In the process of O. of people, their inner, essential aspects are revealed, expressed externally, and become, to one degree or another, accessible to others. This is due to the relationship between the external and internal in a person. In the most general consideration of such a relationship, it is necessary to proceed from a number of philosophical postulates relating not only to such concepts as "external" and "internal", but also "essence", "phenomenon", "form", "content". The external expresses the properties of an object as a whole and the ways of its interaction with the environment, the internal expresses the structure of the object itself, its composition, structure and connections between elements. At the same time, the external is given directly in the process of cognition, while the cognition of the internal requires theories. research, during which the so-called "unobservable entities" are introduced - idealized objects, laws, etc. Since the internal is revealed through the external, the movement of knowledge is considered as a movement from the external to the internal, from what is accessible to observation which is unobservable. The content determines the form, and its changes cause its changes, on the other hand. - the form affects the content, accelerates or inhibits its development. Thus, the content is constantly changing, while the form remains stable, unchanged for some time, until the conflict between content and form destroys the old form and creates a new one. At the same time, the content is usually associated with quantitative changes, and the form - with qualitative, spasmodic ones. Essence is internal, which is inseparable from a thing, must be present in it, spatially located inside it. The phenomenon is a form of expression of the essence. It coincides with the essence, differs, distorts it, which is due to the interaction of the object with other objects. In order to reflect such a distortion in the perception of a person, the category of “appearance” is introduced as a unity of the subjective and the objective, in contrast to the phenomenon, which is completely objective. The problem of external and internal acquires its specificity and particular complexity if the object of knowledge is a person (especially when such concepts as “body” and “soul” are used to explain the relationship between external and internal). Early researchers of this problem were interested in: 1) the relationship between the external and internal in a person, his bodily and spiritual, body and soul; 2) the ability to judge the internal, personal qualities , based on external, bodily manifestations; 3) the connection of certain internal, mental disorders with external. manifestations, that is, the influence of the mental on the bodily and vice versa. Even Aristotle in his work "Physiognomy" tried to find the relationship between the external and the internal, both in general, philosophical terms, and specifically - in the study of man. He believed that the body and soul are merged in a person to such an extent that they become the cause of most states for each other. But their relationship and interdependence is relative: for any internal. state, it is possible to achieve an external expression, which will not correspond to it at all. There can also be such an external, to which the internal does not correspond (fully or partially), and vice versa, there can be an internal, to which any external does not correspond. Much later, the specific “filling”, the recognition and further development of the postulate of the unity of the external and internal in a person, his soul and body, the desire to understand their complex, multifaceted interaction served as a fruitful basis for the development of many modern. areas of psychology. Among them: the psychology of non-verbal behavior, studies of human expression, the psychology of lies, the holistic approach of psychosomatic medicine, etc. Since one of the sides of O. is the perception of each other by people, in the fatherland. In social psychology, the problem of the relationship between external and internal in a person was most intensively developed in social perception. In practical and theoretical terms, research in this area focuses on finding possible patterns of perception by one person of another, identifying interdependence and stable relationships between external. manifestations and internal the content of a person as a person, individual, individuality, his understanding. Most of the research in this area was carried out in the beginning. 1970s, are works devoted to the problem of reflection by people of each other in the process of their interaction (A. A. Bodalev and his scientific school). To ext. The (mental) content of a person includes his beliefs, needs, interests, feelings, character, states, abilities, etc., that is, everything that is not directly given to a person in his perception of another. Physical refers to the external. the appearance of a person, his anatomical and functional features (posture, gait, gestures, facial expressions, speech, voice, behavior). This also includes all signs and signals that are informative or regulatory in nature, to-rye are perceived by the subject of knowledge. According to A. A. Bodalev, internal (mental processes, mental states) is associated with specific neurophysiol. and biochemical characteristics of the organism. In the course of a person's life, his complex mental formations, which are ensembles of processes and states that are continuously rebuilt in the course of activity, are dynamically expressed in the external. appearance and behavior in the form of a set of specific features organized into spatio-temporal structures. Ideas regarding the interaction of external and internal were developed in the works of V. N. Panferov. He draws attention to the appearance of a person and once again emphasizes that when another person is perceived, his personal properties (as opposed to physical properties) are not given to the subject of knowledge directly, their knowledge requires the work of thinking, imagination, intuition. The problem of external and internal is considered by him as the problem of the correlation of object (appearance) and subjective properties (personal characteristics) of a person. In this case, appearance appears as sign system of psychology. personality traits, on the basis of a cut in the process of cognition, psychol is actualized. personality content. The question of the relationship between internal and external is resolved in favor of their unity, since appearance is perceived as a quality. characteristics inseparable from personality. When solving the problem of internal content and external expressions VN Panferov distinguishes 2 sides of a person's appearance: physical. beauty and charm (expression). Expression, in his opinion, is functionally related to personality traits. Due to the constant repetition of the same mimic patterns on the face of a person, an expression (expression) typical of him is formed, which reflects his most frequent internal expression. state. The most informative elements of a person's appearance for the subject of perception are the expression of the face and eyes. At the same time, the author notes the ambiguity of the interpretation of facial elements, its dependence on the expressive properties of appearance. Further appeal to the problem of expression, non-verbal behavior also enriched the understanding of the relationship between external and internal in a person in the process of O. Expressed at the beginning of the 20th century. theater researcher S. Volkonsky ideas concerning aesthetic and psychol. analysis of the external expression of the inner self of a person on stage, "self-sculpture", his search for the optimum expressiveness, external. harmony, the search for ways to educate an “expressive person”, an actor who is able to convey the most subtle experiences and meanings with his gesture, movement and word, to return to the body the function of an expression of the soul that he has lost, turned out to be relevant and received their further understanding in the works of V. A. Labunskaya, where expression is considered in quality. external I of the personality and correlates with different personal structures. Lit .: Aseev VG Categories of form and content in psychology // Categories of materialistic dialectics in psychology. M., 1988; Bodalev A. A. Personality and communication. M., 1995; Losev A.F. History of ancient aesthetics. M., 1975; Panferov VN Appearance and personality // Social psychology of personality. L., 1974; Sheptulin A.P. The system of categories of dialectics. M., 1967. G. V. Serikov
The term "expression" is translated into Russian as expressiveness, a vivid manifestation of feelings, moods. Expression is also interpreted as the presentation to the outside (to another person, a group of persons) of the psychological characteristics of a person hidden for direct observation. Expressiveness means the degree of expression of a particular feeling, mood, state, attitude, etc. The terms "expression" and "expressiveness" are used not only by psychologists, but also by art historians, theater critics, when they need to emphasize the degree of expression spiritual world person or indicate the means of his expression, for example, music, painting, architecture. Thus, in the existing definitions of expression and expressiveness, there are indications of the connection of this phenomenon with the spiritual and spiritual world of a person. Ideas about the connection between expression and the inner world of a person, which were formed largely in philosophical, aesthetic, art history literature, were supplemented by psychologists. The essence of this connection in the context of psychology is seen in the fact that expression is given a place not just an external accompaniment of mental phenomena. It is interpreted as part of these phenomena, as a form of their existence. Therefore, we can talk about expression as a personal education, as a tool for understanding the inner world of a person, as about his outer self. The entire history of the psychology of expressive, expressive, non-verbal behavior confirms the validity of this conclusion. The great Russian researcher of expressive behavior, Prince Sergei Volkonsky, in his books (32, 33) wrote that expressive behavior is “the revelation of the inner “I” through the external “I”. “This is a self-image, and, moreover, eternally changing” (33. p. 16).
