II. Combination of the corvee system of economy with the capitalist system The corvee system of economy was undermined by the abolition of serfdom. All the main foundations of this system were undermined: subsistence farming, the isolation and self-sufficient nature of the landowner’s estate,

Features of the formation of the colonial system

In a slave society, the word "colony" meant "settlement." Ancient Egypt, Mesopotamia, Greece, Rome had colony settlements on foreign territory. Colonies in modern meaning words appeared during the Age of Discovery at the end XV - early XVI centuries As a result of the Great Geographical Discoveries, the colonial system. This stage in the development of colonialism is associated with the formation of capitalist relations. Since that time, the concepts of “capitalism” and “colonialism” have been inextricably linked. Capitalism becomes the dominant social economic system, the colonies are the most important factor, accelerating this process. Colonial plunder and colonial trade were important sources of primitive capital accumulation.

A colony is a territory deprived of political and economic independence and dependent on the mother countries. In the conquered territories, the metropolis imposes capitalist relations. This happened in the colonies of England in North America, Australia, New Zealand and South Africa. The local population could not resist the power of the colonialists; they were either destroyed or driven into reservations. The main population in the states formed after independence were immigrants from Europe.

In the East, the colonialists were unable to establish themselves absolutely. In these countries they were a minority, and attempts to change the existing structure of society as a whole ended in failure. The main reason can be considered the centuries-old traditions and stability of Eastern society. At the same time, it would be wrong to say that the colonialists had no influence on the course of historical development peoples of Asia and Africa. In this regard, it is important to note that in these regions the introduction of capitalist relations was met with opposition from traditional structures.

Thus, it is important to highlight the main stages and nature of colonization, which changed with the development of European capitalism, and to identify the nature of the changes occurring in the countries of the East during the period of colonialism.

Initial period

The period of initial accumulation of capital and manufacturing production predetermined the content and forms of relationships between colonies and metropolises. For Spain and Portugal, the colonies were primarily sources of gold and silver. Their natural practice was frank robbery up to the extermination of the indigenous population of the colonies. However, gold and silver exported from the colonies did not accelerate the development of capitalist production in these countries.

Much of the wealth looted by the Spanish and Portuguese contributed to the development of capitalism in Holland and England. The Dutch and English bourgeoisie profited from the supply of goods to Spain, Portugal and their colonies. Colonies in Asia, Africa and America captured by Portugal and Spain became the object of colonial conquests by Holland and England.

Period of industrial capitalism

The next stage in the development of colonialsystems associated with the industrial revolutionto her, which begins in the last third XVIII V. and ends in developed European countries around the middle XIX century

The period is coming exchange of goods, which draws colonial countries into world commodity circulation. This leads to double consequences: on the one hand, colonial countries turn into agricultural and raw materials appendages of the metropolises, on the other hand, the metropolises contribute to the socio-economic development of the colonies (development of local industry for processing raw materials, transport, communications, telegraph, printing, etc. ).

By the beginning of the First World War, at the stage of monopoly capitalism, the colonial possessions of three European powers were taking shape:

At this stage, the territorial division of the world is completed. The leading colonial powers of the world are increasing the export of capital to the colonies.

25.2. Colonialism in the XVI-XVII centuries.

Trading companies and their role in the exploitation of colonies

At the beginning and middle XVII V. in all colonial countries they are creating East Indian companies(English - in 1600-1858, Dutch - in 1602-1798, French - in 1664-1770 and 1785-1793, etc.). These companies, which united the largest merchants and industrialists of the metropolises, received from their governments the monopoly right to wage wars in order to annex new lands, conduct trade in the colonial possessions of the metropolis, etc. East India companies were exported from the colonies spices(cinnamon, pepper, vanilla, cloves, etc.) which they purchased at low prices in the colonies and sold at monopoly high prices in European countries.

Constant clashes during the seizure of colonies, the fierce competition of the East Indian companies in the maritime expanses of the Atlantic, Indian and Pacific oceans invariably led to severe armed conflicts not only in Asia, Africa and Latin America, but also in Europe.

The main sources of income for the colonialists were not trade in industrial goods in the East, but the resale of colonial goods, revenues from high taxes, extortions, and even from elementary robbery of the local population, military booty, additional payments that local merchants and feudal lords were forced to make, etc. d.

Thus, payment for English imports from Asian countries is in the middle XVIII V. approximately 80% was carried out through the export of gold and silver to the East, and only 20% - industrial products. The company arbitrarily imposed high taxes on the population and set prices for salt, opium, betel nut and other goods.

The Dutch East India Company also used similar methods of exploitation of newly acquired colonies, subordinating the richest country in the East to its control. Indonesia. First of all, a monopoly was established on the spice trade. The company began introducing crops new to the islands, such as coffee. By introducing new taxes and duties for the conquered population, the Dutch tried not to affect the existing feudal system. They left the old (loyal to the colonialists) feudal lords, instructing them to collect taxes, supervise and partially manage the local population.

The population everywhere resisted the colonialists, but none of them were successful.

Colonization of the African continent

In the colonial policy of European powers XVI - XVII centuries The African continent occupies a special place. The construction of trading posts by European powers in Africa initially did not threaten the local population. Only when plantation cultivation of sugar cane, coffee, and tobacco began in the West Indies, that is, in America, and gold and silver mines were opened in South and North America and cotton began to be grown, did the colonialists begin to use slaves from Africa.

Slavery existed in Africa for a number of centuries, but it was largely patriarchal in nature and was not so tragic and destructive before the arrival of Europeans. Slave trade the Portuguese started in the middle XV c., then the British, Dutch, French, Danes, and Swedes joined it. The centers of the slave trade were located mainly on the West Coast of Africa - from Cape Verde to Angola inclusive. Especially many slaves were exported from the Golden and Slave coasts. Slaves were sold for European goods, weapons, trinkets. The slave trade also took place on the East Coast of Africa; slaves were exported from there to Turkey, Arabia, Iraq, India, Iran and other countries.

25.3. Colonialism during the period of industrial capitalism

As a result of the industrial revolution, industrial civilization was formed in the leading capitalist countries. Promoted to the first roles industrial production.

Changes in the colonial policy of the metropolis

Accordingly, the need for new types of goods has increased, especially raw materials. The main role is now given to large industrialists, and not to trading companies, as was the case in the previous period. The situation in world trade has changed accordingly. The importance of colonial goods fell, but the need for food, raw materials, dyes, timber, wool, cotton increased, i.e., those goods that were especially needed for the developing European industry. This also led to a change in the nature of the relationship between the colonies and the metropolises. There is a need for export of goods to the colonies. The English bourgeoisie is revising foreign trade and colonial policies.

As a result, England's exports, mainly to the colonies, increased immeasurably. According to economists, in the first half XIX V. Up to 64% of English exports of cotton products, 74% of beer, about 70% of soap and candles, about 60% of copper and brass products, 43% of coal and coke, etc. were sent to the colonies.

England's colonial policy is also changing. It is increasingly striving to turn its vast colonial possessions into an appendage of its developing industry. Its policy is aimed at increasing the export of industrial goods to the colonies, on the one hand, and ensuring supplies raw materials from the colonies for their industry - on the other. Standing in the middle XIX V. "workshop of the world", England begins to export to the colonies and capital, investing it primarily in the development of production.

In the XIX V. trade and predatory methods carried out in the colonies by East India companies are replaced by economic ones. The period is coming exchange of goods between metropolises and colonies. The colonies were drawn into global commodity circulation and became participants in the world market. Using their industrial superiority, capitalist countries increase the export of their goods to the colonies many times over. In just 20 years (from 1794 to 1813), Great Britain's exports, mainly to India, of cotton goods alone increased 700 times.

Colonies become agricultural and raw materials appendages of the metropolises, suppliers of raw materials and auxiliary materials for industry, and food for the growing urban population. Finished fabrics, metal products, semi-finished products and other goods were sent to the colonies. Thus, in 1870, the structure of Indian exports consisted of 36% raw cotton, 21% opium, 12% grains, 4% jute, etc. Cotton fabrics accounted for only 2%, jute products - 0.5% of India's exports. At the same time, the country's imports consisted of 45% cotton fabrics, 8% yarn, 13% metal products (including rails for railways) and only 2% - from machines, mainly for processing raw materials. It is clear that almost 85% of goods were imported into India from the mother country.

The role of colonies in the economic development of metropolises

In new historical conditions, the role of colonies in the economic development of metropolises is significantly increasing. Possession of colonies contributed to industrial development, military superiority over other powers, maneuvering of resources in case of wars, economic crises, etc. In this regard, all colonial powers seek to expand their possessions. The increased technical equipment of armies makes it possible to realize this. It was at this time that the “discoveries” of Japan and China took place, the establishment of British colonial rule in India, Burma, and Africa was completed, and France captured Algeria, Tunisia, Vietnam andother countries, Germany begins to expand in Africa, the USA - in Latin America, China, Korea, Japan - in China, Korea, etc.

At the same time, the struggle of the metropolises for the possession of colonies, sources of raw materials, and strategic positions in the East is intensifying.

25.4. Development of the colonial economy

Development of industry in the colonies

During the period of initial accumulation of capital, the colonialists did not change the socio-economic structure in the countries of the East. However, the industrial revolution in Europe changed the situation. This manifested itself in the following.

Of significant importance for the economy of the colonies was the emergence of enterprises for the primary processing of raw materials and certain types of goods: cleaning and pressing of cotton, jute, production of dyes; hardware, building materials, sugar, dried fruits, opium, rum, coconut and soybean oil, some types of food (rice, wheat, corned beef), leather processing, valuable wood, copper, silver, etc.

In colonial countries, the construction of railways began in order to more easily and quickly export raw materials from the hinterland, the extraction of coal and other minerals (diamonds, gold, copper, etc.), the organization of intermediary credit institutions (for example, English management agencies in India) etc.

In the colonies and semi-colonies, the development of commodity-money relations noticeably accelerated, and the crisis of the feudal order accelerated.

In 1854, for example, the first Indian jute factory began operating in Calcutta, and two years later the first cotton mill founded by an Indian merchant opened in Bombay.

Due to the influx of manufactured goods from the metropolis and freedom of trade, family and semi-family communities, closed, isolated from the world, based on home industry, village crafts and a peculiar combination of hand weaving, hand spinning and manual (primitive, archaic) method of cultivating the land, began to collapse.

The construction of railways greatly expanded the scope of exchange of goods and the pumping of raw materials from the interior regions of the colonies. The use of steamships accelerated the turnover of goods and capital.

