The European sociology of the 19th century was characterized by an approach to the study of society as a system, as an “organism”. The work of sociologists was dominated by the study of social institutions. The study of individual social phenomena, the study of personality problems, for all their importance, was nevertheless relegated to the background. This was due to the great role of the philosophy of history, which guided thinkers before french revolution end of the 18th century and in which many of them became disillusioned after the revolution. This approach has been preserved in European sociology in the 20th century, although it has not always been dominant.
Basic research is usually associated with complex theoretical research. This is a necessary but not sufficient condition for such studies. In all cases, when circumstances permit, fundamental research involves the study of the object of study as a whole. Both of these conditions are also present in the definition of fundamental research in sociology.
Fundamental research in sociology is research in which: 1) the theoretical level prevails and 2) the object is society as a whole.
The theoretical level of research is a process of solving the problems of a given science, the development of the categorical apparatus of this science, regardless of the practical use of the acquired knowledge. The theoretical scientist works for the development of knowledge as such, new true knowledge for him is an end in itself and the highest value. The theoretical level is characterized by general scientific methods of cognition: systemic, comparative, modeling, etc. "Applied" research methods - survey, sociological measurement, etc. - are used less frequently.
The object of study, as already noted, is society as a whole. Otherwise, there is no science of sociology, as there is no economics studying some economic phenomena and ignoring others. In all cases when the object of study is finite, its study as a system is mandatory for fundamental research. The social sciences respond given condition, therefore, fundamental knowledge represents society as an integral object. This is especially important in sociology, in which sometimes the study of the social organism is replaced by the study of its individual aspects or social institutions. Such approaches are sufficiently substantiated; one should not only consider their results as fundamental research.
The object of fundamental research is similar to macrosociology. Macrosociology is the study of society as a whole, with a predominance of empirical research methods. Population censuses, referendums, plebiscites, elections with subsequent processing of their results can be called macrosociological studies. Such studies provide valuable information, however, by themselves, they do not develop a theory of the functioning and development of society.
Basic research in sociology has certain advantages and disadvantages. The advantages include the presentation of society as a system, which increases the theoretical level of research, and this level makes it possible to foresee the future state of society. The disadvantages are no less significant. The main one is speculativeness, insufficient validity of judgments, which is why sociological theorists are sometimes accused of scholasticism. The fact is that theorists usually do not conduct applied research themselves, and it is a difficult task to carry it out on a societal scale. Therefore, theorists use the works of scientists of other specialties: historians, economists, demographers, political scientists, lawyers, statisticians, etc. Second-hand information increases the likelihood of misconceptions. And besides, information may simply not be enough. But regardless of the accuracy and sufficiency of information, fundamental research is characterized by a high degree of abstraction of concepts and judgments, which sometimes leads to an inadequate interpretation of any facts. For example, such concepts as “structure”, “function”, “dysfunction”, etc. in relation to society as a whole can be interpreted very ambiguously.
Applied research in sociology is emerging in Europe later than fundamental research. Their beginning can be considered the work of French sociologists Alexis de Tocqueville and Emile Durkheim, and in the USA Albion Woodbury Small. Applied research reached its greatest development in America, which fully corresponded to the pragmatism of the Americans. AV Small organized the world's first department of sociology in Chicago (1892). Subsequently, the American Sociological Society was organized and a sociological journal began to be published, the first textbook on sociology was published (1894). According to A.V. Small, sociology should give practical advice in the form of "social technology".
Applied research in the United States goes through a number of stages in its development:
1) 1895-1920. Society shows interest in the practical use of sociological knowledge;
2) 1920-1950. The dominance of empiricism, fundamental research is relegated to the background;
3) 1950-... The exit of sociology from universities to corporations and its formation as an integral part of business.
In connection with the last stage, the so-called social engineering arises - a discipline that arose at the intersection of sociology, psychology and economic theory. Its motto is: "The task of sociology is to anticipate and control human behavior." Social engineering is profit-oriented (although there are other directions) and is therefore associated with management and marketing.
Applied research in sociology is research in which: 1) the empirical level of research prevails and 2) individual social phenomena are the object of protrusions.
