By the end of the 15th century, the foreign policy actions of Grand Duke Ivan III were aimed at fighting the Tatar Khan, who were besieging the southern and eastern lands, the Principality of Lithuania for the occupied territories and Livonia for access to the Baltic Sea. At the same time, the results achieved in the confrontation with the Tatars led to the fact that in the middle of the 16th century Russian kingdom restored military and political influence in the occupied territories, forced the Nogai and Siberian khans to bow down.
The issue of the seizure of Crimea remained relevant. At the same time, the opinions of the boyars were divided. And, although many spoke out for the conquest of the south, despite the vast southern expanses in which the steppes felt organically, and there were no Moscow strongholds, some of the boyars, led by the tsar, paid attention to access to the Baltic Sea. Since joint fighting against Ottoman Empire together with Poland and Lithuania were associated with the loss of Ukrainian and Belarusian lands, as the main direction foreign policy Ivan the Terrible chose to fight Livonia.
By the middle of the 15th century, Livonia was a weakened confederation of the Livonian Order and bishoprics. The latter remained only a formal power, since the lands of the order accounted for 67% of the entire land of Livonia. Big cities had a certain autonomy and their own power. Thus, government agency Livonia was extremely divided. Due to military, political and economic weakening, the confederation had to conclude a truce with the Russian kingdom. The peace treaty, concluded for six years and extended in the 09th, 14th, 21st, 31st and 34th years of the sixteenth century, provided for the payment of the “Yuriev tribute”, the timing and amount of which is not mentioned in the sources. However, there is an opinion that the tribute was never paid. Yuriev, later renamed Darpt, was founded by Yaroslav the Wise. Tribute was supposed to be paid for it and the territory adjacent to the city. In addition, the alliance with the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, formalized in 1954, included points directed against the power of the Russian Tsar. However, historians consider the debt for the “Yuriev tribute” to be more likely a reason, but not the final cause of the war.
Experts believe that the real reason for the military campaign against Livonia was the impossibility of developing trade relations with Western Europe due to the fact that the main ports of the Baltic Sea were under the control of Livonia.
The trade roads along which goods were delivered at that time were the White Sea (port of Arkhangelsk) and South coast Gulf of Finland. However, these sea routes, where in warm time During the year, merchant ships moved actively, and with the onset of cold weather they froze for a long time. At the same time, it was impossible to conduct foreign trade activities.
Russian merchants, when conducting business on the ice-free Baltic Sea, had to resort to the services of intermediaries in the person of Germans from Narva and Dorpat, and this led to serious losses, since the import of the most valuable goods - gunpowder, iron, various metals - was led by “Livonians”, who could suspend deliveries. Without so much necessary materials the development of handicrafts in Rus' was impossible.
In addition to the economic justification, the beginning Livonian War associated with an attempt to restore political ties with the West. Because as a result of a long struggle with Tatar-Mongol yoke and the redivision of territory, the country acquired an eastern orientation, it was important to defend the title of a Western state, conclude profitable marriage alliances, etc.
Another reason is called social aspect. The redistribution of the Baltic lands would lead to a strengthening of the power of the nobility and merchant class. The boyars were more inclined to seize the southern lands, due to their distance from the state and political center. There, at least at first, it was possible to use absolute power before the arrival of organized power.
The end of 1957 turned out to be the most favorable for the start of military operations against Livonia. Difficult situation in the balance of European forces was in the hands of the Russian Tsar. Sweden's serious losses in the Russian-Swedish war led to the weakening of its most powerful enemy. The aggravation of relations with Sweden distracted the Danish government. The Grand Duchy of Lithuania was not ready for serious international conflicts due to internal disagreements and social problems.
Historians conditionally divide the course of the Twenty-Five Years' War into three main stages:
The first advanced from 58 to 61 and was initially planned as a punitive operation of Ivan the Terrible with the aim of demonstrating military force;
The second ended in ’77, was protracted and nullified all diplomatic agreements reached before ’57;
At the third stage of military operations Russian troops were predominantly defensive in nature and led to the conclusion of a peace agreement on conditions absolutely unfavorable for Moscow.
Ivan the Terrible did not begin active military clashes until 1958. During this time, attempts were made to reach peace agreements regarding the surrender of Narva under Moscow influence. To which the Order expressed an unequivocal refusal. After which, in January 1558, a forty-thousand-strong army entered Livonian soil, destroying and ravaging cities and territories, and reached the Baltic coast. During the campaign, Russian leaders several times sent proposals for peace to the Livonian authorities, which were accepted. However, in March 1958, supporters of the military forces of Livonia attempted to terminate the peace agreements by starting shelling of Ivangorod. Thus, a new military offensive of Russian troops in Livonia was provoked. During the offensive, more than twenty were destroyed settlements and fortresses. By the end of the summer of 1958, the forces of the Moscow Tsar ravaged the environs of Riga and Revel.
By March 1959, the Russians had occupied stable positions, which led to the conclusion of peace, which ended in November 1959. Over the past six months, the Livonian forces received support and reinforcements from Sweden and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. However, attempts to storm Yuryev and Lais ended in failure for the Livonians. By August 1960, Russian troops occupied the strongest fortresses of Fellin and Marienburg.