The tradition of studying expression as the external self of a person was founded by the works of V. Klassovsky (65), I. M. Sechenov (165), I. A. Sikorsky (166), D. Averbukh (2), S. L. Rubinshtein (158) . Already in the middle of the last century, researchers of expressive behavior believed that “our body, placed between the soul and external nature, a mirror reflecting in itself the action of both of them, tells everyone who is willing and able to understand. These stories are not only our inclinations, worries, feelings, thoughts, but also the damage that it itself received from fate, passions, illnesses ”(65. P. 57).
A great influence on the development of the psychology of expressive movements, as well as on the formation of the concept of expression as the external self of the personality, was the work of I. M. Sechenov “Reflexes of the brain”. In it, he emphasized that "the entire infinite variety of external manifestations of brain activity is reduced to only one phenomenon - muscle movement" (165. p. 71), thereby proving that expressive movements also serve as a means of manifestation mental processes. “Just look at this nervous lady who is not able to resist even the expected light sound. Even in her facial expression, in her posture, there is something that is usually called determination, - writes I. M. Sechenov, - this, of course, is an external muscular manifestation of the act by which she tries, albeit in vain, to defeat involuntary movements . It is extremely easy for you to notice this manifestation of the will ... only because in your life you have seen similar examples 1000 times ”(165. p. 79). Based on the ideas of I. M. Sechenov, an approach to expressive movements began to develop as a means of objectifying the psychological characteristics of a person, as a means of creating an external self of a person. In the works of I. M. Sechenov there are a number of considerations regarding the relationship between the external and the internal. Among them are the idea that all the spiritual movements of a person find their expression in external appearance and the idea that the connection between the external and the internal is fixed due to the systematic coincidence of the external and the internal, thanks to the socio-psychological observation of expressive behavior and its interpretation in communication. The ideas of I. M. Sechenov were continued in the work of D. Averbukh. He writes: “Internal changes in a person entail changes in his appearance ... appearance, therefore, is not a random combination of forms, but a strict and distinct expression of generic and individual characteristics inherent in the subject” (2. p. 30).
The interest of researchers in the expressive behavior of the individual, in the expression of a person, did not weaken throughout the twentieth century and increased as fundamental psychological works appeared, which led to the formation of the psychology of expressive, expressive behavior of the individual as an independent branch of psychological science. It is presented in several directions that have developed during the 20th century - these are the German psychology of expression (Ausdruckpsychologie), the Anglo-American psychology of non-verbal behavior, non-verbal communications and the domestic psychology of expressive movements or expressive behavior.
Despite the fact that the Russian psychology of expressive behavior began to take shape in the first half of the 19th century, it is believed that the German psychology of expression is the first scientific tradition in the study of human expression. The main achievements of this branch of psychology are set forth in a voluminous volume entitled "Ausdruckpsychologie" (211). As follows from it, the subject of the psychology of expression is the patterns of revealing, on the basis of outwardly given signs, the essential nature of the personality; the study of expression as a holistic dynamic phenomenon, which presents the individual characteristics of a person, his current states, relationships, level of claims, value orientations, lifestyle, etc. The first graphic codes for the expression of basic emotions, including movements of the upper, middle, lower parts of the face and consisting of combinations of the “pattern” of the eyebrows, the mouth, the shape of the eyes, the direction of the wrinkles on the forehead, around the mouth and eyes, were compiled at the beginning of the century within the framework of the psychology of expression. As a basis, they are used for the purpose of encoding expression by many modern researchers.
A number of psychologists have made a significant contribution to the formation of the psychology of expression. One of them is Karl Gottschaldt (233). He raised the most important question about the field of phenomena, united by the concept of "expression". In his study, K. Gottschaldt observed with the help of a movie camera how a student solves a problem that was presented to him as a test that determines the level of development of his intellect. He fixed three stages of solving the problem: indicative, search for a solution and the stage of completion - success. For each of the stages of the decision, he recorded the “actual posture”, as well as facial, gestural, and intonational features of behavior. These data prompted the author of the work to clarify the concept of "expression". K. Gottschaldt proposed to distinguish between the concepts of "expression" and "external manifestations". External manifestations are understood as a direct representation of emotional states, and expression refers to a set of directed actions associated with the experienced, with the social position - this is a permanent structure of the personality, its character. K. Gottschaldt explains his approach to understanding the expression, based on the fact that various movements, for example, intermittent movements in tense conflict situation, do not so much correspond to certain experiences of the individual, but rather indicate general level voltage.
Following K. Gottschaldt, N. Friida, in her chapter “Mimicry and Pantomime” (211), expressed the opinion that expression is a specific position of a person, which is revealed in the style and manner of expression. R. Kirchoff in a generalizing theoretical work also emphasizes that the concept of expression is related to a wide range of phenomena and covers almost all means of expressing personality (211). “Personal expression” within the framework of the psychology of expression turns into one of the fundamental categories of psychology, becomes on a par with such concepts as manner, personality style. It captures something stable, essential, which distinguishes one person from another (facial movements that constantly accompany various facial expressions, for example, tension, displeased movement of the lips), postures, pace of movements, their direction, abundance, angularity or plasticity, the appearance of laughter or smile, fear , a tendency to certain reactions to an event (for example, to a stern look), demeanor, etc. But such an interpretation of the concept of “personal expression” is not the only one.
From our point of view, it is more legitimate to talk about several interpretations of this concept.
1. About the interpretation in broad sense an expression that puts it on a par with concepts such as reflection. In this case, the subject of the expression is all of its "maximum being", presented in all external manifestations.
2. On the interpretation of the expression in the narrow sense as a category that encompasses personal, personal being. The subject of expression is a few stable features, style, manner.
3. About expression as a uniform manifestation of some kind of feeling or attitude, state.
4. About expression as a dynamic phenomenon corresponding to specific states, personality relationships.
As a result of the broad and narrow interpretation of the concept of "personal expression" there has been an incredible increase in the range of those means by which the content to be expressed can be discovered. This class, which allows you to identify the essence of the personality, its originality, includes: facial expressions, gestures, handwriting, drawing, clothing, body shape, speech style, environment, etc. Depending on how the concept of "expression" is interpreted, it is determined a set of studied means, in accordance with which the directions of the psychology of expression are formed.
In each of the above interpretations of "expression" there is a general tendency - to associate expression (expression) with constantly repeating patterns of means of expression corresponding to different levels of organization and formal-dynamic characteristics of the individual. In other words, an expression is something stable, inherent only to a given person, even if it is related to the dynamic structures of the personality (the same type rejoices, gets angry, shows aggression, etc.). In this sense, expression (a set of means of expression) is an individual-personal formation, it represents the external, expressive I of a person.
