated on July 14 of the same year at the Vedrosha River. In 1501, Russian troops, having occupied the lands of Livonia, reached almost Revel. The Livonian Order undertook to pay tribute to Moscow for the city of Yuryev. On March 25, 1503, according to the peace treaty with Lithuania, Moscow received 19 cities (Chernigov, Novgorod-Seversky, Gomel, Bryansk, etc.), as well as 70 volosts, 22 settlements, 13 villages. In 1504, according to the will of his brother Boris and in connection with the death of his son, Ivan III annexed Ruza and the lands around it to Moscow.
In 1503, Ivan III convened a council, according to the verdict of which many heretics who opposed the dominant ideology - the Josephites - were burned, imprisoned or exiled. On April 7 of the same year, Sophia Paleolog died. Having been married to Ivan III for 30 years, she gave birth to five sons, the eldest of whom soon became the Grand Duke of Moscow Vasily IV, as well as four daughters. Shortly before his death, Ivan III traveled a lot to monasteries, “writing spiritual letters.”
Ivan III died on October 27, 1505 in Moscow at the age of 65 and was buried in the Archangel Cathedral of the Kremlin.
Under Ivan III, most of the estates were liquidated and turned into simple estates, into local land ownership. The strengthening of Ivan III’s position within the state was accompanied by the strengthening of the Russian population’s national unity, successes in foreign policy. The territory of the Moscow Principality increased from 24 thousand to 64 thousand square meters. km. His diplomatic ties were established with German Empire with Rome, Hungary, Moldova, Crimea, Turkey and Iran.
Under Ivan III, fortress walls were erected near Kolomna and Tula on its approaches to Moscow. Construction in the Kremlin was completely completed Orthodox cathedrals- Assumption and Annunciation, construction of the tomb of the great princes - the Archangel Cathedral - is almost completed. A magnificent and solemn etiquette was established in the palace life of Moscow. A new form was also adopted state seal with the image of a double-headed eagle, a mythical genealogy was compiled specifically to substantiate the royal origin of the Russian princes, which traced the ancestor of the Russian princes Rurik from the Roman Caesar Augustus. It seemed that Rurik was a descendant of Caesar Augustus, and in the 14th generation - Ivan III himself. Under Ivan III, with the formation of the main territory of the Moscow State on the model of Byzantium, his full title was introduced: “John, by the grace of God, Sovereign of All Rus' and Grand Duke of Vladimir, and Moscow, and Novgorod, and Pskov, and Tver, and Ugra, and Perm, both Bulgarian and others.” In the course of diplomatic relations with Livonia and German cities, Ivan III called himself “Tsar of All Rus'”, the Danish king called him “Emperor”, and later Ivan III in one of the letters called his son Vasily “Autocrat of All Rus'”.
On March 28, 1462, Ivan III became the ruler of the Grand Duchy of Moscow. The activities of the Sovereign of All Rus' had a truly “revolutionary” character for the development of Russia. Activities of the Sovereign of all Rus'.
It is no coincidence that Ivan III received the nickname “The Great”. It was he who managed to gather the scattered principalities of northeastern Rus' around Moscow. During his lifetime the composition single state included the Yaroslavl and Rostov principalities, Vyatka, Perm the Great, Tver, Novgorod and other lands.
Ivan III first of the Russian princes, he took the title “Sovereign of All Rus'” and introduced the term “Russia” into use. The Grand Duke transferred to his son a territory several times larger than what he himself inherited. Ivan III took a decisive step towards overcoming feudal fragmentation and eliminating the appanage system, laying the economic, political, legal and administrative foundations of a single state.
For another hundred years after the Battle of Kulikovo, Russian princes continued to pay tribute to the Golden Horde. The role of liberator from the Tatar-Mongol yoke fell to Ivan III. The stand on the Ugra River, which happened in 1480, marked the final victory of Rus' in the struggle for its independence. The Horde did not dare to cross the river and enter into battle with the Russian troops. Payments of tribute stopped, the Horde became mired in civil strife and early XVI centuries ceased to exist. Moscow once again established itself as the center of the emerging Russian state.
The Code of Laws of Ivan III, adopted in 1497, laid the legal foundations for overcoming feudal fragmentation. The Sudebnik established uniform legal norms for all Russian lands, thereby securing the leading role of the central government in regulating the life of the state. The code of laws covered a wide range of vital issues and affected all segments of the population. Article 57 limited the right of peasants to transfer from one feudal lord to another to the week before and the week after St. George's Day. This marked the beginning of the enslavement of the peasants. The Code of Law was progressive for its time: at the end of the 15th century, not every European country could boast of uniform legislation. The Ambassador of the Holy Roman Empire, Sigismund von Herberstein, translated a significant part of the Law Code into Latin. These records were also studied by German jurists, who compiled a pan-German code of laws (“Carolina”) only in 1532.
The unification of the country required a new state ideology, and its foundations appeared: Ivan III approved the double-headed eagle as the symbol of the country, which was used in the state symbols of Byzantium and the Holy Roman Empire. The marriage of Sophia Palaeologus, the niece of the last Byzantine emperor, gave additional grounds for the idea of succession of grand-ducal power from the Byzantine imperial dynasty. The origin of the Russian princes was also traced back to the Roman Emperor Augustus. After the death of Ivan III, the theory of “Moscow - the Third Rome” grew out of these ideas. But it's not just about ideology. Under Ivan III, Russia began to actively assert itself in the European arena. The series of wars he waged with Livonia and Sweden for dominance in the Baltic marked the first stage on Russia's path to the empire proclaimed by Peter I two and a half centuries later.
The unification of lands under the rule of the Moscow Principality provided the basis for the flourishing of Russian culture. Throughout the country, intensive construction of fortresses, churches and monasteries was carried out. It was then that the red wall of the Moscow Kremlin was erected, and it turned into the strongest fortress of its time. During the life of Ivan III, the main part of that architectural ensemble the Kremlin, which we can see today. The best Italian masters were invited to Russia. Under the leadership of Aristotle Fiorovanti, the five-domed Assumption Cathedral was erected. Italian architects erected the Faceted Chamber, which became one of the symbols of royal greatness. Pskov craftsmen built the Annunciation Cathedral. Under Ivan III, about 25 churches were built in Moscow alone. The flourishing of Russian architecture convincingly reflected the process of creating a new, unified state.
The formation of a unified state could not occur without the creation of an elite loyal to the sovereign. The local system became effective solution this problem. Under Ivan III, there was an intensive recruitment of people for both military and civil service. That is why precise rules for the distribution of government lands were created (they were transferred into temporary personal possession as a reward for service). Thus, a class of service people was formed who were personally dependent on the sovereign and owed their well-being to the public service.
The largest state emerging around the Moscow Principality demanded unified system management. They became orders. Basic government functions were concentrated in two institutions: the Palace and the Treasury. The palace was in charge of the personal lands of the Grand Duke (that is, state ones), the Treasury was at once the Ministry of Finance, the chancellery, and the archive. Appointment to positions took place on the principle of localism, that is, depending on the nobility of the family. However, the very creation of a centralized government apparatus was of an extremely progressive nature. The order system, founded by Ivan III, finally took shape during the reign of Ivan the Terrible, and lasted until the beginning of the 18th century, when it was replaced by Peter’s collegiums.