Successes during military operations put Ivan the Terrible in a difficult position. The reason for this was the formation of a coalition represented by the Roman Empire, Sweden and Denmark against Russia and the statement of claims by Poland and Lithuania regarding the cession of Baltic lands. Variable victories and defeats of the Russian army during the year 62 led to the fact that the war began to take on a protracted character.
Failures in attempts to conclude diplomatic agreements, illiterate actions of military leaders and changes in policy within the state led to an aggravation of the social and economic situation.
In 75, Stefan Batory became king of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth and began active military operations against Russia. In addition, the turbulent situation in the northern lands is due to the Swedish attack. Batory's troops were advanced not towards plundered Livonia, but to the Northern and Smolensk lands. After the capture of Polotsk, its siege lasted only three weeks, and the devastation of the Northern lands, Batory put forward demands to leave Livonia and cede the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth to Courland. At the end of August 1980, the Great Luki Garden began, ending in complete defeat on September 5th. After which the fortresses of Narva, Ozerishche and Zavolochye were taken.
The attempt to capture Pskov at the end of June 1981 for Batory’s troops was unsuccessful, since the Russian military promptly responded to the reinforcement and preparation of the enemy. As a result of a long siege and many attempts to storm the fortress, the Polish-Lithuanian troops were forced to retreat.
The result of the twenty-five-year war was a severe defeat for Russia. Attempts to seize the Baltic states and lead free trade in the Baltic Sea were not successful, in addition, power over previously assigned territories was lost.
The main directions of the foreign policy of the Russian centralized state emerged in the second half of the 15th century, under Grand Duke Ivan III. They boiled down, firstly, to the struggle on the eastern and southern borders with the Tatar khanates that arose on the ruins of the Golden Horde; secondly, to the struggle with the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and Poland associated with it by the bonds of the union for the Russian, Ukrainian and Belarusian lands captured by Lithuanian and partly Polish feudal lords; thirdly, to the struggle on the northwestern borders with the aggression of the Swedish feudal lords and the Livonian Order, who sought to isolate Russian state from the natural and convenient access it needs to the Baltic Sea.
For centuries, the struggle on the southern and eastern outskirts was a common and constant thing. After the collapse of the Golden Horde, the Tatar khans continued to raid the southern borders of Russia. And only in the first half of the 16th century, a long war between the Great Horde and the Crimea absorbed the forces of the Tatar world. Moscow's protege has established itself in Kazan. The alliance between Russia and Crimea lasted for several decades, until the Crimeans destroyed the remnants of the Great Horde. The Ottoman Turks, having subjugated the Crimean Khanate, became a new military force that the Russian state faced in this region. After the Crimean Khan attacked Moscow in 1521, the Kazan people broke vassal relations with Russia. The struggle for Kazan began. Only the third campaign of Ivan IV was successful: Kazan and Astrakhan were taken. Thus, by the mid-50s of the 16th century, a zone of its political influence had formed to the east and south of the Russian state. In her person a strength grew that could resist the Crimea and the Ottoman Sultan. The Nogai horde actually submitted to Moscow, and its influence in the North Caucasus increased. Following the Nogai Murzas, the Siberian Khan Ediger recognized the power of the tsar. The Crimean Khan was the most active force holding back Russia's advance to the south and east.
The foreign policy question that has arisen seems natural: should we continue the onslaught on the Tatar world, should we finish the struggle, the roots of which go back to the distant past? Is the attempt to conquer Crimea timely? Two different programs collided in Russian foreign policy. The formation of these programs was determined
international circumstances and the balance of political forces within the country. The elected Rada considered a decisive fight against Crimea timely and necessary. But she did not take into account the difficulties of implementing this plan. Vast expanses of the “wild field” separated what was then Russia from Crimea. Moscow did not yet have any strongholds along this path. The situation spoke more in favor of defense than offensive. In addition to military difficulties, there were also great political difficulties. Entering into conflict with Crimea and Turkey, Russia could count on an alliance with Persia and German Empire. The latter was under constant threat of Turkish invasion and lost a significant part of Hungary. But at the moment much higher value had the position of Poland and Lithuania, who saw in the Ottoman Empire a serious counterweight to Russia. The joint struggle of Russia, Poland and Lithuania against Turkish aggression was associated with serious territorial concessions in favor of the latter. Russia could not abandon one of the main directions in foreign policy: reunification with the Ukrainian and Belarusian lands. The program of struggle for the Baltic states seemed more realistic. Ivan the Terrible disagreed with his parliament, deciding to go to war against the Livonian Order and try to advance to the Baltic Sea. In principle, both programs suffered from the same flaw - impracticability at the moment, but at the same time both were equally urgent and timely. However, before the start of hostilities in the western direction, Ivan IV stabilized the situation on the lands of the Kazan and Astrakhan khanates, suppressing the rebellion of the Kazan Murzas in 1558 and thereby forcing the Astrakhan ones to submit.