In parallel with the German psychology of expression, but in a different direction, the domestic psychology of expressive behavior is developing, which pays special attention to the study of the relationship between expressive movements and emotional states of a person. A personal approach to expressive movements began to take shape at the beginning of the 20th century. Its formation was influenced by the works of I. A. Sikorsky (166), V. M. Bekhterev (22). I. A. Sikorsky in his book “General Psychology with Physiognomy” presented expressive patterns (codes) of the most complex human experiences, such as shame, grief, linked expression with professional activity, pointed to different types of people represented in their expressive repertoire. Along with these ideas, I. A. Sikorsky clarified the concept of physiognomy and gave it the status of a scientific category. In general, I. A. Sikorsky considered expression as a personal formation, as the external self of a person.
V. M. Bekhterev in his work "Objective Psychology", published for the first time in 1907-1912, substantiates the approach to the study of the psyche through the analysis of its external manifestations. Special attention V. M. Bekhterev pays attention to facial expressions and facial expressions. He proposes a classification of facial movements, considers their individual development, etc. After the works of V. M. Bekhterev, I. A. Sikorsky, up to the publication general psychology» S. L. Rubinshtein, expression is studied in ethological terms, within the framework of comparative psychology, for example, the work of N. N. Ladygina-Kots (102). This trend in the study of expression was continued by N. A. Tikh (177). The value of these works lies in the fact that they reveal the evolutionary and genetic prerequisites for consolidating the links between expressive behavior and mental states of a person.
From the point of view of the humanitarian approach, S. Volkonsky contributed to the development of the psychology of expressive behavior, and he called his book Expressive Man (32). This book deals with gestures, human facial expressions as a special sign system that can be developed with the help of various exercises, attention is paid to the problem of the relationship between gestures, human expression and his inner world. In the works of S. Volkonsky, for the first time, such problems of modern psychology of expression were posed as the problem of self-presentation, the use of expression in order to create an image of the I of a person.
Subsequently, the humanitarian line in the study of expression was represented in Russian psychology by studies of the ontogenesis of speech (for example, the study of speech and non-verbal means of communication in children). These works emphasize that the basis for the formation of expressive movements as signs-indicators of the psychological characteristics of a person is the developing needs for communication and knowledge of oneself and another person. A huge role in the formation of the main provisions of the modern domestic psychology of expressive behavior was played by the work performed in the field of extralinguistics, in which expression is considered in connection with human speech behavior.
But the most significant influence on the development of the theory of Russian psychology of expressive behavior (both its natural science and humanitarian branches) was exerted by the ideas of S. L. Rubinshtein, presented in the Fundamentals of General Psychology. His inclusion of a section on expressive movements in a textbook on general psychology gave this problem not only a fundamental scientific status, but also attracted the attention of many domestic psychologists to the expressive behavior of a person. His thoughts about the unity of natural and social, natural and historical in expressive behavior are used by modern researchers to explain the variety of forms of expression, the contradictory relationships between them and the psychological characteristics of the individual. He stressed that expressive behavior is integral part development of human actions, his behavior and activities. S. L. Rubinshtein believed that ".... the action is not limited to its external side, but also has its own internal content and expression of a person's relationship to the environment, is an external form of existence of the internal, spiritual content of the personality, and expressive movements are not just external, empty accompaniment of emotions, but the external form of their existence or manifestation” (158, p. 409). S. L. Rubinshtein drew attention to the fact that the statistical and dynamic aspects of expression are interrelated and are a characteristic of the personality as a whole.
L. M. Sukharebsky paid special attention to expression as a personal formation in his works (176). Considering the facial expressions of a person in a wide variety of aspects, he comes to the conclusion that it is an objective indicator of the development of a person, his belonging to a particular profession. He believed that labor occupations, the socialization of a person leave an imprint on the expression of his face, forming mimic masks characteristic only for a given individual, “traces” of his experiences, relationships, leading states. These conclusions were confirmed by him as a result of considering the facial expressions of sick people, as an indicator of deep-seated violations of their personality, emotional-need sphere.
Based on these ideas, in Russian psychology, expression, expressive movements are endowed with the function of revealing the internal in the external, “creating the image of a person” or his external self. person by person based on their appearance and expression (25). The formation of a socio-perceptual approach to human expression is associated with the name of A. A. Bodalev. Discussing the problem of personality expression, A. A. Bodalev points out that it is directly related to its psychological characteristics. From his point of view, “complex psychological formations, which are ensembles of processes and states that are continuously rebuilt in the course of activity, are dynamically expressed in the appearance and behavior of a person in the form of a set of certain features organized into spatio-temporal structures” (25. P. 99 ) This set of features does not exist by itself, but acts as an indicator of mental processes and personality traits hidden for direct observation, that is, it is the expressive self of the personality. Further development of this problem within the framework of the psychology of communication led to the creation by V. N. Panferov (135, 137) of the concept of the relationship between the subjective properties of a person and the object characteristics of her behavior. He was one of the first in the socio-psychological plan to raise the problem of the external expressive I of the individual, the question of the correlation of signs-elements of the external appearance, human behavior with its psychological qualities. Subjective (psychological) qualities are revealed, according to V. N. Panferov, through the external appearance , which includes expression, activity and objective actions.
The Anglo-American psychology of non-verbal behavior was originally formed as a branch that opposed itself to the German psychology of expression. Therefore, the concept of "expression" is more often used in it in connection with the expression of emotional states, as dynamic elements in the structure of the personality, directly observable (without speculation on the psychology of expression). The terms "expression", "expressive" behavior are used in Anglo-American psychology in order to emphasize the expressive functions of non-verbal behavior, i.e., the functions of expression, the presentation of hidden and at the same time directly observable personality traits. Expression and non-verbal behavior have been studied and are being studied as objective indicators, as indicators of a wide variety of personality parameters, its changes under the influence of various kinds of influences. In other words, the Anglo-American psychology of non-verbal behavior also deals with the problem of personality expression, explores its external, expressive self.
The experimental psychology of non-verbal behavior is nothing more than an attempt to find consistent connections between expression and the psychological characteristics of a person. From many theoretical reviews carried out in the second half of the 20th century, it follows that the experimental psychology of nonverbal behavior did not so much change the idea of expression as it replaced the term "expressive" with the term "nonverbal", introducing into the circle of phenomena such as: kinesics, proxemics, take-shika, prosody, clothing, cosmetics, the environment, etc. This clarification is necessary in order to emphasize once again that the Anglo-American psychology of non-verbal behavior also considers the same range of means as means of organizing behavior, communication, which was outlined by the psychology of expression. Therefore, such concepts as "expressive code" and "non-verbal code" essentially correspond to the same phenomenon - a certain program, pattern, a set of expressive, non-verbal movements that have a direct connection with the psychological characteristics of a person and his communication with other people.