Empiricism is experience, practical knowledge of the world. The empirical level of research is mainly operations with facts: collection, selection, systematization, verification, etc. It is associated with one of the most common research methods - a survey, more precisely, one of the types of survey - a questionnaire. However, facts are obtained by an applied sociologist and by other methods (by studying documents, measuring, observing, experimenting). Applied research is focused on obtaining operational information and (or) obtaining practical benefits.
The object of research is individual social phenomena: social communities, processes, institutions, etc. Most often, applied research is aimed at studying small social groups, their interests and value orientations, as well as studying public opinion on issues of interest to sociologists. On the eve of elections, sociologists are interested in the opinion of the "electorate", that is, the mood of voters.
In terms of the object of study, applied research is similar to microsociology - the study of individual social phenomena at the theoretical level. The similarity of the object of study does not necessarily imply an empirical level. There may also be a theoretical level, for example, the sociology of small groups. At the theoretical level, public opinion can also be studied.
Applied research, like fundamental research, has advantages and disadvantages. The advantages include the following:
1) fresh, up-to-date information about a specific phenomenon; it is usually claimed by government officials, political parties and other entities;
2) the possibility of practical use in solving any problems.
Advantages come with disadvantages:
1) descriptiveness with an extremely weak ability to foresee in relation to the object of study. Even the explanation is poorly developed. Applied sociologists are sometimes accused of "creeping empiricism";
2) rapid “aging” of sociological information; it is a kind of perishable product that has value “here and now”. And tomorrow it is unlikely to adequately reflect the state of the object of study. It is necessary to conduct new research, which in practical terms is very difficult. Sociologists are well aware of what this is connected with.
The singling out of the levels of sociological research is based on the difference in the ways of obtaining knowledge. As you know, rational cognition is based on abstract thinking (its forms include the concept, judgment and inference), sensory cognition is based on images that have arisen as a result of the activity of the human senses, and takes the form of sensation, perception and representation. On the basis of rational cognition, the theoretical level of sociological knowledge is formed, and on the basis of sensory knowledge, the empirical level.
On theoretical level, as a rule, an analysis of the basic concepts, categories and laws of sociology is carried out, the most common problems structure and functioning of society. This level includes such general scientific methods as functional and conflictological, and depending on the problem and object of study - historical, systemic, comparative, etc.
Often the methods used seem contradictory. Thus, functional theory and conflict theory are clearly different. Therefore, the researcher needs a set of strict assumptions, i.e. a general theory that, by definition, is inherent in sociology, as in other sciences. Such a theory makes it possible to order reality, to choose useful concepts, to develop a scheme of observations, to formulate a hypothesis and put forward an explanation. On the one hand, theory reflects the essence of phenomena and their connections, acts as a means of not only explaining, but also studying phenomena and processes that have not yet been known, including indicating the most general direction of search for empirical research. On the other hand, empirical research gives a lot to theory - directs, deepens, often reorients and clarifies it, since it is based on concrete facts.
Empirical level represented by various forms of specific statistical, documentary information about the studied social phenomena and processes.
Thus, theoretical sociology (also called general sociology or macrosociology) considers society as a whole or large social communities, explains the patterns of their development and functioning, while empirical sociology (also called microsociology) focuses on specific facts and processes, specific motives, goals, the actions of people.
Despite the fact that every study that claims to be complete and complete includes the steps listed above, there is no unified and mandatory sociological analysis algorithm for all, suitable for studying problems of varying complexity. This is due to the fact that each is due to the nature of the goal.
In accordance with the goals and objectives put forward, research is divided into fundamental and applied.
Fundamental(or academic) research are usually held for scientific purposes: to replenish knowledge about the discipline, to better understand social processes, explanations social behavior, refutation or confirmation of a particular theory. As a rule, in fundamental research, the theoretical level of sociological knowledge prevails over the empirical component.
Applied Research have practical purposes - their results are intended for direct application in the practice of social work, education, labor relations, urban planning, social policy. They may be in the form of specific proposals, advice, recommendations or data necessary for the preparation and adoption management decisions. We can say that any applied research is a system of procedures linked by a single goal - to obtain reliable data on the phenomenon under study for use in management practice.