Even during the existence of the Novgorod Republic, Sweden began to penetrate the region from the west. The first serious skirmish concerns XII century. At the same time, the German knights began to implement their political doctrine - the “March to the East”, a crusade against the Slavic and Baltic peoples with the aim of converting them to Catholicism. In 1201 Riga was founded as a stronghold. In 1202, the Order of the Sword Bearers was founded specifically for actions in the Baltic states, which conquered Yuryev in 1224. Having suffered a series of defeats from Russian forces and the Baltic tribes, the Swordsmen and Teutons formed the Livonian Order. The intensified advance of the knights was stopped during 1240 - 1242. In general, peace with the order in 1242 did not protect against hostilities with the crusaders and Swedes in the future. The knights, relying on the help of the Roman Catholic Church, captured a significant part of the Baltic lands at the end of the 13th century.
Sweden, having its interests in the Baltic states, was able to intervene in Livonian affairs. The Russian-Swedish war lasted from 1554 to 1557. Attempts by Gustav I Vasa to involve Denmark, Lithuania, Poland and the Livonian Order in the war against Russia did not yield results, although initially it was
The order pushed the Swedish king to fight the Russian state. Sweden lost the war. After the defeat, the Swedish king was forced to pursue an extremely cautious policy towards his eastern neighbor. True, the sons of Gustav Vasa did not share their father’s wait-and-see attitude. Crown Prince Eric hoped to establish complete Swedish dominance in Northern Europe. It was obvious that after the death of Gustav, Sweden would again take an active part in Livonian affairs. To some extent, Sweden's hands were tied by the aggravation of Swedish-Danish relations.
The territorial dispute with Lithuania had a long history. Before the death of Prince Gediminas (1316 - 1341), Russian regions accounted for more than two-thirds of the entire territory of the Lithuanian state. Over the next hundred years, under Olgerd and Vytautas, the Chernigov-Seversk region (the cities of Chernigov, Novgorod - Seversk, Bryansk), the Kiev region, Podolia (the northern part of the lands between the Bug and the Dniester), Volyn, and the Smolensk region were conquered.
Under Vasily III, Russia laid claim to the throne of the Principality of Lithuania after the death in 1506 of Alexander, whose widow was the Russian sovereign’s sister. In Lithuania, a struggle began between the Lithuanian-Russian and Lithuanian Catholic groups. After the latter's victory, Alexander's brother Sigismund ascended the Lithuanian throne. The latter saw in Vasily a personal enemy who laid claim to the Lithuanian throne. This exacerbated already strained Russian-Lithuanian relations. In such a situation, the Lithuanian Sejm in February 1507 decided to start a war with its eastern neighbor. Lithuanian ambassadors in the form of an ultimatum raised the question of the return of lands that passed to Russia during the last wars with Lithuania. It was not possible to achieve positive results in the negotiation process, and military operations began in March 1507. In 1508, in the Principality of Lithuania itself, the uprising of Prince Mikhail Glinsky, another contender for the throne of Lithuania, began. The rebellion received active support in Moscow: Glinsky was accepted into Russian citizenship, in addition, he was given an army under the command of Vasily Shemyachich. Glinsky conducted military operations with varying success. One of the reasons for the failures was the fear of the popular movement of Ukrainians and Belarusians who wanted to reunite with Russia. Not having sufficient funds to successfully continue the war, Sigismund decided to begin peace negotiations. On October 8, 1508, the “eternal peace” was signed. According to it, the Grand Duchy of Lithuania for the first time officially recognized the transfer to Russia of the Seversky cities annexed to the Russian state during the wars of the late 15th - early XVI i.v. But despite some success, the government Vasily III did not consider the war of 1508 to be a solution to the issue of Western Russian lands and considered the “eternal peace” as a respite, preparing for the continuation of the struggle. The ruling circles of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania were also not inclined to come to terms with the loss of the Seversky lands.
But in the specific conditions of the mid-16th century, a direct clash with Poland and Lithuania was not envisaged. The Russian state could not count on the help of reliable and strong allies. Moreover, the war with Poland and Lithuania would have to be waged in difficult conditions of hostile actions both from the Crimea and Turkey, and from Sweden and even the Livonian Order. Therefore, the Russian government did not consider this foreign policy option at the moment.
One of the important factors that determined the tsar’s choice in favor of the fight for the Baltic states was the low military potential of the Livonian Order. Home military force In the country there was a knightly Order of the Swordsmen. Over 50 castles scattered throughout the country were in the hands of the order authorities. Half of the city of Riga was subordinate to the supreme authority of the master. The Archbishop of Riga (the other part of Riga was subordinate to him) and the bishops of Dorpat, Revel, Ezel and Courland were completely independent. The knights of the order owned estates on fief rights. Large cities, such as Riga, Revel, Dorpat, Narva, etc., were actually an independent political force, although they were under the supreme authority of the master or bishops. Clashes constantly occurred between the Order and the spiritual princes. The Reformation spread rapidly in the cities, while chivalry remained largely Catholic. The only body of central legislative power was the Landtags, convened by the masters in the city of Wolmar. The meetings were attended by representatives of four classes: the Order, the clergy, the knighthood and the cities. The resolutions of the Landtags usually had no real significance in the absence of a unified executive power. Close ties have long existed between the local Baltic population and the Russian lands. Ruthlessly suppressed economically, politically and culturally, the Estonian and Latvian populations were ready to support the military actions of the Russian army in the hope of liberation from national oppression.