In the era of industrial capitalism, colonial countries found themselves drawn into the world capitalist market, and through it into the production of goods, which had very complex and contradictory consequences.

On the one hand, colonies and semi-colonies broke through the circle of isolation and joined the global development of capitalism. However, on the other hand, their dependence on industrialized countries has increased. In the world economy, the division of labor between colonies and metropolises is established. The colonialists oriented the economies of dependent countries towards the production of appropriate goods.

India specialized in the production and export of cotton, tobacco, sugar, and jute. Egypt supplied only cotton, Brazil - rubber and coffee, Australia and New Zealand- wool, China - tea, raw silk, etc.

Largest semi-colony - China

In Asian and African countries there are semi-colonies, turned into the object of heated disputes and clashes between the leading capitalist powers of the world.

Semi-colonies are formally independent states that had their own governments and governance system. Typical semi-colonies are China, Iran, and the Ottoman Empire.

Characteristic is the history of the transformation of large countries of the East into semi-colonies, and above all the largest of them - China. The “closing” of this country in 1756, i.e. the ban on trade in foreign goods in China (except for the port of Macau) was a kind of reaction to the expansion of European powers into the countries Far East. But this complicated the situation for China itself. China lost the opportunity to benefit from the achievements of European science and technology, and its trade with other countries decreased, which undermined production.

Despite this, in the end XVIII V. The British are increasingly eager to penetrate China. The main item imported into the country is opium, manufactured in India. The Chinese government is trying to combat smuggling. In 1839, the opium trade in China was banned, and approximately 1,000 tons of the drug belonging to British merchants were destroyed. This was the reason for the war. In 1840-1842. the so-called first flashes opium war between China and England. Backward China suffers a brutal defeat and is forced to sign the unequal Treaty of Nanjing. England achieved its goals: it captured the port of Hong Kong, expanded trade areas, and received military indemnities worth $23 million. China was deprived of its customs independence - customs duties could not exceed 5% of the cost of imported products.

Bombardment of the southern Chinese port city of Canton by British ships during the Opium War

In 1843, a new treaty was imposed on China, which established the extraterritoriality of the British; British merchants enjoyed most favored nation treatment in trade. In 1844 The United States sent a squadron to the shores of China and forced it to give them the same rights. In 1844, the French signed the same treaty with China.

The Chinese government makes continuous concessions to the colonialists. In 1869, 15 ports were already “opened” for trade with foreigners. The Office of Imperial Maritime Customs was created in the country, which was completely transferred to the British (customs duties were used to pay indemnities).

Increased expansion of foreign capital, popular uprisings, destruction of irrigation systems and, as a consequence, crop failures, constant wars (Franco-Chinese war of 1885 over Vietnam, Japanese-Chinese war of 1894-1895 over Korea, etc.) , the collapse of the "self-strengthening" policy, etc. - all this completely upset the country's finances and ultimately made China a semi-colony.

The former powerful state also turned into a semi-colony of European powers. Ottoman Empire.

The only country that, although it was subject to the expansion of European powers and which managed to defend its independence, turned out to be Japan.

Soon it itself will become a colonial power.

Review questions

1. Tell us about the history of the formation of the colonial system.

2. Compare the methods of exploitation of colonies in the era of primitive accumulation of capital and in the era of industrial capitalism.

3. Describe the largest metropolises and their colonial policies.

Starting from the first steps of the formation of the colonial system and most of the 20th century, the development of mankind largely proceeded under the sign of the dominance of a group of countries united under the general name “West” (Great Britain, France, Germany, Russia (USSR), Italy, Spain, USA, Canada etc.), i.e. the world was Eurocentric, or more broadly Euro-American-centric. Other peoples, regions and countries were taken into account insofar as they were connected with the history of the West.

The era of exploration and subjugation of Asia, Africa and America by European peoples began with the Great Geographical Discoveries of the 15th-16th centuries. The final act of this epic was the creation by the end of the 19th century. great colonial empires that covered vast spaces and numerous peoples and countries in all parts of the globe. It should be noted that colonialism and imperialism were not the exclusive monopoly of Europe or the Western world in modern and recent times. The history of conquest is as old as the history of civilizations. Empire as a form of political organization of countries and peoples existed almost from the very beginning of human history. Suffice it to recall, for example, the empire of Alexander the Great, the Roman and Byzantine Empire, Holy Roman Empire, empires of Qing Shi Huang and Genghis Khan, etc.

In modern usage, the term "empire" (and its derivative term "imperialism") is related to the Latin word for "emperor" and is usually associated with ideas of dictatorial power and coercive methods of government. In modern times, it first came into use in France in the 30s of the 19th century. and was used against supporters of the Napoleonic Empire. In subsequent decades, with the increasing colonial expansion of Britain and other countries, the term gained popularity as an equivalent to the term "colonialism". At the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries. imperialism began to be viewed as a special stage in the development of capitalism, characterized by the tightening of exploitation of the lower classes within the country and the intensification of the struggle for the redivision of the world in the international arena.

Imperialism is also characterized by special relations of domination and dependence. Different nations are not equal in their origin, influence, resources, and opportunities. Some of them are large, others are small, some have developed industry, while others are significantly behind in the process of modernization. International inequality has always been a reality, which has led to the suppression and subjugation of weak peoples and countries by strong and powerful empires and world powers.

As historical experience shows, any strong civilization has invariably shown a tendency towards spatial expansion. Therefore, it inevitably acquired an imperial character. In the last five centuries, the initiative in expansion belonged to the Europeans, and then to the West as a whole. Chronologically, the beginning of the formation of Eurocentric capitalist civilization coincided with the beginning of the Great Geographical Discoveries. The emerging young dynamic civilization seemed to immediately declare its claims to the entire Earth During the four centuries that followed the discoveries of Columbus and Vasco da Gama, the rest of the world was either explored and populated, or conquered.

Industrial revolution of the 19th century. gave a new impetus to the overseas expansion of European powers. Territorial conquests began to be seen as a means of increasing wealth, prestige, military power and gaining additional trump cards in the diplomatic game. An intense competitive struggle developed between the leading industrial powers for the areas and regions of the most profitable investment of capital, as well as markets for the sale of goods. End of the 19th century was marked by an intensification of the struggle of leading European countries to conquer still unoccupied territories and countries in Africa, Asia and Oceania.

By the beginning of the 20th century. The wave of creation of huge colonial empires ended, the largest of which was the British Empire, stretching over vast areas from Hong Kong in the East to Canada in the West. The whole world was divided, there were almost no “no man’s” territories left on the planet. The great era of European expansion was over. In the course of many wars for the division and redistribution of territories, European peoples extended their dominance over almost the entire globe.

Until the end of the 19th - beginning of the 20th centuries. non-European peoples mastered European scientific, technical, economic, intellectual and other achievements passively; Now the stage of their active development has begun, as if from the inside. The priority in this regard undoubtedly belongs to Japan, which, as a result of the Meiji reforms in 1868, embarked on the path of capitalist development. The reforms marked the beginning of significant economic growth for the country, which, in turn, gave it the opportunity to move on to the path of external expansion. The attack by Japanese aircraft on December 7, 1941, on the American naval base of Pearl Harbor demonstrated real start the end of the Eurocentric world and became the starting point of a new era in world history. But until the second half of the 20th century. the world remained Eurocentric: Western countries continued to dictate their will and determine the rules political game on the international stage. The overwhelming majority of other countries and peoples were assigned only a passive role as objects of the policies of the great powers.

Formation of the world economy World economic ties originate in world trade, which dates back thousands of years. In the pre-industrial era, paradigm (from the gr. paradeigma - sample) economic development can be characterized as “sustained consumption”. Then simple reproduction was typical, and subsistence farming was dominant. From the point of view of the socio-economic form, this corresponded to the primitive, slave and feudal modes of production. The enrichment of the ruling classes was carried out through non-economic coercion of slaves and peasants.

World trade and world economic relations acquired their new quality on the basis of the Great Geographical Discoveries of the late XV-XVI centuries. and the decay of feudalism in Europe. Great geographical discoveries were not an accident. They were the result of the development of technology and science, economics, cities, and commodity-money relations. Creating a new type sailing ships-- caravels allowed X. Columbus's expedition to cross the Atlantic Ocean (1492). A compass began to be used, in combination with an astrolabe to help navigate the open sea. Cartography has improved.

A huge incentive was the “thirst for gold.” It was determined not only by the desire of kings and other nobles to replenish their treasury, not only by the passion of adventurers for enrichment, but also by the need for growing trade turnover. The pursuit of money and its fetishization began. Trade interests were important. The Seljuk Turks' capture of Constantinople interrupted Levantine trade. All this stimulated the geographical expeditions of the Spaniards and Portuguese, and later the French, Dutch, and British.

Russia played an outstanding role in the exploration and development of the northern coast of Asia and America, the Arctic and Pacific oceans. The consequences of geographical discoveries were extremely important. A significant share of colonial spoils went into the hands of kings and court nobility and received feudal use. Large land ownership, serfdom, and even plantation slavery were imposed in the colonies. But still, capitalist consequences were predominant - the process of initial accumulation of capital.

Throughout the 16th century. The territory known to Europeans increased 6 times. The territorial base of trade has reached gigantic proportions. It has become global, oceanic. The scope of the international division of labor has expanded. Huge masses of new goods were involved in trade turnover. European capital became more full-blooded and viable. Penetrating into industry, he accelerated the development of manufacturing capitalism. There was a movement of trade routes to the Atlantic and Indian oceans.

The Mediterranean Sea began to lose its importance, the cities of its coast fell into decay. But Lisbon, Seville, Cadiz (Spain), Antwerp, Amsterdam, London rose. Economic centers moved west during this period. The influx of cheap gold and silver caused in the 16th century. “price revolution” - they increased 2-5 times. This accelerated the enrichment of merchants and manufactory owners, who sold goods at ever-increasing prices and paid wages with ever-cheaper money. Prosperous peasants speculating in raw materials and food also became rich. As for the workers and the rural poor, they suffered from high prices. The income of the nobility became scarce as monetary dues depreciated.

One of the most important consequences of geographical discoveries was colonialism. The acceleration of the economic development of Western Europe occurred at the cost of unequal exchange, robbery and enslavement of the peoples of America, Africa, and Asia. All of the above allows us to conclude that it was the Great Geographical Discoveries that marked the beginning of the formation of the world economy.