Depending on the depth of quantitative and qualitative analysis the subject of research, the scale and complexity of the tasks solved in its course, there are three types of sociological research - intelligence, descriptive and analytical.
intelligence research(trial, pilot, flight, probing) - the least complex view analysis, solving problems limited in their content. Research of this type covers, as a rule, small communities, is based on a simplified program and simple tools (questionnaires, interview forms, etc.) and is used as a preliminary stage before a deep and large-scale study of a chosen process or phenomenon. The need for it arises in those cases when the subject of research is among the few or not yet studied problems. In particular, this species research is often used to obtain primary information about the subject and the object, clarify hypotheses and tasks, select tools, determine the boundaries of the surveyed population in a subsequent, more in-depth and large-scale study, as well as to identify possible difficulties that the researcher may encounter during the course of the study. Solving the listed tasks, intelligence research serves as a supplier of operational data.
Express survey is a kind of intelligence research and is carried out with the aim of quickly obtaining individual information that is of particular interest to the researcher at the moment. Rapid surveys are usually aimed at revealing the public's attitude to current events and facts (public opinion probing), as well as at finding out the effectiveness of recent actions. Quite often, such surveys are used to assess the course and possible results of election campaigns, to identify people's opinions regarding planned actions and events.
If the task is to clarify the subject or object of a large-scale study, an expert survey can be conducted, i.e. survey of specialists competent in the problem under study.
Descriptive (descriptive) research is a more complex type of analysis and involves obtaining such empirical information that can give a relatively holistic view of the phenomenon under study and its elements. Comprehending, taking into account such information makes it possible to better understand the situation, from a scientific point of view, to ensure the possibility of choosing effective means, forms and methods of managing certain social processes. Conducting a descriptive study requires a complete, detailed program and methodically tested tools. Its reliable methodological and methodological equipment makes it possible to classify the elements of the object under study according to those characteristics that are identified as essential.
This type of research is usually used when the object of analysis is a relatively large community of people with diverse characteristics, for example, a team of a large enterprise in which people work. different professions and age categories with different work experience, education level, marital status, etc., or the population of a city, district, region, region. In such situations, the allocation of relatively homogeneous groups in the structure of the object allows one to evaluate, compare and contrast the characteristics of interest to the researcher, in addition, to identify the presence or absence of links between them.
Analytical study- the most in-depth type of sociological analysis, which aims not only to describe structural elements of the phenomenon under study, but also the elucidation of the reasons that underlie it and determine the nature, prevalence, severity and other features characteristic of this phenomenon. This rather complex type of research, by virtue of its purpose, has a particularly great scientific, practical and theoretical value.
If in a descriptive study the fact of a connection between the characteristics of the phenomenon under study is established, then in an analytical study it turns out whether the discovered relationship is of a causal nature. For example, if at descriptive the presence of a relationship between the satisfaction of employees with the content of the work performed and its productivity is studied, then during the analytical it turns out whether satisfaction with the content of labor is the main factor determining the level of its productivity.
Since the reality of industrial and social life is such that it is worth highlighting in “ pure form"To study any one factor that determines the features of this life is almost impossible, then in each analytical study a combination of factors is studied. Subsequently, primary and secondary factors, temporary and permanent, managed and unmanaged, controlled and uncontrolled, etc. are distinguished from it.
The preparation of an analytical study requires significant funds, time, a carefully designed program and tools. Often, with the help of probing or descriptive research, they collect information that gives a preliminary idea of \u200b\u200bthe individual aspects of the object and subject being studied, and makes it possible to choose the best ways for their further analysis. Analytical research is complex. In it, complementing each other, various forms can be used,. Naturally, this requires researchers to be able to link, "join" information received through different channels.
social experiment it could be considered independent variety analytical research. Its implementation involves the creation of an experimental situation by changing (to one degree or another) the usual conditions for the functioning of the object under study. During the experiment Special attention is devoted to the study of the "behavior" of those factors included in the experimental situation that give the given object new features and properties. Preparing and conducting any experiment is very time-consuming and requires special knowledge and methodological skills. This is especially important to remember when it comes to the introduction of new forms of organization and stimulation of labor, the organization of social and Everyday life people, i.e. about issues affecting personal, collective and public interests. Their in-depth study requires, of course, preliminary experimental verification in order to avoid accidents and unforeseen consequences and, therefore, to introduce new forms and methods of management into practice with scientific validity.