The Russian state itself by the end of the 50s. XVI century was a powerful military power in Europe. As a result of the reforms, Russia became significantly stronger and achieved a much higher degree of political centralization than ever before. Permanent infantry units were created - the Streltsy army. Russian artillery also achieved great success. Russia had not only large enterprises for the production of cannons, cannonballs and gunpowder, but also well-trained numerous personnel. In addition, the introduction of an important technical improvement - the carriage - made it possible to use artillery in the field. Russian military engineers have developed a new effective system engineering support for attacking fortresses.
Russia in the 16th century became the largest trading power at the junction of Europe and Asia, whose craft was still suffocated by the lack of
non-ferrous and precious metals. The only channel for the supply of metals was trade with the West through the invoice mediation of Livonian cities. The Livonian cities - Dorpat, Riga, Revel and Narva - were part of the Hansa, a trade association of German cities. Their main source of income was intermediary trade with Russia. For this reason, attempts by the English and Dutch merchants to establish direct trade relations with the Russian state were stubbornly suppressed by Livonia. Back at the end of the 15th century, Russia tried to influence the trade policy of the Hanseatic League. In 1492, opposite Narva, the Russian Ivangorod was founded. A little later the Hanseatic court in Novgorod was closed. The economic growth of Ivangorod could not help but frighten the trade elite of the Livonian cities, which were losing huge profits. In response, Livonia was ready to organize an economic blockade, the supporters of which were also Sweden, Lithuania and Poland. In order to eliminate the organized economic blockade of Russia, a clause on freedom of communications with European countries through Swedish possessions was included in the peace treaty of 1557 with Sweden. Another channel of Russian-European trade passed through the cities of the Gulf of Finland, in particular Vyborg. The further growth of this trade was hampered by contradictions between Sweden and Russia on border issues.
Trade on the White Sea, although it had great importance, could not solve the problems of Russian-Northern European contacts for many reasons: navigation on the White Sea is impossible for most of the year; the path there was difficult and long; contacts were one-sided with a complete monopoly of the British, etc. The development of the Russian economy, which needed constant and unimpeded trade relations with European countries, posed the task of gaining access to the Baltic.
The roots of the war for Livonia should be sought not only in the described economic situation of the Moscow state, they also lay in the distant past. Even under the first princes, Rus' was in close communication with many foreign countries. Russian merchants traded in the markets of Constantinople, and marriage alliances linked the princely family with European dynasties. In addition to overseas merchants, ambassadors of other states and missionaries often came to Kyiv. One of the consequences of the Tatar-Mongol yoke for Rus' was the forced reorientation of foreign policy to the East. The War for Livonia was the first serious attempt to bring Russian life back on track and restore the broken connection with the West.
International life posed the same dilemma for every European state: to ensure an independent, independent position in the sphere of international relations or to serve as a simple object of the interests of other powers. Largely depends on the outcome of the struggle for the Baltics
the future of the Moscow state depended: whether she would join the family European peoples, having received the opportunity to independently communicate with states Western Europe.
In addition to trade and international prestige, the territorial claims of the Russian Tsar played an important role among the causes of the war. In the first message of Ivan the Terrible, it is not without reason that he declares: “... The city of Vladimir, located in our patrimony, the Livonian land...”. Many Baltic lands have long belonged to the Novgorod land, as well as the banks of the Neva River and the Gulf of Finland, which were subsequently captured by the Livonian Order.
One should not discount such a factor as social. The program of the struggle for the Baltic states met the interests of the nobility and the upper classes of the townspeople. The nobility counted on local distributions of land in the Baltic states, as opposed to the boyar nobility, which was more satisfied with the option of annexing the southern lands. Due to the remoteness of the “wild field” and the impossibility of establishing a strong central government there, at least at first, landowners - boyars had the opportunity to occupy the position of almost independent sovereigns in the southern regions. Ivan the Terrible sought to weaken the influence of the titled Russian boyars, and, naturally, took into account primarily the interests of the noble and merchant classes.
Given the complex balance of power in Europe, it was extremely important to choose a favorable moment to begin military operations against Livonia. It came for Russia at the end of 1557 - beginning of 1558. The defeat of Sweden in the Russian-Swedish war temporarily neutralized this fairly strong enemy, which had the status of a naval power. Denmark at this moment was distracted by the deterioration of its relations with Sweden. Lithuania and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania were not bound by serious complications of the international order, but were not ready for a military clash with Russia due to unresolved internal issues: social conflicts within each state and disagreements over the union. Proof of this is the fact that in 1556 the expiring truce between Lithuania and the Russian state was extended for six years. And finally, as a result of military actions against Crimean Tatars there was no need to fear for the southern borders for some time. The raids resumed only in 1564 during a period of complications on the Lithuanian front.
During this period, relations with Livonia were quite tense. In 1554, Alexei Adashev and clerk Viskovaty announced to the Livonian embassy their reluctance to extend the truce due to:
Failure of the Bishop of Dorpat to pay tribute from the possessions ceded to him by the Russian princes;
The oppression of Russian merchants in Livonia and the destruction of Russian settlements in the Baltic states.