From the standpoint of socio-economic forms of society, this stage is characterized by the process of decomposition of feudal relations, the feudal mode of production as a whole, the genesis of capitalism - the initial accumulation of capital, which, on the basis of geographical discoveries, exploitation of mineral resources and enslaved peoples, also received a new quality. Due to this First stage The formation of the world economy is usually associated with the final victory over the feudal mode of production, the process of initial accumulation of capital and the formation of free competition. There has been a fundamental change in the paradigm of economic development. The central figure of the economic movement becomes an “economic man” with strong motives and benefits, enterprising, ready to take risks for the sake of profit. The rate of economic growth has increased sharply. Great Britain is becoming the most developed, advanced country in the world.

Great geographical discoveries contributed to its economic rise. Before this, England occupied a rather modest place. The process of the formation of capitalism here occurred more intensively and with greater clarity than in other countries. Therefore, England is considered a “classical” capitalist country.

The main commodity industry of the country was agriculture. The wool was exported for processing to Flanders and Florence. Our own industrial production based on guild crafts also developed. Great geographical discoveries expanded the world market, increased demand and prices. Thanks to lower production costs, manufacture quickly replaced small-scale handicraft production.

For further development, more raw materials and free labor were required. Sheep breeding was profitable for feudal lords, but faced limited pastures. Landlords seized communal pastures and drove peasants off the land, which in history was called enclosure. In this case, brutal measures were used, entire areas were devastated. Driven from the land, the peasants lost their livelihoods and turned into beggars and vagabonds.

Agrarian revolution of the 16th century. created conditions for the rapid growth of the wool industry, providing it with raw materials and labor. “Bloody” legislation formed a new capitalist labor discipline. Workers received meager wages with long working hours (from 5 a.m. to 6-8 p.m.). The development of industrial production and the growth of the non-agricultural population contributed to the formation of a domestic market, the size of which was limited by low effective demand. This oriented production toward the foreign market.

The characteristic policy at this time was mercantilism. However, the growing bourgeoisie experienced oppression from the ruling elite of the nobility, which caused its struggle against the feudal order. Bourgeois revolution 1642-1649 put an end to feudalism in England, ended the Middle Ages and opened the period new history- capitalism. In economics, this contributed to the industrial revolution and the formation of a new stage in the world economy. Thus, the first stage of the formation of the world economy can be conditionally limited to the end of the 15th century - late XVI II centuries The Industrial Revolution of the late 18th century characterized a new stage in the development of the world economy. Industrial capital begins to occupy a central place in the economy, which also changed the paradigm of economic development, the model of which is the industrialized economy.

Stages of development of the world economy In its formation and development, the world economy has come a long and difficult path.

By the middle of the 20th century, the world economy was split into two parts: the world capitalist and the world socialist.

Since the 1960s, developing countries have been included in the MX system. By the mid-70s, the following stood out noticeably among them: the so-called “new industrial countries” of Southeast Asia (the first wave - 4 “small dragons” - South Korea, Taiwan, "Hong Kong, Singapore) and countries Latin America: Brazil, Argentina, Mexico. After the collapse of the USSR and revolutionary changes in countries of Eastern Europe The world economy begins to acquire the features of a single, holistic entity. The emerging global world economy, while not homogeneous, includes the national economies of industrialized countries, developing countries and countries with an economic system of a transition type. While maintaining many contradictions and diverse trends, MX at the turn of the 21st century is incomparably more holistic, integrated, and dynamic than in the middle of the 20th century.

The world economy at the turn of the 21st century is global in scale; it is based entirely on the principles of a market economy, objective laws of the international division of labor, and the internationalization of production and capital. By the end of the 90s, a number of stable trends emerged in the world economy. These include: - stable rates of economic growth.

The average growth rate of all countries in the world rose from less than 1% in the early 90s to 3% per annum at the end of the decade; - increasing the foreign economic factor in economic development. The scale has noticeably increased and the nature of traditional international trade in embodied goods and services has changed qualitatively. “Electronic commerce” has appeared, i.e. trading on the Internet; - globalization of financial markets and increased interdependence of national economies; - height specific gravity service sectors in the national economy and international exchange; - development of regional integration processes. The achieved degree of unity of trade, production and the credit and financial sphere of industrial developed countries serves as a sign of the formation of a world economic complex (WEC).

Russia and Europe in the 18th century. Changes in the international position of the empire.

The outcome of the palace struggle at the end of the 17th century, clearing power Petru, predetermined the nature of the further development of transformations. Peter abruptly put forward the German-technical direction to the detriment of the Polish-scholastic one and concentrated his vigorous activity on continuing military, financial and administrative reforms. The starting points of the reform were already given by the experiences of the 17th century.

The development of the reform was devoid of systematic planning and proceeded in fits and starts, under the direct influence of current military events and increasing financial difficulties. Only in the second half of the reign, by the 20s of the 18th century, a more systematic reform plan was outlined, inspired by Western theories of enlightened absolutism and mercantilism and based on models of foreign, mainly Swedish, institutions.

The development of this transformative plan was the collective work of a number of people who submitted transformative projects to Peter on similar issues. Understanding these projects, Peter gave the implementation of the planned transformations a forced, terrorist character. Along with the properties of Peter's personal character, the feverishly excited pace of the transformative work was determined by the course of external events.

War filled the entire reign of Peter. The end of the 90s of the 17th century was occupied by the Azov campaigns. They were a continuation of Russia's participation in the European coalition against Turkey, which was formed under Peter's predecessors. With the capture of Azov and the construction of the Voronezh fleet, the prestige of Russia, shaken by the failures of Prince Golitsyn, was raised both in the eyes of the allies and in the eyes of Turkey. Moldavia and Wallachia turned to Peter with an offer of citizenship and the transfer of military operations against Turkey to the banks of the Danube. But at this time, members of the coalition were already in a hurry to make peace with Turkey: Western Europe was preparing for another grandiose struggle - for the Spanish inheritance.

The collapse of the coalition forced Russia to conclude a truce with Turkey for 30 years (July 3, 1700). Azov went to Russia, Russia's annual tribute to the Crimean Khan was destroyed. Two months after the conclusion of this truce, a war began with Sweden, against which back in 1699 Peter entered into an alliance with Poland. The Polish king Augustus and the Livonian nobleman Patkul, who worked hard to conclude a Polish-Russian union, dreamed that when dividing his future conquests, Peter would be content with Ingria and Karelia.

The defeat of the Russians at Narva further increased the claims and hopes of Augustus. He demanded that Peter cede Poland to Little Russia; but the alliance was renewed without fulfilling this condition. After the Narva victory, Charles XII, in the words of Peter, “got stuck in Poland,” and the Russians at that time ravaged Livonia, captured Dorpat and Narva and established themselves on the Neva by taking Noteburg and Nyenskans and founding St. Petersburg (1703). Having reached the sea, Peter began to think about peace with Sweden and asked Austria, England, Holland and France for mediation. Powers that fought with Louis XIV, did not sympathize with the strengthening of Russia and coldly greeted Peter’s request. Negotiations with Sweden began with the mediation of France, but were interrupted due to the demand of Charles XII to return all Russian conquests to Sweden.

Russia occupied Courland; Charles, having forced Poland to peace and replaced Augustus on the Polish throne with Stanislav Leszczynski, was preparing to march deep into Russia. Peter was afraid of the Swedes' campaign against Moscow, but Karl, counting on the Little Russian Cossacks and the Crimean Khan, moved to Ukraine. The Battle of Poltava (1709) turned the entire course of both military and diplomatic actions. Karl fled to Turkey; With its success, Russia attracted the watchful attention of all of Europe, coupled with fear. Fear caused hostility. France and Poland raised Turkey against Russia. Peter went to the break, encouraged by the hope of the Balkan Slavs, who during this reign of Peter did not cease to appeal to the protection of Russia. The rulers of Moldavia and Wallachia entered into formal alliances with Peter against the Turks, under the condition of declaring the independence of their rulers. The betrayal of the Wallachian ruler Brankovan exposed the Russian army to terrible danger from the Turks and forced the Prut campaign to end in a difficult peace for Russia with Turkey: Azov again passed to Turkey, the newly built Russian cities near the Sea of ​​Azov were destroyed, Charles XII was guaranteed a free return to Swedish possessions.

The years 1711 - 1715 were busy with military operations in Pomerania and Finland. The penetration of Russian troops into Germany further increased the anxiety of Europe hostile to Russia. The end of the War of the Spanish Succession made it possible for European powers to more closely monitor Russia's political growth. England, Austria, France behaved towards Russia, partly with cold tension, partly with open hostility. Poland, where Augustus reigned again after the Battle of Poltava, Denmark and Prussia were allied with Peter, but the first two powers were afraid of Russia and intrigued against its successes.

Despite all this, Peter, after successes in Finland, drew up a plan for landing a united Russian-Danish fleet in southern Sweden. The plan did not materialize due to discord among the allies. Peter then began to seek rapprochement with France. After his trip to Paris, an alliance was concluded between Russia, France and Prussia, with the obligation to open negotiations with Sweden through France.

Simultaneously with this agreement, however, it was decided - at the suggestion of the Swedish diplomat Hertz - a congress of Russian and Swedish representatives in the Åland Islands, without the participation of French representatives. The Congress of Åland, during which Charles XII was replaced on the throne by Ulrika Eleonora, did not lead to anything. Peter resumed the war. Despite the demonstrative cruising of the English fleet in the Baltic Sea, the Russian army landed in Sweden several times and devastated the outskirts of Stockholm. This led to the conclusion of peace in Nystadt in 1721. Finland, except for Vyborg, was returned to Sweden, but Russia received Livonia, Estland, Ingria, with the payment of 2 million rubles to Sweden. Russia's two-century desire for the Baltic coast was satisfied. Not more than a year later, Peter set off on a new campaign, to Persia.

The thought of Caspian acquisitions occupied Peter from the beginning of his reign and intensified even more after the Prut campaign. The strengthening of Russia in the Caspian Sea was supposed to serve as a reward for the failure in the Black Sea. The internal disorder of the Persian monarchy, revealed by Volynsky's embassy to Persia (1716), further strengthened Peter in terms of the Persian campaign. Russian troops quickly occupied the western shore of the Caspian Sea.