Ch. Darwin's work (45) had a great influence on the formation of the Anglo-American psychology of non-verbal behavior. His main provisions are often analyzed in the relevant literature, so there is no need to dwell on his ideas in detail. It is important to emphasize that this work influenced both the formation of the psychology of non-verbal behavior, which has a sociocultural orientation in its explanatory schemes, and the one based on the evolutionary-biological approach to explaining the relationship between the external and the internal. A striking example of finding a compromise between the evolutionary-biological approach and the ideas of a cultural-psychological analysis of the relationship between expression and human mental states is the book by K. Izard "Human Emotions" (55), in which he analyzes in a number of chapters the evolutionary-biological significance of facial expression, and also shows its role in social interaction, describes the "codes" of expressive manifestations of the main emotions.
In the 1940s, a structural-linguistic approach to the analysis of non-verbal behavior or human expression was formed. D. Efron, one of the first, applied structural-linguistic methods to study intercultural differences in body movements and gestures. Behind him, R. Birdwistell creates a visual-kinetic language of communication. M. Argyle develops systems for recording non-verbal communications. This line continues in the works of P. Ekman. But along with it, he develops and formalizes the original neuro-cultural concept of expressive behavior. Perhaps, the works of these authors, starting from the 60-70s, have a significant impact on the domestic psychology of non-verbal communications, on the differentiation of approaches within it.
In general, the psychology of expression covers a wider range of phenomena than the psychology of non-verbal behavior. This is evidenced by the fact that within the framework of the psychology of expression, experimental physiognomy was formed and is still developing today, which refers to stable characteristics of appearance, fixing the dynamic aspect of expression as “traces” of the prevailing experiences and human relationships. In the classical definition of physiognomy, it is emphasized that this is the expression of the face and figure of a person, taken without regard to expressive movements and due to the very structure of the face, skull, torso, limbs. But a close study of various works in the field of physiognomy convinces us that since the time of Aristotle, its representatives have been trying to combine the dynamic aspect of expression and the “traces” of experiences, the constitutional characteristics of a person, which relate to the static parameters of the expressive Self of the personality. The term "physiognomy" comes from the Greek words - nature, character - thought, cognitive ability. Hence the art of recognizing a character by external signs is called "physiognomy", and the signs themselves are called "physiognomy". In modern studies, "physiognomy" is interpreted as the doctrine of the expression of a person in facial features and body shapes, the doctrine of the expressive forms of the psychological make-up of a person. More details about the history of the formation of physiognomy are given in the book by V. V. Kupriyanov, G. V. Stovichek (90).
Practical physiognomy as a branch of the psychology of expression began to take shape a very long time ago. Since ancient times, it was believed that the first ability of a person is the ability to organize his appearance. The Russian physiologist Bogdanov wrote that the art of applying physiognomic observations to everyday needs is one of the oldest. It is known that the ancient poets-dramatists placed in the manuscripts, in the section "characters" images of masks corresponding to the characters of the characters. They were sure that a certain type of face is inextricably linked with a certain character, therefore, in order for the viewer to correctly understand the psychology of the hero, it was necessary to accompany the text with images of character masks. The first and rather simplified physiognomic view concerns the relationship between physical beauty and moral, moral qualities of a person. “When a man’s heart is perfect, his outward appearance is also perfect.”
Aristotle is considered the founder of physiognomy. His treatise on physiognomy is analyzed in detail by A.F. Losev in the book “The History of Ancient Aesthetics. Aristotle and the Late Classic. Many of Aristotle's ideas are rightly criticized. For example, Aristotle wrote that whoever has thin, hard, upturned lips is a noble person; whoever has thick lips and the upper lip protrudes above the lower one is a stupid person; whoever has a wide, slow step is non-executive, and whoever has a small step is enterprising. However, one cannot but pay attention to the fact that he was the first to identify the sources of contradiction between the (expression) code and its content. First, Aristotle notices that under various conditions one can achieve any expression, even one that does not correspond to them. Secondly, he notes the variability of modes of expression. Thirdly, he states that the coding of the state depends on the ability of a person to adequately express his experiences. And finally, Aristotle notes that there are signs of mental states that a person does not experience at the moment, but as residual phenomena they enter into the structure of his appearance.
Thus, even Aristotle noted that an expression is not always a sign of a real state, that the structure of an expression includes signs that are conventional in nature, that the coding of the internal in the external is determined by the ability of a person to control expression.
Many famous doctors, artists, writers showed interest in physiognomy. So, Leonardo da Vinci wrote in his treatise that “... the signs of the face partly reveal the nature of people, their vices and warehouse, but the signs on the face that separate the cheeks from the lips, the mouth, the nostrils from the nose and the main depressions from the eyes are distinct in people cheerful and often laughing; those in whom they are weakly marked are (these are) people indulging in reflections, those in which parts of the face are strongly protruding and deepening are (these are) bestial and angry, with a small mind; those in which the lines between the eyebrows are very distinct are prone to anger; those in whom the transverse lines of the forehead are strongly drawn are (these are) people rich in secret or explicit complaints. And you can also talk about many (other) parts ”(66. p. 162) According to Leonardo da Vinci, the artist must constantly study the movements of the human body, correlate them with the passions experienced. He advises "... watch those laughing, crying, consider those who scream with anger, and so all the states of our soul" (66, p. 184).
V. Lazarev notes in the preface to Leonardo da Vinci's book that the main prerequisite for the artist's psychological creativity is "a holy belief in a harmonious correspondence between body and soul." For Leonardo, "if the soul is disordered and chaotic, then the body itself in which this soul dwells is also disordered and chaotic." Physical beauty and a beautiful soul are one and the same for the artist, so he rarely resorted to depicting ugly faces. Along with general physiognomic observations, Leonardo paid much attention to images of the expression of states, relationships between people, gave advice on how to depict gestures, facial expressions of noble people. He was firmly convinced of the absolute correspondence of emotional experiences to their external manifestations, therefore he gives exact instructions on how to portray anger, despair, etc. Leonardo advises paying attention to the reasons that caused a certain state of a person, in his opinion, expression and features of her image. “... Some cry from anger, others from fear, some from tenderness and joy, others from foreboding, some from pain and torment, others from pity and grief, having lost relatives or friends; with these weeping, one shows despair, the other is not too sad, some are only tearful, others scream, some have their faces turned to the sky and their hands are lowered, their fingers intertwined, others are frightened, with shoulders raised to their ears; and so on, depending on the above reasons. The one who pours out the lamentation raises the eyebrows at the point of their joining, and moves them together, and forms folds in the middle above them, lowering the corners of the mouth. The one who laughs has the latter raised, and the eyebrows are open and removed from each other ”(66. P. 186-197).