Depending on whether the subject of interest to the researcher is being studied in statics or in dynamics, two more types of sociological research can be distinguished - point and repeated.
Spot Study(it is also called one-time) gives information about the state of the object of analysis, the quantitative characteristics of a phenomenon or process at the time of its study. Such information, in a certain sense, can be called static, since it reflects, as it were, a momentary “cut” of the quantitative characteristics of an object, but does not answer the question about the trends in its change over time.
repeated called several studies that are carried out sequentially at certain intervals and allow you to obtain data reflecting the change in the object. Such studies are carried out on a single program and tools. In fact, a repeated study is a means of comparative sociological analysis aimed at identifying the dynamics of the development of the object under study.
Depending on the goals put forward, the repeated collection of information can take place in two or three stages or more. The duration of the time interval between the initial and repeated stages of the study may be different, since the social processes themselves have unequal dynamics and cyclicality. Most often, it is the properties of the object itself that prompt the time intervals for repeated studies. For example, if the trend in the implementation of the life plans of secondary school graduates is being studied and they were interviewed for the first time before the final exams, then it is obvious that the next time for a second study is not earlier than September-October, when admission to universities ends and those who did not enter are determined to work, go to serve in army, become unemployed, etc.
Longitudinal studies(otherwise called monitoring) are referred to as repeated and carried out for a long time, regularly and after a given period of time (such, for example, the population census).
Panel Study — special kind re-study. If with the help of a regular repeated study, for example, the effectiveness of education in a team can be studied, regardless of how its composition has changed over the period between the initial and repeated stages of the study, then a panel study involves the repeated study of the same individuals at specified intervals. Therefore, for panel studies, it is advisable to observe such intervals that allow maintaining the stability of the studied population in terms of its abundance and composition. These studies make it possible to update and enrich the content, provide an opportunity to accumulate information that reflects the direction of development.
Depending on the conditions for conducting, allocate field studies which are carried out in a natural setting for the community under study (at an enterprise, in a village), and laboratory research which take place in specially created conditions (focus groups, the “long table” method).
Lined up by different grounds classification of types of sociological research is presented in fig. 1.1.
Rice. 1.1. Types of sociological research
Almost any phenomenon can be studied with the help of exploratory, descriptive or analytical research, which has a point or repeated character and uses various methods collection of primary information. In turn, for any of the mentioned types of sociological research, there is no "ban" on the analysis of certain phenomena and processes.
In each specific case, the sociologist chooses one or another type of sociological research, guided by the practical and scientific expediency of the study, as well as the essence and characteristics of the phenomenon to be studied.
For example, the task was to study the opinion of voters. If a sociologist plans to carry out intelligence research, then, based on its characteristics, he will have to identify the most general evaluative reaction of public opinion on a particular issue. In turn, a descriptive study will involve obtaining a more detailed description of the state of public opinion, the unity of its rational, emotional and volitional principles. An analytical study is intended to give not only a description of the state, elements and properties of a particular public opinion, but also an answer to the question of what factors gave rise to just such an opinion, to what extent it acts as an incentive for people during the voting.
If we confine ourselves to a single measurement, a spot study is enough. When it is necessary to obtain information about the dynamics and trends of its development, repeated studies are carried out. If the urgency of the work is not a decisive factor in the study, other methods of data collection can be used along with the survey.
Thus, the choice of the type of sociological research follows both from the essence and characteristics of the phenomenon under study, and from the goals and objectives that are set in the course of its analysis. In addition, before the final choice of the type of research, the sociologist must realistically assess their capabilities, the practical skills of the research team, as well as the amount and source of funding.