The Persian War caused a new outbreak of hostile distrust of Russia in Europe and almost led to a new break with Turkey, to which Persia turned for help and which was zealously incited against Russia by Austrian and English diplomats. Peter's conquests raised international situation Russia to an unprecedented height and increased the state territory by more than 10,000 square miles, but greatly increased the size of the army. In the first decade of the 18th century, the war caused an increase in the army from 40 to 100 thousand people and required the creation of a navy.

Military expenditures increased, compared to the budget of 1680, by 40 million, and expenditures on military needs accounted for 65% of the total government expenditures. The growth of troops and military expenditures led to a new reorganization of the military and financial system, which in turn caused a number of social and administrative transformations. Streltsy infantry and local noble cavalry of old times were replaced by a regular army.

In the first half of the reign, new direct taxes were introduced, new objects of taxation were found, coinage was widely used through the recoining of silver money, government quitrent articles were re-issued, proprietary fishing, home baths, mills, and inns were again subject to quitrent, and a number of government monopolies were established. All this did not warn financial crisis. A deficit of half a million was expected in 1710.

A household census carried out in 1710 showed a huge population decline throughout Russia. The decentralization of financial management, carried out with the establishment of provinces, did not contribute to the increase and streamlining of revenues; new “request” and “non-salary” fees were received with ever greater arrears. The government again faced a task that had already had to be resolved at the end of the 17th century - reform of the taxation procedure and consolidation of direct tax. This was done in the 20s of the 18th century.

Household taxation was replaced by capitation taxation in order to better achieve universality and uniformity of taxation. Indirect taxes temporarily occupy a secondary place in the revenue budget. Military and financial reforms contributed to changing the structure of Russian society. Changes in the order of service completed the estate-corporate organization of the nobility; The taxation reform was accompanied by the further establishment of serfdom among the peasantry.

After the special duty of the service class, military service, was turned into an all-class duty, the nobility received its special role in the performance of this duty: after serving ordinary service in the guard, the nobles became officers in the army, constituting a noble-officer corporation in it. Another special class obligation of the nobility was compulsory education according to a government-approved program. Civil service still remained indefinite and compulsory for the nobility: civil service in the offices was placed on a par with military service in the regiments, and the distribution of members of each noble family between both branches of service was subject to the proportion established by law.

With the abolition of local militias, the land ceased to serve as the material basis for the allocation of official burdens, but all noble lands - both former estates and former estates - began to be considered as a fund officially assigned to the nobility for the material support of serving noble families.

Therefore, the decree of 1714 legalized the inalienability and indivisibility of noble lands. By creating a service class corporation from the nobility, Peter opened free access to outsiders into his midst. The table of ranks finally replaced the old principle of the breed in the service schedule with the beginning of personal service, legitimizing the acquisition of nobility by rank, which greatly contributed to the democratization of the social system.

The decrees on audit and poll tax completed the transformation of the lower social strata into a homogeneous enslaved mass. These decrees changed the legal basis of attachment, legitimizing the attachment of a peasant to a landowner in the revision tale, and extended serfdom to new social categories - to children of the parish clergy who do not have certain occupations, people walking and serfs, who, along with peasants, were recorded in revision tales for the owners and subject to a capitation salary. This entire legally united serf mass was placed under the control of landowners-nobles, who were responsible to the treasury for the tax service of their peasants and police order within their estates. Peter's administrative reform was in equally close connection with military and financial reforms.

In the first half of the reign, under the pressure of military concerns and due to the need to ensure the maintenance of a new regular army, the system of military administrative districts, planned already in the 17th century, was completed. The empire was divided into eight such districts, called provinces. The constant movement of troops due to military operations did not make it possible to territorialize the army in these districts; nevertheless, financially, each part of the army was assigned to one of the provinces and the most important function provincial administration was the transfer of provincial taxes directly to the maintenance of the regiments. The indefinitely broad power of the governors had to be somewhat moderated by the introduction of a collegial and elective principle into the mechanism of the provincial administration.

In fact, however, the elections of the Landrat soon gave way to appointments. In 1719-20, the administrative system underwent a new revision, under the influence of Swedish models and in the spirit of bureaucratic centralization. The collegial principle was transferred from the region to the center, and the elective principle was eliminated. The boards, established on the Swedish model, distributed among themselves the administration of the empire according to the type of affairs. For a short time, the Senate became, as it were, the general presence of collegiate presidents, who were appointed from among the senators; but this order was soon abolished as contrary to the controlling role of the Senate in relation to the collegiums. The colleges received new, low-ranking presidents, while the old noble presidents remained in the Senate, which gave the Senate personnel an aristocratic touch and turned the colleges into subordinate bodies of the Senate.

Collegiums remained in an exceptional position Military, Admiralty and Foreign: they retained the previous presidents and did not fall under the subordination of the Senate, which clearly expressed the predominant importance of issues of foreign struggle in the range of immediate state tasks. With the establishment of the central collegiums, the Landrat collegiums in the provinces disappeared.

The elective principle was retained in the districts, where zemstvo commissars elected from local nobles were vested with very diverse powers, from collecting taxes to the morality police, inclusive. In practice, however, the commissars soon became subordinate agents of the military authorities, primarily for the collection of poll taxes. Having established the administration on the basis of centralization and bureaucratic guardianship, paralyzing the weak embryos of public control, Peter subordinated the administrative mechanism to double crown control: secret over finances - the fiscal and overt over the courts - the prosecutor's office; the top leadership of both was concentrated in the hands of the prosecutor general. Public autonomy in the field of urban management became somewhat more widespread.

Developing the reform of the 1680s, Peter transferred financial fees, management and judgment over the commercial and industrial population of cities to burgomasters elected from among this population, who were subordinate to the burgomaster chamber or town hall, also composed of elected officials. However, in the 20s of the 18th century, with the transformation of town halls into magistrates, a bureaucratic element was introduced into this sphere. Service in the magistrates was made, as it were, a privilege of the highest, “first-class” layer of the urban merchants.

This reflected the main trend of Peter's economic policy - the encouragement of large urban industry, bequeathed to him by the reform program of the 17th century. Rapprochement with the West gradually developed this tendency into a conscious mercantilistic system, expressed in three directions: 1) in encouraging the mining industry in order to increase the country's metal reserves, 2) in regulating foreign trade on the basis of trade balance and 3) in encouraging native factory industry.

Until 1719, Peter continued, like his predecessors, to call foreign technicians and craftsmen from Austria, Venice, Holland, Sweden, Germany to Russia, and also send Russians abroad to learn skills. In 1719, with the establishment of the manufactory college, these activities were systematized. All of Peter's measures, however, could not accelerate the growth of the factory industry, which was not yet based on the natural successes of the national economy.

At the beginning of the 18th century, Russia was still a country of agricultural and small household industry. Peter's reform forever put an end to the external forms of the old Moscow statehood, but at the same time brought to highest development the same principles that underlay the previous political system. The reorganization of the military and tax organization proceeded from the old principle of absorption of all national resources by the needs of the fiscal, the needs of state military defense.

Estate reforms changed the previous order of distribution of state duties between social classes, but still left the entire population from top to bottom enslaved to service and tax.

Administrative reforms modified the structure of government institutions, but even more sharply eliminated public unions from participation in current management, which was completely transferred to the hands of the bureaucracy. Economic and educational measures were aimed at bringing to life two truly new forces that had not previously played a prominent role in state building - industrial capital and scientific knowledge. But the experiments of the first category anticipated the results of economic development that were yet to come in the future, and therefore did not fully achieve the goal, and the experiments with the planting of knowledge proceeded from the old, narrowly applied view of book learning, with only the transfer of interest from issues of spiritual salvation to issues of technical progress.

Completing the previous process of state building, Peter’s reform nevertheless prepared new era progressive development of Russian life. The rapprochement with the West, undertaken for the sake of borrowings of a purely technical nature, did not stop within these initial frameworks and gradually captured more and more new spheres of life. Already in the first half of the 18th century, the influence of political and philosophical Western European literature spread quite widely among the upper strata of society. The ideas of natural law, the contractual origin of the state, and popular sovereignty were perceived by Russian leaders and appropriately applied to native movements that emerged among the Russian nobility. These movements themselves were, in turn, an indirect consequence of Peter’s reforms.

World history contains a huge number of events, names, dates, which are placed in several dozen or even hundreds of different textbooks. Different authors have different views on certain circumstances, but they are united by facts that must be told one way or another. In world history, there are known phenomena that appeared once and for a long time, and others that appeared several times, but for short periods. One such phenomenon is the colonial system. In the article we will tell you what it is, where it was widespread and how it became a thing of the past.

What is the colonial system?

The world colonial system, or colonialism, is a situation where industrially, culturally, economically developed countries dominate the rest of the world (less developed countries, or third world countries).

Dominance was usually established after armed attacks and the subjugation of the state. It was expressed in the imposition of economic and political principles and rules of existence.

When it was?

The beginnings of the colonial system appeared in the 15th century during the Age of Discovery along with the discovery of India and America. Then the indigenous peoples of the open territories had to recognize the technological superiority of foreigners. The first true colonies were formed by Spain in the 17th century. Gradually, Great Britain, France, Portugal, and the Netherlands began to seize and spread their influence. Later they were joined by the USA and Japan.

By the end of the 19th century, most of the world was divided among the great powers. Russia did not actively participate in colonization, but it also subjugated some neighboring territories.

Who belonged to whom?

Belonging to a particular country determined the course of development of the colony. The table below will tell you best how widespread the colonial system was.

There were also smaller colonies, but the table shows that they were not influenced by anyone except Antarctica and Antarctica, because they did not have raw materials and a platform for the development of industry, economy, and life in general. The colonies were governed through governors appointed by the ruler of the metropolitan country or through his constant visits to the colonies.

Characteristic features of the period

The period of colonialism has its own characteristic features:

• All actions are aimed at establishing a monopoly in trade with the colonial territories, i.e. the metropolitan countries wanted the colonies to establish trade relations only with them and with no one else,
• armed attacks and plunder of entire states, and then subjugation of them,
• the use of feudal and slave-owning forms of exploitation of the population of colonial countries, which turned them almost into slaves.

Thanks to this policy, the countries that owned colonies quickly acquired capital reserves, which allowed them to take leading positions on the world stage. Thus, it was thanks to the colonies and their financial resources that England became the most developed country of that time.

How did it break up?

Colonial did not collapse immediately, all at once. This process happened gradually. The main period of loss of influence over the colonial countries occurred at the end of the Second World War (1941-1945), because people believed that it was possible to live without oppression and control from another country.