In the context of practical physiognomy, it is customary to carry out not only observations, but also apply measurements of ratios various parts face and associate the resulting formulas with certain personality characteristics. These techniques were used by Leonardo da Vinci. In his picturesque portraits, one can detect the presence of mathematical measurements. V. Lazarev believes that the famous smile of Mona Lisa “is built on the finest mathematical measurements, on strict consideration of the expressive values of individual parts of the face. And with all this, this smile is absolutely natural, and this is precisely the power of its charm. She takes everything hard, tense, frozen from the face, she turns it into a mirror of vague, indefinite emotional experiences ... This smile is not so much an individual feature of Mona Lisa, but a typical formula of psychological revival ... which later turned into the hands of his students and followers into a traditional stamp” (66, p. 23).
A special contribution to the development of physiognomy was made by the work of I. Lavater "Fragments on physiognomy for the best knowledge of man and the spread of philanthropy." Lavater sketched thousands of faces and created 600 tables. The album, compiled from these tables, he called the "Bible of Physiognomy". Interesting is Lavater's attempt to restore a person's appearance based on knowledge of his beliefs, actions, creative activity("physiognomy in reverse"). He sought to realize this idea in the process of working on a physiognomic portrait of Jesus Christ (given on 90). Many curious observations about the interaction of the external appearance and psychological characteristics of a person can be found in the book by Francois de La Rochefoucauld “Memoirs. Maxims" (104). He wrote: “Attractiveness in the absence of beauty is a special kind of symmetry, the laws of which are unknown to us; this is a hidden connection between all facial features, on the one hand, and facial features, colors and the general appearance of a person, on the other” (104, p. 169).
A lot of food for thought on the peculiarities of the relationship between the physiognomic and dynamic aspects of the expressive self of a person is provided by the works of art of great writers who are distinguished by observation, insight, etc. It is enough to recall the “game of portraits”, the author and active participant of which was I. S. Turgenev. The essence of this game is as follows: 5-6 portraits were drawn in advance, in which Turgenev sought to convey his ideas about people of various social strata, their characters. Each participant in the game, according to the details of appearance, had to give a psychological description of the depicted faces. As follows from the judgments of the participants in the "game" given together with the drawings in the 73rd volume of the "Literary Heritage", they showed a certain ability to establish links between the external and the internal. But the main thing is that their answers, in other words, the psychological portraits of the people depicted, coincided in content.
F. M. Dostoevsky paid special attention to the search for stable links between a person’s appearance and his soul, his personality. The writer searched for and described elements of expression that testify to the stable characteristics of a person. In the novel “The Teenager” we read: “... another person completely betrays himself with laughter, and you suddenly find out all his ins and outs ... Laughter requires, first of all, sincerity, but where is sincerity in people? Laughter requires good-naturedness, and people more often than not laugh maliciously... You won’t be able to figure out a different character for a long time, but a person will laugh somehow very sincerely, and all of a sudden his character will be in full view... laughter is the surest test of the soul” (48. T. 13. S. 370). Modern poetry also seeks to create holistic images of a person, involving a metaphorical analysis of his face.
For example, N. Zabolotsky’s poem “On Beauty human faces»:
There are faces like magnificent portals, Where everywhere the great seems to be in the small. There are faces - the likeness of miserable shacks, Where the liver is boiled and the abomasum gets wet. Other cold, dead faces Closed with bars, like a dungeon. Others are like towers in which no one lives and looks out the window for a long time. But I once knew a small hut, It was unsightly, not rich, But from its window the breath of a spring day flowed at me. Truly the world is both great and wonderful! There are faces - the likeness of jubilant songs. Of these notes, shining like the sun, A song of heavenly heights is composed.
(N. A. Zabolotsky. Poems and poems. M.-L., 1965. P. 144)
The formation of a natural-scientific approach to physiognomy begins with Bell's work "Anatomy and Philosophy of Expression", written in 1806. One hundred and thirty years later, based on works of this type, E. Brunswick and L. Reiter created schemes of facial expressions, changing the position of the lips, mouth, nose, eyes, eyebrow height, forehead. Combining these features, using a special board for demonstrating facial patterns, they asked the subjects to describe their impressions of these drawings. The first conclusion that was made on the basis of the analysis of the results obtained is the conclusion that the schemes of faces created as combinations of random features are quite clearly differentiated by the participants in the experiment in accordance with certain psychological characteristics. In the next experiment, E. Brunsvik and L. Reiter proposed to rank all schemes according to the following scales:
"intelligence", "will", "character" (energetic - not energetic, moralist, pessimist, good - evil, sympathetic - unsympathetic, cheerful - sad), "age". As a result of the study, they received data indicating that certain face patterns are consistently placed by the majority of subjects in certain places on the scales. An analysis of the features of individuals assigned to certain scales showed that highest value to place the face on a certain scale, they have such signs as "height of the lips", the distance between the eyes, the height of the forehead. For example, if there was a “high forehead” on the face diagram, then the image as a whole made a more pleasant impression, and a person with such a face was perceived as more attractive, intelligent, energetic than an image with a “low forehead”. Schemes in which the location of the lips, mouth was higher than in other figures, occupied a place on the “age” scale that corresponded to a young age. At the same time, the “very high mouth” indicates, according to the participants in the experiment, unintelligence and lack of energy as a character trait. "Frowning eyebrows", "suffering eyes", "long" upper lip are characteristic of sad, pessimistic people. Many researchers used face diagrams compiled by E. Brunswick, L. Reiter (given on 211).
One of the main conclusions of the physiognomic approach to the expressive I of the personality is the conclusion that people with a similar appearance have the same type of personality structure. This kind of assertion is questioned by many researchers. Despite this, to this day one can find "works" on the shelves of bookstores that propagate this dubious idea by describing the features of facial features and indicating their connection with certain personality traits. Let's take a look at one of them. For example, in the book of Francis Thomas "Secrets in the face." The author of this book claims that if a person has a long nose, then he is inventive and smart, like a fox; large, clean and shining eyes - an indicator of honesty and innocence; if during speaking a person's eyebrows rise and fall, then this is a sure sign of an honest and brave person; a wide and large mouth indicates a tendency to chatter, thick lips indicate a tendency to wine, etc. (229). It seems that the examples given are enough to once again convince ourselves of the inconsistency of many generalizations of the physiognomists, and also that such books contain information that differs little from the delusions of ordinary consciousness.
In everyday life, a person associates appearance,
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Introduction
The term "expression" [from lat. Expressio] - expressiveness, the power of manifestation of feelings, experiences. Expression is also interpreted as the presentation outside (to another person, group of persons) of the psychological characteristics of a person hidden for direct observation. Expressiveness means the degree of expression of a particular feeling, mood, state, attitude, etc.
Every person living on our planet, from the moment of birth to the last days, is immersed in a world of contradictory, and sometimes dramatic, connections between expressive behavior and the psychological characteristics of a communication partner. Each of us from the first steps tries to understand what lies behind a smile. expression in the other person's eyes. Such tasks imperceptibly accompany the life of a person at all stages of his development, and the results of their solution have a direct impact on the occurrence of either difficulties in communication, or a sense of success and good luck.
The continuing interest of mankind in the problem of the relationship between "soul and body" has become a source of development of various areas of research on expressive behavior, made it the subject of philosophical, ethical, art history, and psychological discussions. Today, there is an increased interest in those aspects of expression that carry information about the individual-personal characteristics of a person.