The establishment of peaceful relations between Russia and Sweden contributed to a temporary settlement of Russian-Livonian relations. After Russia lifted the ban on the export of wax and lard, Livonia was presented with the terms of a new truce:
Unimpeded transportation of weapons to Russia;
Guarantee of payment of tribute by the Bishop of Dorpat;
Restoration of all Russian churches in Livonian cities;
Refusal to enter into an alliance with Sweden, the Kingdom of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania;
Providing conditions for free trade.
Livonia did not intend to fulfill its obligations under the truce concluded for fifteen years.
Thus, the choice was made in favor of resolving the Baltic issue. This was facilitated by a number of reasons: economic, territorial, social and ideological. Russia, being in a favorable international situation, had high military potential and was ready for a military conflict with Livonia for possession of the Baltic states.
The Livonian War (1558–1583) was a war of the Russian kingdom against the Livonian Order, the Polish-Lithuanian state, Sweden and Denmark for hegemony in the Baltic states.
Causes: Access to the Baltic Sea. Hostile policy of the Livonian Order.
Occasion: Refusal of the order to pay tribute for Yuriev (Dorpat).
First stage (1558-1561): The capture of Narva, Yuriev, Fellin, the capture of Master Furstenberg, the Livonian Order as a military force practically ceased to exist.
Second stage (1562-1577): Entry into the war of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth (since 1569) and Sweden. Capture of Polotsk (1563). Defeat on the river Ule and near Orsha (1564). Capture of Weissenstein (1575) and Wenden (1577).
Third stage (1577-1583): Campaign of Stefan Batory, Fall of Polotsk, Velikiye Luki. Defense of Pskov (August 18, 1581 - February 4, 1582) Capture of Narva, Ivangorod, Koporye by the Swedes.
1582– Yam-Zapolsky truce with the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth (Ivan the Terrible’s refusal from Livonia for the return of lost Russian fortresses).
1583– Plyusskoe truce with Sweden (renunciation of Estland, concession to the Swedes of Narva, Koporye, Ivangorod, Korela).
Causes of defeat: incorrect assessment of the balance of power in the Baltics, weakening of the state as a result domestic policy Ivan IV.
In order to start a war, formal reasons were found, but the real reasons were Russia’s geopolitical need to gain access to the Baltic Sea, as it would be more convenient for direct connections with the centers of European civilizations, and the desire to participate in the division of the territory of the Livonian Order, the progressive collapse of which became obvious, but which, not wanting to strengthen Muscovite Rus', prevented its external contacts.
Russia had a small section of the Baltic coast, from the Neva basin to Ivangorod. However, it was strategically vulnerable and had no ports or developed infrastructure. Ivan the Terrible hoped to take advantage of the Livonia transport system. He considered it an ancient Russian fiefdom, which was illegally seized by the crusaders.
The forceful solution to the problem predetermined the defiant behavior of the Livonians themselves, who, even according to their historians, acted unreasonably. Mass pogroms served as a reason for aggravation of relations Orthodox churches in Livonia. Even at that time, the truce between Moscow and Livonia (concluded in 1504 as a result of the Russian-Lithuanian war of 1500-1503) had expired. To extend it, the Russians demanded payment of the Yuriev tribute, which the Livonians were obliged to pay again Ivan III, but in 50 years they have never collected it. Having recognized the need to pay it, they again did not fulfill their obligations.
1558 - Russian army entered Livonia. Thus began the Livonian War. It lasted 25 years, becoming the longest and one of the most difficult in Russian history.
In addition to Livonia, the Russian Tsar wanted to conquer the East Slavic lands, which were part of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. 1557, November - he concentrated a 40,000-strong army in Novgorod for a campaign in the Livonian lands.
In December, this army under the command of the Tatar prince Shig-Aley, Prince Glinsky and other governors advanced to Pskov. The auxiliary army of Prince Shestunov, meanwhile, began military operations from the Ivangorod region at the mouth of the Narva (Narova) River. 1558, January - tsarist army approached Yuriev (Derpt), but could not capture it. Then part of the Russian army turned to Riga, and the main forces headed to Narva (Rugodiv), where they united with Shestunov’s army. There was a lull in the fighting. Only the garrisons of Ivangorod and Narva fired at each other. On May 11, Russians from Ivangorod attacked the Narva fortress and were able to take it the next day.
Soon after the capture of Narva, Russian troops under the command of governors Adashev, Zabolotsky and Zamytsky and Duma clerk Voronin were ordered to capture the Syrensk fortress. On June 2, the shelves were under its walls. Adashev set up barriers on the Riga and Kolyvan roads to prevent the main forces of the Livonians under the command of the Master of the Order from reaching Syrensk. On June 5, large reinforcements from Novgorod approached Adashev, which the besieged saw. On the same day, artillery shelling of the fortress began. The next day the garrison surrendered.
From Syrensk, Adashev returned to Pskov, where the entire Russian army was concentrated. In mid-June it took the fortresses of Neuhausen and Dorpat. The entire north of Livonia came under Russian control. The Order's army was numerically several times inferior to the Russians and, moreover, was scattered among separate garrisons. It could do nothing against the king's army. Until October 1558, the Russians in Livonia were able to capture 20 castles.