In some places, the escape from influence occurred peacefully, through agreements and the signing of agreements, and in others, through military and rebel actions. Some countries in Africa and Oceania are still under US rule, but no longer experience the same oppression as they did in the 18th and 19th centuries.

Consequences of the colonial system

It is difficult to call the colonial system an unambiguously positive or negative phenomenon in the life of the world community. She had both positive and negative sides both for metropolitan states and for colonies. The collapse of the colonial system led to certain consequences.

For metropolises they were as follows:

• decline in own production capacity due to the possession of markets and resources of the colonies and, therefore, lack of incentives,
• investing capital in colonies to the detriment of the metropolis,
• lagging behind in competition and development from other countries due to increased concern for colonies.

For colonies:

• destruction and loss of traditional culture and way of life, complete extermination of some nationalities;
• depletion of natural and cultural reserves;
• reduction in the local population of the colonies due to attacks by the metropolises, epidemics, famine, etc.;
• the emergence of its own industry and intelligentsia;
• the emergence of the foundations for the future independent development of the country.

Great geographical discoveries of the mid-15th - mid-17th centuries. were associated with the process of primitive capital accumulation in Europe. The development of new trade routes and countries, the robbery of newly discovered lands contributed to the development of this process and marked the beginning of the creation of the colonial system of capitalism and the formation of the world market.

The pioneers of the Great Geographical Discoveries began in the 15th century. countries of the Iberian Peninsula - Spain and Portugal. Having conquered in the 13th century. their territory from the Arabs, the Portuguese in the XIV-XV centuries. continued wars with the Arabs in North Africa, during which a significant fleet was created.

The first stage of Portuguese geographical discoveries (1418-1460) is associated with the activities of Prince Enrique the Navigator, a talented organizer of sea expeditions in which not only nobles, but also merchants took part. Back in the 20-30s of the 15th century. The Portuguese discovered the island of Madeira, the Canary and Azores islands, and advanced far to the south along the western coast of Africa. Rounding Cape Bojador, they reached the coast of Guinea (1434) and the Cape Verde Islands, and in 1462, Sierra Leone. In 1471, they explored the coast of Ghana, where they found rich gold deposits. The discovery of the Cape of Good Hope at the southern tip of Africa in 1486 by Bartolomeo Dias created a real opportunity to prepare an expedition to India,

Long sea voyages became possible in the second half of the 15th century. as a result of significant advances in science and technology. Until the end of the 16th century. The Portuguese were ahead of other countries not only in the number of discoveries. The knowledge they acquired during their travels gave sailors from many countries new valuable information about sea currents, ebbs and flows, and the direction of winds. Mapping new lands pushed the development of cartography. Portuguese maps were highly accurate and contained data on areas of the world previously unknown to Europeans. In many countries, reports on Portuguese sea expeditions and Portuguese navigation manuals were published and republished. Portuguese cartographers worked in many European countries. At the beginning of the 16th century. The first charts appeared, on which the lines of the tropics and equator and the latitude scale were plotted.

Based on the doctrine of the sphericity of the Earth, the Italian scientist, astronomer and cosmographer Paolo Toscanelli compiled a map of the world on which the shores of Asia were marked on the western coast of the Atlantic Ocean: he believed that it was possible to reach India by sailing west from the shores of Europe, Italian The scientist incorrectly imagined the extent of the Earth along the equator, making a mistake of 12 thousand km. Subsequently they said that this was a great mistake that led to a great discovery.

By the end of the 15th century. navigation instruments have been significantly improved<компас и астролябия), позволявшие более точно, чем раньше, определять положение корабля в открытом море. Поя-лился новый тип судна — каравелла, которая благодаря системе парусов могла идти и по ветру, и против ветра, достигая скорости 22 км в час. Корабль имел небольшой экипаж (!/ю экипажа гребной галеры) и мог взять на борт достаточно продовольствия и пресной воды для дальнего плавания.

At the end of the 15th century. The Spaniards were also looking for new trade routes. In 1492, the Genoese navigator Christopher Columbus (1451-1506) arrived at the court of the Spanish kings Ferdinand and Isabella. Little is known about the previous period of Columbus’s life. He was born in Genoa into a weaver's family, in his youth he took part in sea voyages, was an experienced pilot and captain, read a lot, knew astronomy and geography well, Columbus proposed to the Spanish monarchs his project, approved by Toscanelli - to reach the shores of India, sailing west through Atlantic. Previously, Columbus had in vain proposed his plan to the Portuguese king, and then to the English and French monarchs, but was refused. By this time, the Portuguese were already close to opening the route to India through Africa, which predetermined the refusal of the Portuguese king Alfonso V. France and England at that time did not have a sufficient fleet to equip the expedition.

In Spain, the situation was more favorable for the implementation of Columbus's plans. After the reconquest of Granada in 1492 and the end of the last war with the Arabs, the economic situation of the Spanish monarchy was very difficult. The treasury was empty, the crown no longer had free land to sell, and revenues from taxes on trade and industry were negligible. A huge number of nobles (hidalgos) were left without a means of subsistence. Brought up by centuries of Reconquista, they despised all economic activity - the only source of income for most of them was war. Without losing their desire to quickly get rich, the Spanish hidalgos were ready to rush into new campaigns of conquest. The crown was interested in sending this restless noble freemen away from Spain, overseas, into unknown lands. In addition, Spanish industry needed markets. Due to its geographical location and long struggle with the Arabs, Spain in the 15th century. found itself cut off from trade along the Mediterranean Sea, which was controlled by Italian cities. Expansion at the end of the 15th century. Turkish conquests made trade with the East even more difficult for Europe. The route to India around Africa was closed to Spain, since advancement in this direction meant a clash with Portugal,

All these circumstances turned out to be decisive for the Spanish court to accept Columbus's project. The idea of ​​overseas expansion was supported by the top of the Catholic Church. It was also approved by scientists from the University of Salamanca, one of the most famous in Europe. An agreement (capitulation) was concluded between the Spanish kings and Columbus, according to which the great navigator was appointed viceroy of the newly discovered lands, received the hereditary rank of admiral, the right to a share of the income from the newly discovered possessions and a share of the profits from trade.

On August 3, 1492, a flotilla of three caravels sailed from the harbor of Paloe (near Seville), heading southwest. Having passed the Canary Islands, Columbus led the squadron in a northwest direction and after a few days of sailing reached the Sargasso Sea, a significant part of which was covered with algae, which created the illusion of proximity to land. The flotilla found itself in the trade wind zone and moved quickly forward. For several days the ships wandered among the seaweed, but the shore was not visible. This gave rise to superstitious fear among the sailors, and a mutiny was brewing on the ships. In early October, after two months of sailing under pressure from the crew, Columbus changed course and moved southwest. On the night of October 12, 1492, one of the sailors saw land, and at dawn the flotilla approached one of the Bahamas islands (the island of Guanahani, called San Salvador by the Spaniards). During this first voyage (1492-1493), Columbus discovered the island of Cuba and explored it north shore.

Mistaking Cuba for one of the islands off the coast of Japan, he tried to continue sailing west and discovered the island of Haiti (Hispaniola), where he found more gold than in other places. Off the coast of Haiti, Columbus lost his largest ship and was forced to leave part of the crew on Hispaniola. A fort was built on the island. Having fortified it with cannons from the lost ship and left the garrison with supplies of food and gunpowder, Columbus began to prepare for his return voyage. Fortress on Hispaniola - Navidad (Christmas) - #t*la the first Spanish settlement in the New World.

Open lands, their nature, appearance and occupations of their inhabitants

cm did not resemble the rich lands of Southeast Asia described by travelers from many countries. The natives had copper-red skin color, straight black hair, they walked naked or wore pieces of cotton cloth on their hips. There were no signs of gold mining on the islands, only some of the inhabitants had gold jewelry. Having captured several natives, Columbus explored the Bahamas in search of gold mines. The Spaniards saw hundreds of unfamiliar plants, fruit trees and flowers. In 1493, Columbus returned to Spain, where he was received with great honor.

Columbus's discoveries worried the Portuguese. In 1494, through the mediation of the Pope, an agreement was concluded in the city of Tor Desillas, according to which Spain was given the right to own lands to the west of the Azores, and Portugal to the east.

Columbus made three more voyages to America: in 1493-1496, 1498-1500 and 1502-1504, during which the Lesser Antilles, the island of Puerto Rico, Jamaica, Trinidad and others were discovered, and the coast of Central America. Until the end of his days, Columbus believed that he had found the western turbidity to India, hence the name of the lands “Western India”, which was preserved in official documents until the end of the 16th century. However, even on subsequent trips they did not find rich deposits of gold and precious metals there, income from of new lands only slightly exceeded the costs of their development. Many people doubted that these lands were India, and the number of Columbus’s enemies grew. The discontent of the conquistador nobles in the New World was especially great, whom the admiral severely punished for disobedience. In 1500, Columbus was accused of abuse of power and sent to Spain in shackles. However, the appearance of the famous navigator in Spain in chains and under arrest aroused the indignation of many people belonging to various strata of society, including those close to the queen. Columbus was soon rehabilitated and all his titles were returned to him.

During his last voyage, Columbus made great discoveries: he discovered the coast of the mainland south of Cuba and explored the southwestern shores of the Caribbean Sea over 1,500 km. It has been proven that the Atlantic Ocean is separated by land from the "South Sea" and the coast of Asia. Thus, the admiral did not find a passage from the Atlantic Ocean to the Indian Ocean.

While sailing along the coast of Yucatan, Columbus encountered more advanced tribes; they made colored fabrics, used bronze utensils, bronze axes, and knew metal smelting. At that moment, the admiral did not attach importance to these lands, which, as it turned out later, were part of the Mayan state - a country with a high culture, one of the great American civilizations. On the way back, Columbus's ship was caught in a strong storm; Columbus reached the shores of Spain with great difficulty. The situation there was unfavorable. Two weeks after his return, Queen Isabella, Columbus's patron, died, and he lost all support at court. He received no response to his letters to King Ferdinand. The great navigator tried in vain to restore his rights to receive income from the newly discovered lands. His property in Spain and Hispaniola was described and sold for debts. Columbus died in 1506, forgotten by everyone, in complete poverty. Even the news of his death was published only 27 years later.