1. The study of expression as the external self of the personality
From a review of the reflections of psychologists belonging to various areas of study of personality expression, it follows that it consists of static and dynamic substructures.
Secondly, based on the sources of the formation of expression, the external "I" of the personality, its substructures include social expressive movements and expressive movements that have a genotypic basis.
Thirdly, the expression of a person reveals him inner world in all its diversity and at the same time is an essential way to disguise this world. Expressive behavior not only performs an expressive function, but also participates in the formation of a person's mental states, his affective reactions, so it does not always correspond to a person's actual experiences. Social, cultural fixation of forms of expression, ways of manifestation of the internal in the external creates the conditions for the emergence of conventional sets of expressive movements. They, along with spontaneous expressive movements included in the structure of certain psychological formations, act as a means of communication, influence, regulation, and the formation of an external, expressive I of a person.
Thus, the external, expressive "I" of a personality is understood as a set of stable (physiognomy, individual-constitutional characteristics of a person), moderately stable (appearance design: hairstyle, cosmetics, jewelry, clothes) and dynamic parameters of expression (expressive behavior), organized in spatial - temporary structures and rearranged in the course of development of the psychophysiological, psychological and socio-psychological components of the personality structure. From these positions, expression as the external "I" of the personality, associated with its stable and dynamic substructures, can be discussed in the following directions:
1) as expressive components of the general, psychomotor activity of a person, associated with her temperament (tempo, amplitude, intensity, harmony of movements);
2) as an expressive structure of the actual mental states of the individual;
3) as an expression of modality, a sign of the relationship of one person to another;
4) as a means of expressing the properties and qualities of a person;
5) as an indicator of the development of the individual as a subject of communication (expressive programs for entering into contact, maintaining and leaving it);
6) as expressive components social status personality;
7) as a means of expressing the personality of its identity with a particular group, community, culture;
8) as "expressive masks" to disguise the external "I" of the individual;
9) as a means of demonstrating and creating socially acceptable forms of behavior;
10) as an indicator of personal ways of discharge in stressful situations.
Along with these lines of personality expression analysis, she can be studied in terms of her use of the expressive repertoire (both its static and dynamic components) to: 1) maintain an optimal level of intimacy with a partner; 2) to change relationships in communication; 3) to give a certain form to interaction with others (from conflict to agreement); 4) for the implementation of social stratification".
IN experimental psychology preference is given to the study of the dynamic components of Expression - a set of expressive movements that are constantly changing in accordance with the states and relationships of a person. These expressive movements are reflected mainly with the help of an optical system. The visual means of communication in Anglo-American psychology also include kinesics - this is a visually perceived range of movements that carry different information either from the point of view of one partner, or from the point of view of the other, or for both. The structure of kinesics includes only those expressive hand movements (gestures), eye movements (eye contact), human body movements (postures) that have a fairly clear semantics.
2. Expressive repertoire of personality
Intensity, dynamics, symmetry - asymmetry, harmony - disharmony of movements, typicality - individuality - all these are characteristics of a person's expressive repertoire. A variety of elements of expressive behavior, the speed of their change, harmony, individuality, and availability for reflection by a partner indicate that the subject has expressive talent, the ability to convey those parameters of his personality that are adequate to communication. An indefinite, monotonous repertoire, chaotic, convulsive movements indicate not only that a person does not speak the "expressive language of the soul", that he has a low level of development of expressive talent, but also that he has deep internal conflicts.
Domestic psychology has adopted a classification of expressive movements that have both a clear and blurred field of psychological meanings: facial expressions or facial expressions (expressive facial movements), pantomimes (expressive movements of the whole body - postures, gait, gestures) and "vocal facial expressions" (expression emotions in the intonation and timbre of the voice). Facial expressions, gestures, postures, gait, intonations form the expressive repertoire of the personality, which is to some extent realized by the individual, controlled by him. (N.V. Tarabrina).
Physiognomy is the doctrine of the expression of a person in facial features and body shapes; in a broader sense ~ this is the doctrine of the expressive forms of any area of reality and the art of interpreting the external appearance observed phenomena.
The systematization of emotions and their facial expressions makes it possible to draw up a scheme for describing the facial expressions of six basic emotional states (joy, anger, fear, suffering, disgust, surprise).
A characteristic feature of the "mimic pictures" of emotional states is that each mimic expression includes signs that are simultaneously universal, specific for the expression of some states and non-specific for the expression of others.
Of particular importance for physiognomic analysis are those unconscious expressions that seem to “freeze” to the face so much that others perceive them as part of the personality. When a certain expression is "imprinted" to the face, a person ceases to notice it, it becomes a part of himself, and he is only aware of its absence.
One of the main conclusions of the physiognomic approach to the expressive self of a person is the conclusion that people with a similar appearance have the same type of personality structure, but this statement is questioned by many researchers as being too generalized.
Facial expressions are expressive movements of the muscles of the face, one of the forms of manifestation of human feelings. Watching a person, you can understand this game of feelings.
The systematization of emotions and their facial expressions makes it possible to draw up a scheme for describing the facial expressions of six basic emotional states (joy, anger, fear, suffering, disgust, surprise). For diagnostics, such a “picture of expression” is quite simple, as it is presented clearly. More difficult to recognize are those expressions that correspond to transitional states, non-intense affects. In them, facial expressions are unstable and less pronounced, however, in this case, the facial expression represents variations in the facial expressions of the main emotional states.
In order to study facial expression, various methodological techniques are used, which are based on the observation procedure, supplemented different ways fixations: verbal description of facial muscle contractions, pictograms, drawings, photo-movie-video recording.
The main functions of facial expression and facial expressions, according to many researchers, are as follows: the development of contacts between the mother and the child, the demonstration of attitude towards another, the establishment of feedback; information about human conditions; commenting on verbal behavior.
Expression of the face: being the most important element of the outer self of the personality, it is inextricably linked with the look of a person. Starting to study facial expression as a measure of personality and character, a person finds himself on more or less familiar ground, since he has been unconsciously doing this all his life. Most people in the process of communication concentrate their attention on the faces of partners. The focus here should be on the eyes. Everywhere and everywhere the eyes are considered the mirror of the soul.
Of course, the expression of the eyes changes, but in order to understand a person, you need to determine the expression of the eyes that is typical for him. Some eyes are sad, others are angry, some are cold and ruthless, others are meek and inviting. "Eye contact" is the exchange of glances, the time of fixing the gaze on the partner and the direction of the gaze. The following factors influence the dynamics of eye contact: the degree of acquaintance of partners, gender, age, personal characteristics, the system of relations between partners. Analysis of eye contact allows you to analyze the nature of the relationship between partners. As criteria for the analysis of eye contact in the dyad, the group considers:
1. temporal parameters of looking at each other (frequency, duration of contact),
2. spatial characteristics of gaze (direction of eye movement: eye to eye, to the side, up-down, right-left).
3. the intensity of the gaze (intently, "cast a glance", "glance at").