1559, January - Russian troops marched on Riga. Near Tiersen they defeated the Livonian army, and near Riga they burned the Livonian fleet. Although it was not possible to capture the Riga fortress, 11 more Livonian castles were taken.
The Master of the Order was forced to conclude a truce before the end of 1559. By November of this year, the Livonians were able to recruit Landsknechts in Germany and resume the war. But failures never ceased to haunt them.
1560, January - the army of governor Borboshin captured the fortresses of Marienburg and Fellin. The Livonian Order practically ceased to exist as a military force.
1561 - the last master of the Livonian Order, Kettler, recognized himself as a vassal of the King of Poland and divided Livonia between Poland and Sweden (the island of Ezel went to Denmark). The Poles got Livonia and Courland (Kettler became Duke of the latter), the Swedes got Estland.
Poland and Sweden began to demand the withdrawal of Russian troops from Livonia. Ivan the Terrible not only did not comply with this demand, but also invaded the territory of Lithuania, allied to Poland, at the end of 1562. His army numbered 33,407 men. The goal of the campaign was well-fortified Polotsk. 1563, February 15 - Polotsk, unable to withstand the fire of 200 Russian guns, capitulated. Ivan's army moved to Vilna. The Lithuanians were forced to conclude a truce until 1564. After the resumption of the war, Russian troops occupied almost the entire territory of Belarus.
But the repressions that began against the figures “ elected council" - the actual government until the end of the 50s, had negative impact on the combat effectiveness of the Russian army. Many of the governors and nobles, fearing reprisals, preferred to flee to Lithuania. In the same 1564, one of the most prominent governors, Prince Andrei Kurbsky, moved there, close to the Adashev brothers who were part of the elected council and fearing for his life. The subsequent oprichnina terror further weakened the Russian army.
1) Ivan the Terrible; 2) Stefan Batory
1569 - as a result of the Union of Lublin, Poland and Lithuania formed single state The Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth (Republic) under the leadership of the King of Poland. Now the Polish army came to the aid of the Lithuanian army.
1570 - fighting intensified in both Lithuania and Livonia. To secure the Baltic lands, Ivan IV decided to create his own fleet. At the beginning of 1570, he issued a “charter” to the Dane Karsten Rode to organize a privateer fleet, which acted on behalf of the Russian Tsar. Rohde was able to arm several ships, and he caused significant damage to Polish maritime trade. In order to have a reliable naval base, the Russian army in the same 1570 tried to capture Revel, thereby starting a war with Sweden. But the city unhinderedly received supplies from the sea, and Grozny was forced to lift the siege after 7 months. The Russian privateer fleet was never able to become a formidable force.
After a 7-year lull, in 1577, the 32,000-strong army of Ivan the Terrible launched a new campaign to Revel. But this time the siege of the city brought nothing. Then Russian troops went to Riga, capturing Dinaburg, Volmar and several other castles. But these successes were not decisive.
Meanwhile, the situation on the Polish front began to become more complicated. 1575 - an experienced military leader, the Transylvanian prince, was elected king of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. He was able to form a strong army, which also included German and Hungarian mercenaries. Batory entered into an alliance with Sweden, and the united Polish-Swedish army in the fall of 1578 was able to defeat the 18,000-strong Russian army, which lost 6,000 people killed and captured and 17 guns.
By the start of the 1579 campaign, Stefan Batory and Ivan IV had approximately equal main armies of 40,000 men each. After the defeat at Wenden, Grozny was not confident in his abilities and proposed to begin peace negotiations. But Batory rejected this proposal and went on the offensive against Polotsk. In the autumn, Polish troops besieged the city and, after a month-long siege, captured it. The army of governors Shein and Sheremetev, sent to the rescue of Polotsk, only reached the Sokol fortress. They did not dare to engage in battle with superior enemy forces. Soon the Poles captured Sokol, defeating the troops of Sheremetev and Shein. The Russian Tsar clearly did not have enough strength to successfully fight on two fronts at once - in Livonia and Lithuania. After the capture of Polotsk, the Poles took several cities in the Smolensk and Seversk lands, and then returned to Lithuania.
1580 - Batory launched a large campaign against Rus', he captured and ravaged the cities of Ostrov, Velizh and Velikiye Luki. At the same time, the Swedish army under the command of Pontus Delagardie took the city of Korela and eastern part Karelian Isthmus.
1581 - Swedish army captured Narva, and the following year occupied Ivangorod, Yam and Koporye. Russian troops were expelled from Livonia. The fighting moved to Russian territory.
1581 - a 50,000-strong Polish army led by the king besieged Pskov. It was a very strong fortress. The city, which stood on the right, high bank of the Velikaya River at the confluence of the Pskov River, was surrounded stone wall. It stretched for 10 km and had 37 towers and 48 gates. However, from the side of the Velikaya River, from where it was difficult to expect an enemy attack, the wall was wooden. Under the towers there were underground passages that provided secret communication between different sections of the defense. The city had significant supplies of food, weapons and ammunition.