Opening of the sea route to India, colonial conquests of the Portuguese. The tragic fate of Columbus is largely explained by the successes of the Portuguese. In 1497, Vasco da Gama's expedition was sent to explore the sea route to India around Africa. Having rounded the Cape of Good Hope, Portuguese sailors entered the Indian Ocean and discovered the mouth of the Zambezi River. Moving north along the coast of Africa, Vasco da Gama reached the Arab trading cities of Mozambique - Mombasa and Malindi. In May 1498, with the help of an Arab pilot, the squadron reached the Indian port of Kali-kut. The entire voyage to India lasted 10 months. Having purchased a large cargo of spices for sale in Europe, the expedition set off on the return journey; it took a whole year, during the journey 2/3 of the crew died.

The success of Vasco da Gama's expedition made a huge impression in Europe. Despite heavy losses, the goal was achieved; enormous opportunities opened up for the Portuguese for the commercial exploitation of India. Soon, thanks to their superiority in weapons and naval technology, they managed to oust Arab merchants from the Indian Ocean and take control of all maritime trade. The Portuguese became incomparably more cruel than the Arabs, exploiters of the population of the coastal regions of India, and then Malacca and Indonesia. The Portuguese demanded that the Indian princes cease all trade relations with the Arabs and expel the Arab population from their territory. They attacked all ships, both Arab and local, robbed them, and brutally exterminated their crews. Albuquerque, who was first the commander of the squadron and then became the Viceroy of India, was particularly ferocious. He believed that the Portuguese should strengthen themselves along the entire coast of the Indian Ocean and close all exits to the ocean to Arab merchants. The Albuquerque squadron destroyed defenseless cities on the southern coast of Arabia, terrifying with its atrocities. The Arabs' attempts to oust the Portuguese from the Indian Ocean failed. In 1509, their fleet at Diu (northern coast of India) was defeated.

In India itself, the Portuguese did not capture vast territories, but sought to capture only strongholds on the coast. They made extensive use of the rivalry of local rajahs. The colonialists entered into alliances with some of them, built fortresses on their territory and stationed their garrisons there. Gradually, the Portuguese took control of all trade relations between individual regions of the Indian Ocean coast. This trade brought huge profits. Moving further east from the coast, they took possession of the transit routes for the trade in spices, which were brought here from the islands of the Sunda and Moluccas archipelagos. In 1511, Malacca was captured by the Portuguese, and in 1521 their trading posts arose on the Moluccas. Trade with India was declared a monopoly of the Portuguese king. Merchants who brought spices to Lisbon received up to 800% profit. The government artificially kept prices high. Every year, only 5-6 ships of spices were allowed to be exported from the vast colonial possessions. If the imported goods turned out to be more than needed to maintain high prices, they were destroyed.

Having seized control of trade with India, the Portuguese persistently sought a western route to this rich country. At the end of the 15th and beginning of the 16th centuries. As part of the Spanish and Portuguese expeditions, the Florentine navigator and astronomer Amerigo Vespucci traveled to the shores of America. During the second voyage, the Portuguese squadron passed along the coast of Brazil, considering it an island. In 1501, Vespucci took part in an expedition that explored the coast of Brazil and came to the conclusion that Columbus discovered not the coast of India, but a new continent, which was named America in honor of Amerigo. In 1515, the first globe with this name appeared in Germany, and then atlases and maps.

Opening of the western route to India. First trip around the world. Vespucci's hypothesis was finally confirmed as a result of Magellan's trip around the world (1519-1522).

Ferdinand Magellan (Maguillayans) was a descendant of the Portuguese nobility. In his early youth, he took part in sea expeditions while in the service of the Portuguese king. He made several trips to the Moluccas and thought that they lay much closer to the shores of South America. Without precise information about the extent of the newly discovered continent, he considered it possible to reach them by moving west and skirting the newly discovered continent from the south. At this time it was already known that to the west of the Isthmus of Panama lies the “South Sea,” as the Pacific Ocean was called. The Spanish government, which at that time did not receive much income from the newly discovered lands, was interested in Magellan’s project. According to the agreement concluded by the Spanish king with Magellan, he was supposed to sail to the southern tip of the American continent and open the western route to India. They complained to him about the titles of ruler and governor of the new lands and a twentieth part of all income that would go to the treasury.

On September 20, 1519, a squadron of five ships left the Spanish harbor of San Lucar, heading west. A month later, the flotilla reached the southern tip of the American continent and for three weeks moved along the strait, which now bears the name of Magellan. At the end of November 1520, the flotilla entered the Pacific Ocean, the voyage along which lasted over three months. The weather was excellent, the wind was blowing, and Magellan gave the ocean such a name, not knowing that at other times it could be stormy and formidable. During the entire journey, as Magellan’s companion Piga-fett wrote in his diary, the squadron encountered only two deserted islands. The ship's crews suffered from hunger and thirst. The sailors ate skin, soaking it in sea water, drank rotten water, and suffered from scurvy. During the voyage, most of the crew died. Only on March 6, 1521 did the sailors reach three small islands from the Mariana group, where they were able to stock up on food and fresh water. Continuing his journey to the west, Magellan reached the Philippine Islands and there he soon died in a skirmish with the natives. The remaining two ships under the command of d'Elcano reached the Moluccas and, having captured a cargo of spices, moved west. The squadron arrived at the Spanish port of San Lucar on September 6, 1522. Of the crew of 253 people, only 18 returned.

New discoveries led to an exacerbation of previous contradictions between Spain and Portugal. For a long time, experts on both sides could not accurately determine the boundaries of Spanish and Portuguese possessions due to the lack of accurate data on the longitude of the newly discovered islands. In 1529, an agreement was reached: Spain renounced its claims to the Moluccas, but retained rights to the Philippine Islands, which received their name in honor of the heir to the Spanish throne, the future King Philip I. However, for a long time no one dared to repeat Magellan’s voyage , and the path across the Pacific Ocean to the shores of Asia was of no practical importance.

Spanish colonization of the Caribbean. Conquest of Mexico and Peru" In 1500-1510. expeditions led by participants in Columbus's voyages explored the northern coast of South America, Florida and reached the Gulf of Mexico. By this time, the Spaniards had captured the Greater Antilles: Cuba, Jamaica, Haiti, Puerto Rico, the Lesser Antilles (Trinidad, Tabago, Barbados, Guadeloupe, etc.), as well as a number of small islands in the Caribbean. The Greater Antilles became an outpost of Spanish colonization of the Western Hemisphere. The Spanish authorities paid special attention to Cuba, which was called the “key to the New World.” Fortresses and settlements for immigrants from Spain were built on the islands, roads were laid, and plantations of cotton, sugar cane, and spices emerged. The gold deposits found here were insignificant. To cover the costs of maritime expeditions, the Spaniards began the economic development of this area.” The enslavement and merciless exploitation of the indigenous population of the Greater Antilles, as well as epidemics brought from the Old World, led to a catastrophic decline in the population. To replenish labor resources, the conquerors began to bring Indians from small islands and from the coast of the mainland to the Antilles, which led to the devastation of entire regions. At the same time, the Spanish government began to attract immigrants from the northern regions of Spain. The resettlement of peasants was especially encouraged; they were given plots of land, they were exempt from taxes for 20 years, and they were paid bonuses for the production of spices. However, there was not enough labor, and from the middle of the 16th century. African slaves began to be imported to the Antilles.

Since 1510, a new stage in the conquest of America began - the colonization and development of the interior regions of the continent, the formation of a system of colonial exploitation. In historiography, this stage, which lasted until the middle of the 17th century, is called the conquest (conquest). This stage began with the invasion of the conquistadors on the Isthmus of Panama and the construction of the first fortifications on the mainland (1510). In 1513, Vasco Nunez Balboa crossed the isthmus in search of the fantastic “country of gold” - Eldorado. Coming to the Pacific coast, he planted the banner of the Castilian king on the shore. In 1519, the city of Panama was founded - the first on the American continent. Here, detachments of conquistadors began to form, heading into the interior of the mainland.

In 1517-1518 the detachments of Hernando de Cordoba and Juan Grijalva, who landed on the coast of Yucatan in search of slaves, encountered the most ancient of pre-Columbian civilizations - the Mayan state. The shocked conquistadors saw magnificent cities surrounded by fortified walls, rows of pyramids, cacen temples, richly decorated with carvings of gods n cult animals. In the temples and palaces of the nobility, the Spaniards discovered a lot of jewelry, figurines, vessels made of gold and copper, chased gold disks with types of battles and scenes of sacrifices. The walls of the temples were decorated with rich ornaments and frescoes, distinguished by the fineness of work and richness of colors.

The Indians, who had never seen horses, were frightened by the very sight of the Spaniards. The rider on the horse seemed to them a huge monster. Firearms inspired particular fear, which they could counter only with bows, arrows and cotton shells.

By the time the Spaniards arrived, the territory of Yucatan was divided between several city-states. Cities were political centers around which agricultural communities united. City rulers collected payments and taxes, were in charge of military affairs and foreign policy, and they also performed the functions of high priests. The Mayan community was the economic, administrative and fiscal unit of society. The cultivated land was divided into plots between families, the remaining land was used jointly. The main labor force was free communal peasants. Within the community, the process of property stratification and class differentiation has already gone far. Priests, officials, and hereditary military leaders stood out. Slave labor was widely used in their economy; debtors, criminals and prisoners of war were enslaved. In addition to collecting taxes, rulers and priests used the community labor service to build palaces, temples, roads, and irrigation systems.

The Maya are the only people of pre-Columbian America that had writing. Their hieroglyphic writing resembles the writing of Ancient Egypt, Sumer and Akkad. Mayan books (codices) were written with paints on long strips of “paper” made from plant fibers and then placed in cases. There were significant libraries at the temples. The Mayans had their own calendar and knew how to predict solar and lunar eclipses.

Not only superior weaponry, but also internal struggles between city-states made it easier for the Spaniards to conquer the Mayan state. From local residents, the Spaniards learned that precious metals were brought from the Aztec country, located north of Yucatan. In 1519, a Spanish detachment led by Hernan Cortes, a poor young hidalgo who arrived in America in search of wealth and glory, set out to conquer these lands. He hoped to conquer new lands with small forces. His detachment consisted of 400 infantry soldiers, 16 horsemen and 200 Indians, had 10 heavy cannons and 3 light guns.

The Aztec state, which Cor-foc set out to conquer, extended from the coast of the Gulf of Mexico and the shores of the Pacific Ocean. Numerous tribes lived on its territory, conquered by the Aztecs. The center of the country was the Valley of Mexico. There was a large agricultural population here, and through the labor of many generations a perfect system of artificial irrigation was created.