Considering the problem of facial expression regulation from this point of view, it is necessary to pay attention to what information the subject is going to convey or hide from others, what are the individual differences in the choice of expressive masks.
Thus, facial expression as the most important component of the structure of human expression has been studied for a long time as an expressive code of states and emotional relationships of a person. In order to study facial expression, a variety of methodological techniques were used, which were based on the observation procedure, supplemented by various methods of fixation, "a verbal description of facial muscle contractions, pictograms, drawings, photo and video recordings. As a result of many years of work by researchers working in the field of the psychology of expressive behavior, verbal , graphic, digital expression codes and their corresponding coding methods.
A posture is a certain position of a person's body parts (head, shoulders, torso, arms, legs) in space. The pose forms the expressive repertoire of a person. It requires appropriate facial expressions, gestures, direction and quality of gaze. Posture plays a special role in expressing attitudes towards a person, in emphasizing one’s own and others’ social and socio-psychological status (the “winner” posture, the “guilty child” posture, the “arrogant person” posture).
Postures allow you to diagnose:
1. stages of communication (the beginning of contact (disposition to communication) is manifested in the rotation and inclination of not only the head, but also the entire body, including the legs (toes) towards the partner; the toes of the legs and the rotation of the body speak first of all about the exit from contact, and then only turning the head);
2. the degree of emotional stress (tense postures - rigid, motionless, tilted forward or backward);
3. aggressiveness of communication partners (reducing the distance of communication, tilting the body forward, tension in the posture in general).
In addition, for a correct understanding of the posture, it is necessary to take into account: cultural traditions; age restrictions; gender differences in the use of certain postures.
Distance - the amount of distance between people that affects their behavior and relationships, and depends on them. Distance characteristics are evolutionarily related to habitat, food and security.
According to the physical distance between communicating, the following distances of communication are distinguished:
1. intimate, close (less than 40 cm) - for relatives and closest friends;
2. personal (50-120 cm) - for well-known people, for friends;
3. business (120 cm) - for acceptable people, business partners;
4. public, social (more than 120 cm) - for unfamiliar and unfamiliar, unacceptable people.
The dimensions of the distances are individual and depend on the conditions in which a person lived, lives and works, on his social status, national characteristics, on his sociability, contact, etc.
Temperament is a characteristic of the dynamic characteristics of an individual: intensity, speed, pace, rhythm of mental processes.
The main types of temperaments:
Sanguine is a strong, balanced, mobile type of NS.
Phlegmatic - strong, balanced, inert.
Choleric is strong, unbalanced, mobile.
Melancholic - weak, unbalanced, inert.
So, temperament is included in the structure of character, but does not reflect the content side of the personality (worldview, beliefs, interests), which is associated with character. In the analysis of the structure of character, the attitude of the individual to objective reality is put forward in the first place, and then the properties of temperament.
Gait, to a lesser extent than other elements of expression, is amenable to regulation, and therefore, on its basis, we can speak of stable individual characteristics a person, about his psychomotor activity (that is, about the properties of temperament).
Gestures are movements of the arms and hands. In psychology non-verbal communication gestures are accepted primarily as a means of expressing and transmitting information, that is, they perform diagnostic, communicative, regulatory and expressive functions. A gesture can tell about a person’s desire, about his condition, about the intensity of a person’s experience, and about many other things.
The broadest classification of gestures is their division into two groups:
1. natural,
2. artificial sign languages (the language of the deaf and dumb, the gestures of a conductor, the “manual language” of stockbrokers).
Classification of gestures based on their leading function in communication:
1. communicative gestures that replace elements of language in speech - greeting, farewell, threat, attracting attention, invitation, prohibition, insult, affirmation, denial, question, gratitude, reconciliation. All of the above gestures are understandable and without speech context and have their own meaning in communication.
2. descriptive-pictorial, emphasizing gestures - accompany speech and lose their meaning outside the speech context.
3. modal gestures - express assessment, attitude towards objects, people, phenomena environment: gestures of approval, displeasure, irony, distrust, uncertainty, ignorance, suffering.
Thus gestures perform various functions in communication, including they testify to the intensity of experiences, the modality of relations, cultural, group affiliation. Gestures, like facial expressions, can carry independent information about a person, regardless of his speech or other components of the communication process. Gestures, combined with other elements of human expression, create the effect of dynamism, the intensity of the presentation of the expressive Self of the individual.
3. Expression of I external and I internal
As a rule, harmony, integrity are inherent in those expressive signs that correspond to natural experiences. The deliberately feigned facial expression is disharmonic. The mismatch of facial movements (upper and lower parts of the face - a disharmonious "mask") indicates the insincerity of a person's feelings, his relationship to other people. Such a "disharmonious mask" can very accurately characterize a person, reflect his leading attitudes to the world. The harmony of expression, the synchronicity of the elements of facial expressions is a kind of visual sign of a true relationship to another person, this is a sign of the inner harmony of a person. Mimicry, facial expression is inseparable from personality, it expresses not just states, but states experienced by a particular person. From here come individual differences in the expression of the same emotion, attitude and, accordingly, the difficulty of their unambiguous understanding.
For centuries, in the process of socialization, mankind has developed methods for the formation of the external self of the individual and ideas about it. Such techniques are the sociocultural development of "expressive masks", the selection of a set of movements that make human behavior socially acceptable, successful, attractive. "Cultivation of expression" is one of the mechanisms of control not so much over the human body as over his personality. From the point of view of one of the well-known researchers of non-verbal communications, A. Sheflen, any element of expression (from posture to eye contact) exists in order to establish, maintain, limit relationships between interacting people. Therefore, interested public institutions are not just developing requirements for expressive human behavior, but using it to translate the socially desired spectrum of traits, states, relationships that should have a clear external expression. For example, for a long time, a person who has a simple face with large features, large hands, broad shoulders, a massive figure, a white-toothed smile, a direct look, a clear gesture, etc. and is distinguished by efficiency, perseverance, stamina, courage . All those who, due to natural circumstances or conditions of upbringing, did not correspond to this behavioral model, risked being branded as "rotten intellectuals."
Despite the clear predominance of little conscious non-verbal patterns of behavior in the structure of expression, the subject uses expressive movements not only in accordance with their main function to express, but also in order to mask his real experiences and relationships, which becomes the subject of special efforts, leading to the development of management and control over the external self of the individual. Techniques for purposefully changing the expressive external self, its disguise were developed by representatives of the psychology of stagecraft. They associated these skills with the expressive giftedness of the individual, which, within the framework of the problem of the formation of the expressive I of the individual, can be interpreted as a set of abilities to "build" one's external I, "to reveal the inner "I" through the external "I". This “building up” process includes both cognitive-emotional and behavioral mechanisms, among which special place occupies the idea of one's outer self and its correspondence to the real, actual self of the individual.
Conclusion
expressive personality psychological disharmony
Thus, there are biogenetic concepts of the relationship between mental states and human expression, sociocultural and socio-psychological, in which the idea is developed that the relationship between external and internal is contradictory, mediated by the experience of communication and group interaction. The expressive Self of a person reveals his inner world in all its diversity and at the same time is an essential way of masking this world.