Russian troops were dispersed over many points from where an enemy invasion was expected. The Tsar himself, with a significant detachment in number, stopped in Staritsa, not risking going towards the Polish army marching towards Pskov.
When the sovereign learned about the invasion of Stefan Batory, the army of Prince Ivan Shuisky, appointed “great governor,” was sent to Pskov. 7 other governors were subordinate to him. All residents of Pskov and the garrison were sworn that they would not surrender the city, but would fight to the end. The total number of Russian troops defending Pskov reached 25,000 people and was approximately half the size of Batory’s army. By order of Shuisky, the outskirts of Pskov were devastated so that the enemy could not find fodder and food there.
Livonian War 1558-1583. Stefan Batory near Pskov
On August 18, Polish troops approached the city within 2–3 cannon shots. For a week, Batory conducted reconnaissance of Russian fortifications and only on August 26 gave the order to his troops to approach the city. But the soldiers soon came under fire from Russian cannons and retreated to the Cherekha River. There Batory set up a fortified camp.
The Poles began to dig trenches and set up tours to get closer to the walls of the fortress. On the night of September 4-5, they drove up to the Pokrovskaya and Svinaya towers on the southern face of the walls and, having placed 20 guns, on the morning of September 6 began to fire at both towers and the 150 m wall between them. By the evening of September 7, the towers were severely damaged, and a 50 m wide gap appeared in the wall. However, the besieged managed to build a new wooden wall against the gap.
On September 8, the Polish army launched an assault. The attackers were able to capture both damaged towers. But with shots from the large Bars cannon, capable of sending cannonballs over a distance of more than 1 km, the Pig Tower occupied by the Poles was destroyed. Then the Russians blew up its ruins by rolling up barrels of gunpowder. The explosion served as a signal for a counterattack, which was led by Shuisky himself. The Poles were unable to hold the Pokrovskaya Tower and retreated.
After the unsuccessful assault, Batory ordered digging to blow up the walls. The Russians were able to destroy two tunnels with the help of mine galleries, but the enemy was never able to complete the rest. On October 24, Polish batteries began shelling Pskov from across the Velikaya River with hot cannonballs to start fires, but the city’s defenders quickly dealt with the fire. After 4 days, a Polish detachment with crowbars and picks approached the wall from the Velikaya side between the corner tower and the Pokrovsky Gate and destroyed the base of the wall. It collapsed, but it turned out that behind this wall there was another wall and a ditch, which the Poles could not overcome. The besieged threw stones and pots of gunpowder on their heads, poured boiling water and tar.
On November 2, the Poles launched their final assault on Pskov. This time Batory's army attacked the western wall. Before this, it had been subjected to heavy shelling for 5 days and was destroyed in several places. However, the Russians met the enemy with heavy fire, and the Poles turned back without reaching the breaches.
By that time, the morale of the besiegers had dropped noticeably. However, the besieged also experienced considerable difficulties. The main forces of the Russian army in Staritsa, Novgorod and Rzhev were inactive. Only two detachments of archers of 600 people each tried to break through to Pskov, but more than half of them died or were captured.
On November 6, Batory removed the guns from the batteries, stopped siege work and began preparing for the winter. At the same time, he sent detachments of Germans and Hungarians to capture the Pskov-Pechersky Monastery 60 km from Pskov, but a garrison of 300 archers, with the support of monks, successfully repelled two attacks, and the enemy was forced to retreat.
Stefan Batory, convinced that he could not take Pskov, in November handed over command to Hetman Zamoyski, and he himself went to Vilna, taking with him almost all the mercenaries. As a result, the number of Polish troops decreased by almost half - to 26,000 people. The besiegers suffered from cold and disease, and the death toll and desertion increased.
Under these conditions, Batory agreed to a ten-year truce. It was concluded in Yama-Zapolsky on January 15, 1582. Rus' renounced all its conquests in Livonia, and the Poles liberated the Russian cities they had occupied.
1583 - the Truce of Plus was signed with Sweden. Yam, Koporye and Ivangorod passed to the Swedes. Behind Russia there remained only small area Baltic coast at the mouth of the Neva. But in 1590, after the expiration of the truce, hostilities between the Russians and Swedes resumed and this time were successful for the Russians. As a result, according to the Tyavzin Treaty on “ eternal peace“Rus regained Yam, Koporye, Ivangorod and Korelsky district. But this was only small consolation. In general, Ivan IV's attempt to gain a foothold in the Baltic failed.
At the same time, acute contradictions between Poland and Sweden on the issue of control over Livonia eased the position of the Russian Tsar, excluding a joint Polish-Swedish invasion of Rus'. The resources of Poland alone, as the experience of Batory’s campaign against Pskov showed, were clearly insufficient to capture and retain a significant territory of the Muscovite kingdom. At the same time, the Livonian War showed that Sweden and Poland had a formidable enemy in the east that they had to reckon with.
Since 1503, there was a 50-year truce with the Livonian Order with the payment of the Yuriev tribute.
In 1554 it was extended for another 15 years.
In the Baltics, the interests of the Grand Dukes of Lithuania, Sweden, Poland, Denmark and Russia collided.