K1snia, high yields of cotton1 corn, vegetables were grown, the Tseks, like other peoples of America, did not domesticate

Animals, they did not know wheeled traction, metal tools, the formal system of the Aztecs was in many ways reminiscent of the state of Aya. The main economic unit was the neighboring community. There was a system of labor service for the population in favor of the state government for the construction of palaces, temples, etc. Among the Aztecs, craft had not yet been separated from agriculture; in the community they lived as farmers, peasants and artisans.” There was a stratum of representatives of the nobility and people - the caciques, who had large tracts of land and used the labor of slaves. Unlike the Mayans, the Aztec state achieved significant centralization; the hereditary power of the supreme ruler was gradually transferred. However, the lack of internal unity, the internecine struggle for power among representatives of the highest military nobility and the struggle of the tribes conquered by the Aztecs against the conquerors made it easier for the Spaniards to win this unequal struggle. Many conquered tribes switched to their Iurona and participated in the fight against the Aztec rulers. Thus, during the last siege of the Aztec capital Tenochtitlan, 1 thousand Spaniards and 100 thousand Indians took part in the battle. Despite this, the siege lasted 225 days. The final conquest of Mexico lasted more than two decades. The last Mayan stronghold was captured by the Spaniards only in 1697, i.e. 173 years after their invasion ml Yucatai. Mexico lived up to the hopes of its conquerors. Rich deposits of gold and silver were found here. Already in the 20s of the 16th century. The development of silver mines was in full swing. The merciless exploitation of Indians in mines and construction, and massive epidemics led to a rapid decline in population. Over 50 years it has decreased from 4.5 million to 1 million people.

Simultaneously with the conquest of Mexico, the Spanish conquistadors were looking for the fabulous country of Eldorado on the coast of South America. In 1524, the conquest of what is now Colombia began, where the port of Saita Marta was founded. From here the Spanish conquistador X and less Quesada, moving up the Magdalena River, reached the possessions of the Chibcha-Muisha tribes living on the Bogotá plateau. Hoe farming, pottery and weaving production were developed here.

processing of copper, gold and silver. Chibchas were especially famous as skilled jewelers who made jewelry and dishes from gold, silver, copper and emeralds. Gold discs served as their equivalent in trade with other regions. Having conquered the largest Chibcha-Muisca principality, Jimenez Quesada founded the city of Santa Fe de Bogota in 1536.

The second stream of colonization came from the Isthmus of Panama south along the Pacific coast of America. The conquerors were attracted by the fabulously rich country of Peru, or Viru, as the Indians called it. Rich Spanish merchants from the Isthmus of Panama took part in preparing expeditions to Peru. One of the detachments was led by the semi-literate hidalgo from Extremadura Francisco Pizarro. In 1524, together with his fellow countryman Diego Almagro, he set sail south along the west coast of America and reached the Gulf of Guayaquil (modern Ecuador). Fertile, densely populated lands stretched here. The population was engaged in agriculture, raising herds of llamas, which were used as pack animals. The meat and milk of llamas was used for food, and durable and warm fabrics were made from their wool. Returning to Spain in 1531, Pizarro signed a capitulation with the king and received the title and rights of adelantado - leader of a detachment of conquistadors. His two brothers and 250 hidalgos from Extremadura joined the expedition. In 1532, Pizarro landed on the coast, quickly conquered the backward scattered tribes living there and captured an important stronghold - the city of Tumbes. The path opened before him to the conquest of the Inca state - Tahuantisuyu, the most powerful of the states of the New World, which was experiencing a period of greatest growth at the time of the Spanish invasion. Since ancient times, the territory of Peru has been inhabited by the Quechua Indians. In the XIV century. One of the Quechuan tribes, the Incas, was conquered by numerous Indian tribes living in the territory of modern Ecuador, Peru and Bolivia. By the beginning of the 16th century. The Inca state included part of the territory of Chile and Argentina. From the tribe of conquerors a military nobility was formed, and the word “Inca” acquired the meaning of a title. The center of the Incan power was the city of Cusco, located high in the mountains. Carrying out their conquests, the Incas sought to assimilate the conquered tribes, resettled them inland, implanted the Quechua language, and introduced a single religion - the cult of the Sun God. The Temple of the Sun in Cusco was a pantheon of regional gods. Like the Mayans and Aztecs, the basic unit of Inca society was the neighboring community. Along with family plots, there were “Inca fields” and “Fire of the Sun,” which were cultivated together, and the harvest from them went to support the rulers and priests. From the communal lands, the fields of the nobility and elders were already allocated, which were their property and passed on by inheritance. The ruler of Tahuantisuyu, the Inca, was considered the supreme owner of all lands.

In 1532, when several dozen Spaniards embarked on a campaign into the interior of Peru, a fierce civil war was going on in the state of Tahuantisuyu. The tribes of the northern Pacific coast, conquered by the Incas, supported the conquerors. Almost without encountering resistance, F. Pizarro reached the important center of the Inca state - the city of Cajamarca, located in the high mountainous region of the Andes. Here the Spaniards captured the ruler of Tahuantisuya Atagualpa and imprisoned him. Although the Indians collected a huge ransom and filled the prisoner of the captive leader with gold and silver jewelry, ingots, and vessels, the Spaniards executed Atagualpa and appointed a new ruler. In 1535, Pizarro made a campaign against Cuzco, which was conquered after a difficult struggle. In the same year, the city of Lima was founded, which became the center of the conquered territory. A direct sea route was established between Lima and Panama. The conquest of Peru lasted more than 40 years. The country was shaken by powerful popular uprisings against the conquerors. A new Indian state arose in inaccessible mountainous areas, conquered by the Spaniards only in 1572.

Simultaneously with Pizarro’s campaign in Peru in 1535-1537. ade-l.stado Diego Almagro began a campaign in Chile, but soon had to rush to Cusco, which was besieged by the rebel Indians. An internecine struggle began in the ranks of the conquistadors, in which F. Pizarro, his brothers Hernando and Gonzalo and Diego d'Almagro died. The conquest of Chile was continued by Pedro Valdivia. The Araucanian tribes living in this country put up stubborn resistance, and the conquest of Chile was finally completed only in the end of the 17th century. The colonization of La Plata began in 1515, lands along the La Plata and Paraguay rivers were conquered. Detachments of conquistadors, moving from the southeast, entered the territory of Peru. In 1542, two streams of colonization merged here.

If at the first stage of the conquest the conquerors seized precious metals accumulated in previous times, then from 1530 in Mexico and on the territory of Peru and modern Bolivia (Upper Peru) the systematic exploitation of the richest mines began. Rich deposits of precious metals were discovered in the Potosi region. In the middle of the 16th century. The mines of Potosi provided 1/2 of the world's silver production.

Since that time, the nature of colonization has changed. The conquerors abandon the economic development of the conquered lands. Everything necessary for the Spanish settlers began to be brought from Europe in exchange for gold and silver from the New World,

Only nobles were sent to the American colonies, whose goal was to enrich themselves. The noble, feudal nature of colonization predetermined the fatal circumstance for Spain that the gold and silver of America fell mainly into the hands of the nobility, accumulated in the form of treasures or was spent on supporting Catholic conspiracies in Europe, on the military adventures of the Spanish kings. This new direction of colonial exploitation had a decisive influence on the formation of the Spanish colonial system.

Due to the peculiarities of the historical development of the country (see Chapter 4), Spanish feudalism was characterized by some specific features: the supreme power of the king over the conquered lands, the preservation of free peasant communities, and the labor service of the population in favor of the state. Along with the labor of feudally dependent peasants, slave labor of Muslim prisoners played an important role in the economy. At the time of the conquest of America, the socio-economic and administrative system of Spain turned out to be compatible with those forms of social organization that existed in the early class states of the New World.

The Spaniards preserved the Indian community in Mexico, Peru and in a number of other areas where there was a dense agricultural population. They used various forms of community labor service in favor of the state to attract Indians to work in the mines. The Spaniards preserved the internal structure of communities, crop rotations, and the tax system. Harvests from the “fields of the Inca” were now used to pay taxes to the Spanish king, and from the “fields of the Sun” - to church tithes.

The former elders remained at the head of the communities<касики, ку-раки), их семьи освобождались от налогов и повинностей, но должны были обеспечить своевременную уплату налогов и рабочую силу для рудников. На службу испанскому королю привлекалась местная знать, которая слилась с испанскими завоевателями. Потомки многих из них были затем отправлены в Испанию.

All newly conquered lands became the property of the crown. Beginning in 1512, laws were passed prohibiting the enslavement of Indians. Formally, they were considered subjects of the Spanish king, had to pay a special tax "tributo" and serve labor service. From the first years of colonization, a struggle developed between the king and the conquistador nobles for power over the Indians and for ownership of the land. During this struggle in the late 20s of the 16th century. A special form of exploitation of the Indians arose - encomienda. It was first introduced in Mexico by E. Cortes. The encomienda did not give the right to own land. Its owner, the encomendero, received the right to exploit the Indian communities living on the territory of the encomendero.

The zhkomendero was entrusted with the responsibility to promote the Christian population, to monitor the timely payment of "tributo" and the fulfillment of labor duties in mines, construction, and agricultural work. With the creation of the Indian Encomienda, the community was included in the Spanish colonial system, and the lands of the community were declared its inalienable property. The development of forms of colonial exploitation was accompanied by a strong bureaucratic apparatus of the colonial administration. For the Spanish monarchy, this was a means of fighting against the separatist tendencies of the co1*clstadors. I In the first half of the 16th century. In general terms, a system has developed! administration of the Spanish colonies in America. Two viceroyalties were created: New Spain (Mexico, Central America, Venezuela and the Caribbean islands) and the Viceroyalty of Peru, which covered almost the entire rest of South America, with the exception of Brazil. Viceroys were appointed from the highest Spanish nobility, they went to the colonies for three years, did not have the opportunity to take their family with them, buy land and real estate there, and engage in business. Activities of the Viceroys "<м*тролироаал "Совет Индий", решения которого имели слету »люна.

Colonial trade was brought under the control of the "Seville Chamber of Commerce" (1503); it carried out customs clearance<мотр всех грузов, собирала пошлины, держала под наблюдением миграционные процессы. Все остальные города Испании были лн- * нк"кы права вести торговлю с Америкой минуя Севилью. Главной щраслью хозяйства в испанских колониях была горная промышленность. В связи с этим в обязанность вице-королям вменялось обеспечение королевских рудников рабочей силой, своевременного поступ-нния доходов в казну, в том числе подушной лодэти с индейцев. Нице-короли обладали также полной военной и судебной властью.