Literature
1. Bodalev A.A. Perception and understanding of man by man. M., 1982. S.5-16.
2. Labunskaya V.A. Psychology of expressive behavior. M.1989. pp.5-20.
3. Labunskaya V. A. Human expression: communication and interpersonal knowledge. - Rostov n / a: Phoenix, 1999. - 608s.
4. Rubinstein S.L. Fundamentals of General Psychology. M. 1989. S.157-164.
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More. Descartes, and after him other thinkers, interpreted external influences as the cause of the sensory image. From this position, conclusions were drawn that a person cognizes not the objective world, but only the effect that arises as a result of the influence of external things on his senses. Thus, the external was recognized as the cause and as the "initiator" of the generating process. Mentally.
Clarifying the question of the "external", the external world, one should consider some concepts, one way or another reveal its essence. So, often to refer to what surrounds a person, the term "sir dy" is used. Environment is a set of all conditions that surround an object (thing, plant, animal, person), and directly or indirectly affect it. Those conditions that do not affect the object do not enter into its midst.
To designate what exists, existed and exists in space-time outside the inhuman, which can be interpreted as real, possible and impossible in its environment, the concept of an objective real is used. Alnist, reality.
The concept that allows you to separate the objectively existing from the objectively existing and most fully generalizes all that exists in its material and spiritual definitions, is the concept of "being". cognitive and transformative activity.
Being, with which a person actively interacts, is denoted by the concept of "world". That in the world that is created by man and becomes a reality (subjective or objective), in which it is objectified and to which it can be put as a subject, is defined by the concept of "life world".
In the reality of the life world, the internal and external can seem to dissolve, disappear. These are those happy and at the same time tragic moments when the subject-object confrontation in cognition is replaced by the nth, there comes a feeling of existence as such, existence, presence in being, unity with the world, a heightened experience of the reality of non-existence, one’s finiteness.
It is the last contradiction that actualizes the inner activity of a person in its duel with non-existence as "external" and at the same time requiring reflection, searching for the meaning of one's existence in the world.
If "internal" is identified with the spiritual, spiritual, then "external" for him can be bodily. If the "internal" is considered in a structural aspect, or from the point of view of the levels of determination of mental activity, then here, too, one can reach a division into deep (immanent) and storey (reactive) causality, considering them, again, as internal and external.
Typical for psychology is also the interpretation of mental activity as internal, and what can be observed and objectively fixed in the form of behavior, deed, productivity of activity - as external.
However main reason to include these concepts in the system of psychology, it is necessary to explain the nature of the mental, the driving forces of its development
Is there such a psychic cause? they demand to decide on the problem of "internal and external" And it is not surprising that the most heated discussions in Russian psychology went precisely around this problem.
Fundamentally, the relationship between internal and external researched. SLRubinshtein. Any influence of one phenomenon on another, he noted, is refracted through the internal properties of the phenomenon that this object is. See carried out. The result of any influence on a phenomenon or object depends not only on the phenomenon or body that affects it, but also on nature, on its own internal properties of the object or phenomenon on which this influence copes. Everything in the world is interconnected and interdependent. In this sense, everything is determined, but this does not mean that everything can be unambiguously deduced from causes that act as an external impulse, separated from the internal properties and interconnection of the declaration of manifestations.
The patterns of formation and development of the internal process of transition from the external to the internal, the objective to the subjective as a process of "interiorization" into "stage-by-stage formation of mental actions" became the subject of research. LSVigotsky. OMLeonteva,. PJ. Gal-Perin and others.
Internal (subject), for. Leontiev, acts through the external and thereby changes itself. This position has real meaning. After all, initially the subject of life in general appears only as possessing an "independent force of reaction", but this force can act only through the external. It is in this external that the transition from possibility to reality takes place: its concretization, development and enrichment, i.e. its transformation, from the transformation of the subject itself, its bearer. Now, in the form of a transformed subject, he acts as such that changes, refracts external influences in his current affairs.
Formulas. Rubinstein "external through internal" and. Leontiev's "internal through external" from different positions, in some ways complementing, and in some ways denying each other, aimed at revealing the complex mechanism of functioning and development of the human psyche.
Realizing the possibility of a narrowed or biased interpretation of his formula,. Rubinshtein, in particular, notes that mental phenomena do not arise as a result of passive reception of external influences that act mechanically, but as a result of the mental activity of the brain caused by these influences, which serves to implement the interaction of a person as a subject with them.
Ukrainian psychologist. OMTkachenko is trying to find a way to integrate, to synthesize approaches. Rubinshtein and. Leontiev to the solution of the psychological problem of external and internal. Instead of two. Antiterra of ethical formulas, he offers a working formulation of the principle of determinism: the psyche of the subject is determined by the products of actual and post-actual interaction with the object and itself acts as an important determinant of human behavior and activity.
The problem of external and internal can receive a positive solution when, from these rather abstract concepts, a movement is made in the direction of clarifying the specific features of each of the "worlds" - "macrocosm mosu" and "microcosmos" that are hidden behind it.
The external can be considered relative to the internal as being reflected in it. The psyche, consciousness from the point of view of the ontological approach, in this case, acquire the meaning of "inside-being" (Rubin-stein), a kind of native living "inner mirror", with the help of which being is aware of itself as such. Ontologization of the mental, according to. VARomence, makes it a real phenomenon of being, an active force that forms the time of peace.
The external, from another point of view, is that which is generated by the internal, is its manifestation or product, fixed in signs or material objects.
External and internal can be differentiated not as static "worlds", but as forms of activity that have different sources. So,. DMUznadze proposes to distinguish between "introgenous" behavior, which is determined by interests. ESAM, motives, and "extragenic", determined by external necessity.
On this occasion, SLRubinstein emphasized that the mental is not only internal, subjective, meaning that the psyche acts as a determinant of behavior, the cause of bodily changes: not recognition, but objections, ignoring the role of mental phenomena in determining people's behavior leads to indeterminism.
An essential addition to the above definition gives. KOAbulkhanova-Slavskaya. Under the internal, she understands not "physiological" or "mental", but a specific nature, its own properties, its own logic of development, specialists and the nature of the movement of a given body or phenomenon, which is subjected to external influence. This internal provides a specific for this phenomenon image of "refraction" of external influences, which becomes more and more complex in the phenomena of a higher level of development of the itku.
Under the external is understood not a private, random influence, but all those external conditions that correlate in their qualitative certainty with the internal, since the action of an external influence is not indifferent to its development. ITK.
Thus, the need to introduce the "external-internal" paradigm into the circulation of psychological science is determined by significant factors. It is within the framework of this paradigm that the problems of determination and self-determination of the mental, its autonomy from biological and social factors, problems of mental causality, the mental not only as a reflection, but also as an active, initiative transforming force.
The "border" between the internal and external is rather conditional, and at the same time the existing non-identity, non-coincidence, inconsistency of the subjective and objective are unconditional.