Reasons for the start of the Livonian War
1) weakening of the order;
2) suitable for local distribution of land;
3) opportunities for expanding foreign trade (not so much the merchants as the tsar are interested in this, since sales are needed from the palace volosts);
4) hope to weaken the Grand Duchy of Lithuania.
Russian diplomatic miscalculation
They defeated Sweden in 1554-57, and considered that it was weakened.
They decided that a union between Sweden and Denmark was impossible.
They decided that Lithuania would be neutral, since in 1556 the truce was extended for six years.
In 1558, accusing Livonia of non-payment of the Yuryev tribute, Moscow was the first to start a war.
Stage 1. 1558 - 1560 - commanded by M.V. Glinsky and Shah-Ali Kazansky. Almost all of Livonia is occupied. The Master of the Order is in captivity. Hasty distribution of estates → discontent of the population.
The Polish king Sigismund II Augustus agreed with the new Livonian master on the vassal dependence of the order on Poland and the Grand Duke of Lithuania. He left the territory of Courland for himself. Part of the Livonian territories went to Denmark (Esel Island) and Sweden (northern Estonia). → new opponents do not intend to give up their possessions to Moscow.
And so - there is no Livonian Order, and the war has become much more dangerous, since the opponents are strong.
Stage 2. 1561 - 1577 - Ivan 4 himself commanded.
The Russians suffer defeats on the territory of Belarus (Polotsk, Orsha).
Kurbsky's betrayal.
Repeated negotiations for a truce have failed.
Actions on the Baltic coast are unsuccessful.
1570 - Russia achieved the proclamation of the Livonian Kingdom. The Danish Duke Magnus became its king.
This year began a five-year period of kinglessness in Poland. Ivan 4 lays claim to the Polish throne.
But in 1575 Stefan Batory became king of Poland.
In 1577, the Russians retook many Livonian fortresses and pushed back the troops of Stefan Batory.
Stage 3. 1578 – 1583
Russian transition to defensive tactics. The Lithuanian troops were replaced by stronger Polish ones. Magnus defected to Poland.
Since 1579, hostilities moved to Russian lands
1579 - Batory's first campaign.
1580 – Batory’s second campaign
1583 - Batory's third campaign.
The Russians lost Polotsk, Sokol, Velikiye Luki, Toropets.
Pskov is under siege. Ivan Petrovich Shuisky was able to hold the fortress.
The Swedes began to advance.
1581 - The Swedes took Narva.
Negotiation.
1582 – Yam-Zapolsky truce with Poland for 10 years. Russia abandoned Livonia, Polotsk, Velizh.
1583 – Truce of Plyus with Sweden. Russia abandoned Yam, Koporye, Ivan Gorod and conquered the territory of Finland.
The outcome of the war is the complete defeat of Moscow.
Until 1584 - hope for an alliance with England to continue the war.
Causes of defeat :
1) lack of internal resources;
2) diplomatic isolation;
3) internal political instability → inconsistency of command.
Consequences of defeat
Deepening economic and political crisis.
Relations with Western Europe after the Livonian War.
1586 - S. Batory died and Fyodor Ioanovich laid claim to the Polish throne. Lost to Prince Sigismund of Sweden.
1590 – 1595 – war with Sweden. Tsar Fedor and the queen were in Novgorod. The command was F. Mstislavsky and D. Khvorostinin. Yam is taken. Narva is besieged.
1595 – Treaty of Tyavzin. Yam, Ivan Gorod, Koporye, Korela were returned.
In 1558 he declared war on the Livonian Order. The reason for the start of the war was that the Livonians detained 123 Western specialists on their territory who were heading to Russia. The failure of the Livonians to pay tribute for their capture of Yuryev (Derpt) in 1224 also played a significant role. The campaign, which began in 1558 and lasted until 1583, was called the Livonian War. The Livonian War can be divided into three periods, each of which went with varying degrees of success for the Russian army.
In 1558 - 1563, Russian troops finally completed the defeat of the Livonian Order (1561), took a number of Livonian cities: Narva, Dorpat, and approached Tallinn and Riga. The last major success of Russian troops at this time was the capture of Polotsk in 1563. Since 1563, it has become clear that the Livonian War is becoming protracted for Russia.
The second period of the Livonian War begins in 1563 and ends in 1578. For Russia, the war with Livonia turned into a war against Denmark, Sweden, Poland and Lithuania. The situation was complicated by the fact that the Russian economy was weakened due to devastation. A prominent Russian military leader, a former member betrays and goes over to the side of his opponents. In 1569, Poland and Lithuania united into a single state - the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth.
The third period of the war takes place in 1579 - 1583. During these years, Russian troops fought defensive battles, where the Russians lost several of their cities, such as: Polotsk (1579), Velikiye Luki (1581). The third period of the Livonian War was marked by the heroic defense of Pskov. Voivode Shuisky led the defense of Pskov. The city held out for five months and repelled about 30 assaults. This event allowed Russia to sign a truce.
The results of the Livonian War were disappointing for the Russian state. As a result of the Livonian War, Russia lost the Baltic lands, which were captured by Poland and Sweden. The Livonian War greatly depleted Russia. But the main task of this war - gaining access to the Baltic Sea - was never completed.