The one-sided development of the economy in the Spanish colonies had a disastrous consequence for the fate of the indigenous population and the future of the continent. Until the middle of the 15th century. There was a catastrophic decline in the indigenous population. In many areas, by 1650, it had decreased by 10-15 times compared to the youth of the 16th century, primarily due to the diversion of the working-age male population to the mines for 9-10 months a year. This led to the decline of traditional forms of agriculture and a decrease in the birth rate. An important reason was frequent famines and epidemics that devastated entire regions. Since the middle of the 16th century. The Spaniards began to settle five Indians in new villages closer to the mines, introducing a communal system into them. Residents of these villages, in addition to government work, had to cultivate the land, provide their families with food and pay "tributo". Severe exploitation was the main reason for the extinction of the indigenous population. The influx of immigrants from the metropolis was insignificant. In the middle and second half of the 16th century. Mostly Spanish nobles moved to the colonies; peasant emigration to Peru and Mexico was actually prohibited. Thus, in Potosí in 1572 there were 120 thousand inhabitants, of which only 10 thousand were Spaniards. Gradually, a special group of Spanish immigrants emerged in America, who were born in the colony, lived there permanently, having almost no connections with the metropolis. They did not mix with the local population and formed a special group called Creoles.

Under the conditions of colonization, there was a rapid erosion of Indian ethnic groups and tribal communities, the displacement of their languages ​​by Spanish. This was greatly facilitated by the resettlement of Indians from different regions into settlements near the mines. Representatives of different tribes spoke different languages, and gradually Spanish became their main language of communication. At the same time, there was an intensive process of mixing Spanish settlers with the Indian population - miscegenation, and the number of mestizos quickly increased. Already by the middle of the 17th century, in many areas a large mulatto population appeared from the marriages of Europeans with black women. This was typical for the Caribbean coast, Cuba, and Haiti, where the plantation economy dominated and where African slaves were constantly imported. Europeans, Indians, mestizos, mulattoes, and blacks existed as closed racial-ethnic groups, very different in their social and legal status. The emerging caste system was consolidated by Spanish legislation. A person's position in society was primarily determined by ethnic and racial characteristics. Only the Creoles had relatively full rights. Mestizos were prohibited from living in communities, owning land, carrying weapons, and engaging in certain types of crafts. At the same time, they were exempt from labor service, from paying "tributo" and were in a better legal position than the Indians. This largely explains the fact that in the cities of Spanish America mestizos and mulattoes made up the majority of the population.

On the Caribbean coast and on the islands, where the indigenous people were exterminated at the very beginning of the conquest of America, the black and mulatto population predominated.

Portuguese colonies. The colonial system that developed in the Portuguese possessions was distinguished by significant originality. In 1500, the Portuguese navigator Pedro Alvares Cabral landed on the coast of Brazil and declared this territory the possession of the Portuguese king. In Brazil, with the exception of certain areas on the coast, there was no settled agricultural population; the few Indian tribes, who were at the stage of the tribal system, were pushed into the interior of the country. The lack of deposits of precious metals and significant human resources determined the uniqueness of the colonization of Brazil. The second important factor was the significant development of trading capital. Organized colonization of Brazil began in 1530, and it took the form of economic development of coastal areas. An attempt was made to impose feudal forms of land tenure. The coast was divided into 13 captaincys, the owners of which had full power. However, Portugal did not have a significant surplus population, so settlement of the colony proceeded slowly. The absence of peasant migrants and the small number of indigenous people made the development of feudal forms of economy impossible. The areas where the plantation system arose, based on the exploitation of African blacks, developed most successfully. Starting from the second half of the 16th century. The import of African slaves is growing rapidly. In 1583, 25 thousand white settlers and millions of slaves lived throughout the colony. White settlers lived primarily in the coastal zone in fairly closed groups. Here, miscegenation did not take off on a large scale; the influence of Portuguese culture on the local population was very limited. The Portuguese language did not become dominant; a unique language of communication between Indians and Portuguese arose - “lengua geral”, which was based on one of the local dialects and the basic grammatical and lexical forms of the Portuguese language. Lengua Geral was spoken by the entire population of Brazil over the next two centuries.

Colonization and the Catholic Church. The Catholic Church played a major role in the colonization of America, which, both in the Spanish and Portuguese possessions, became the most important link in the colonial apparatus, the exploiter of the indigenous population. The discovery and conquest of America was considered by the papacy as a new crusade, the goal of which was to Christianize the indigenous population. In this regard, the Spanish kings received the right to manage the affairs of the church in the colony, manage missionary activities, and found churches and monasteries. The church quickly became the largest land owner. The conquistadors understood well that Christianization was called upon to play a big role in consolidating their dominance over the indigenous population. In the first quarter of the 16th century. Representatives of various monastic orders began to arrive in America: Franciscans, Dominicans, Augustinians, and later the Jesuits, who gained great influence in La Plata and Brazil.

Groups of monks followed the troops of the conquistadors, creating their own villages - missions; the centers of the missions were churches and houses that served as dwellings for the monks. Subsequently, schools for Indian children were created in the missions, and at the same time a small fortified fortress was built to house a Spanish garrison. Thus, the missions were both outposts of Christianization and border points of the Spanish possessions.

In the first decades of the Conquest, Catholic priests, carrying out Christianization, sought to destroy not only local religious beliefs, but also to eradicate the culture of the indigenous population. An example is the Franciscan Bishop Diego de Landa, who ordered the destruction of all the ancient books of the Mayan people, cultural monuments, and the very historical memory of the people. However, Catholic priests soon began to act in other ways. Having carried out Christianization, spreading Spanish culture and the Spanish language, they began to use elements of the local ancient religion and culture of the conquered Indian peoples. Despite the cruelty and destruction of the conquest, the Indian culture did not die; it survived and changed under the influence of Spanish culture. A new culture gradually emerged based on the synthesis of Spanish and Indian elements.

Catholic missionaries were forced to promote this synthesis. They often erected Christian churches on the site of former Indian shrines, and used some images and symbols of the former beliefs of the indigenous population*, including them in Catholic rites and religious symbols. Thus, not far from the city of Mexico, on the site of a destroyed Indian temple, the Church of the Virgin Mary of Guad El Upecai was built, which became a place of pilgrimage for Indians. The Church claimed that a miraculous appearance of the Mother of God took place at this place. Many ikhons, special rituals, were dedicated to this event. On these icons, the Virgin Mary was depicted with the face of an Indian woman - a “dark Madonna,” and in her cult itself echoes of former Indian beliefs were felt.

Geographical discoveries in the Pacific Ocean. In the second half of the 16th - early 17th centuries. Spanish navigators made a number of Pacific expeditions from Peru, during which the Solomon Islands were discovered<1567), Южная Полинезия (1595) и Меланезия <1605), Еще во время путешествия Магеллана возникла идея d существовании ""Южного материка"» частью которого были вновь открытые острова Юго-Восточной Азии. Эти предположения высказывались в географических сочинениях начала XVII в., мифический материк был нанесен на карты под названием "Терра инкогнита Аустралиа*1 <неизвестиая южная земля), В 1605 г. из Перу отправилась испанская экспедиция, в ее составе было три корабля. Во время плавания к побережью Юго-Восточной Азии были открыты острова, один из которых А, Кирос, стоявший во главе эскадры, принял за побережье южного материка. Бросив на произвол судьбы своих спутников, Кирос поспешил вернуться в Перу, а затем отправился в Испанию, чтобы сообщить о своем открытии и закрепить за собой права на управление новыми землями и получение доходов. Капитан одного из двух покинутых Киросом кораблей — португалец Торрес — продолжил плавание и вскоре выяснил, что Кирос ошибся и открыл не новый материк, а группу островов (Новые Гебриды) ♦ К югу от них простиралась неизвестная земля — подлинная Австралия. Плывя далее на запад, Торрес прошел через пролив между берегом Новой Гвинеи и Австралии, впоследствии названный его именем. Дойдя до Филиппинских островов, которые были владением Испании, Торрес сообщил испанскому наместнику о своем открытии, это известие было передано в Мадрид. Однако Испания не имела в это время сил и средств для освоения новых земель. Поэтому испанское правительство в течение целого столетия держало в тайне все сведения об открытии Торреса, опасаясь соперничества других держав.

In the middle of the 17th century. The Dutch began exploring the coast of Australia. In 1642, A. Tasman, sailing from the coast of Indonesia to the east, rounded Australia from the south and passed along the coast of the island called Tasmania.

Only 150 years after Torres’s journey, during the Seven Years’ War (1756–1763), when the British, who fought against Spain, captured Manila, documents about Torres’ discovery were discovered in the archives. In 1768, the English navigator D. Cook explored the islands of Oceania and rediscovered the Torres Strait and the eastern coast of Australia; Subsequently, the priority of this discovery was recognized as Torres.

Consequences of the Great Geographical Discoveries. Great geographical discoveries of the XV-XVII centuries. had a huge impact on world development. It is known that much earlier Europeans visited the coast of America and made trips to the shores of Africa, but only the discovery of Columbus marked the beginning of constant and varied connections between Europe and America and opened a new stage in world history. A geographical discovery is not only a visit by representatives of any civilized people to a previously unknown part of the earth. The concept of “geographical discovery” includes the establishment of a direct connection between newly discovered lands and centers of culture of the Old World,

The great geographical discoveries significantly expanded Europeans' knowledge of the world and destroyed many prejudices and false ideas about other continents and the peoples inhabiting them.

The expansion of scientific knowledge gave impetus to the rapid development of industry and trade in Europe, the emergence of new forms of the financial system, banking and credit. The main trade routes moved from the Mediterranean Sea to the Atlantic Ocean.

The most important consequence of the discovery and colonization of new lands was the “price revolution,” which gave new impetus to the initial accumulation of capital in Europe, accelerated the formation of the capitalist structure in the economy,

However, the consequences of colonization and the conquest of new lands were ambiguous for the peoples of the metropolises and colonies. The result of colonization was not only the development of new lands, it was accompanied by the monstrous exploitation of conquered peoples, doomed to slavery and extinction. During the conquest, many centers of ancient civilizations were destroyed, the natural course of historical development of entire continents was disrupted, the peoples of the colonized countries were forcibly drawn into the emerging capitalist market and, through their labor, accelerated the process of formation and development of capitalism in Europe.