BASIC AND APPLIED RESEARCH- types of research that differ in their socio-cultural orientations, in the form of organization and transmission of knowledge, and, accordingly, in the forms of interaction of researchers and their associations characteristic of each type. All differences, however, relate to the environment in which the researcher works, while the actual research process - the acquisition of new knowledge as the basis of the scientific profession - proceeds in the same way in both types of research.
Basic research is aimed at strengthening the intellectual potential of society by obtaining new knowledge and using it in general education and training of specialists in almost all modern professions. No form of organization of human experience can replace science in this function, which acts as an essential component of culture. Applied research is aimed at intellectual support of the innovation process as the basis of socio-economic development modern civilization. The knowledge gained in applied research is oriented towards direct use in other areas of activity (technology, economics, social management, etc.).
Fundamental and applied research are two forms of the implementation of science as a profession, characterized by a single system of training specialists and a single array of basic knowledge. Moreover, differences in the organization of knowledge in these types of research do not create fundamental obstacles to the mutual intellectual enrichment of both research areas. The organization of activity and knowledge in fundamental research is determined by the system and mechanisms of the scientific discipline, the action of which is aimed at the maximum intensification of the research process. In this case, the most important means is the prompt involvement of the entire community in the examination of each new research result that claims to be included in the corpus of scientific knowledge. The communication mechanisms of the discipline make it possible to include new results in this kind of examination, regardless of the research in which these results were obtained. At the same time, a significant part of the scientific results included in the corpus of knowledge of fundamental disciplines was obtained in the course of applied research.
The formation of applied research as an organizationally specific area of scientific activity, the purposeful systematic development of which replaces the disposal of random single inventions, refers to con. 19th century and is usually associated with the creation and activities of J. Liebig's laboratory in Germany. Before World War I, applied research as the basis for the development of new types of equipment (primarily military) became integral part general scientific and technological development. K ser. 20th century they gradually become key element scientific and technical support for all branches of the national economy and management.
Although, ultimately, the social function of applied research is aimed at supplying innovations to scientific, technological and socio-economic progress as a whole, the immediate task of any research group and organization is to ensure the competitive advantage of that organizational structure (firm, corporation, industry, individual state), in within which research is being carried out. This task determines the priorities in the activities of researchers and in the work on organizing knowledge: the choice of topics, the composition of research groups (usually interdisciplinary), the restriction of external communications, the classification of intermediate results and the legal protection of the final intellectual products of research and engineering activities (patents, licenses, etc.). .P.).
Orientation of applied research to external priorities and limited communication within the research community drastically reduce the effectiveness of internal information processes (in particular, scientific criticism as the main engine of scientific knowledge).
The search for research goals is based on a system of scientific and technical forecasting, which provides information about the development of the market, the formation of needs, and thus the prospects of certain innovations. The system of scientific and technical information supplies applied research with information about both achievements in various fields fundamental science, as well as the latest applied developments that have already reached the licensed level.
Knowledge obtained in applied research (with the exception of temporarily classified information about intermediate results) is organized in a form that is universal for science. scientific disciplines(technical, medical, agricultural and other sciences) and in this standard form used to train specialists and search for basic patterns. The unity of science is not destroyed by the presence of various types of research, but takes on a new form, corresponding to the current stage of socio-economic development.
See also Art. The science.
Basic Research include those studies in the field of natural, technical and social sciences that are aimed at identifying and studying the fundamental laws and phenomena of nature, society and thinking, aimed at both the increment of new knowledge that has significant universality and generality, and the use of this knowledge in practical activities person. The results of fundamental research create the basis of scientific knowledge in the form of fundamental principles and laws, basic theories of the main phenomena, processes and properties of the objective world, form the foundation of the current scientific picture peace.
Basic research includes proper fundamental ("pure") and purposeful fundamental research. The first of them are aimed at discovering new laws of nature, establishing new principles, revealing new connections and relationships between phenomena and objects of reality. This study is characterized by a minimum uncertainty of obtaining positive results (5-10% of the total number of studies).
Targeted fundamental research, actually "materializing" the situation regarding the transformation of science into a direct productive force of society, they reveal scientific, technical, technological and economic opportunities and specific ways of working out and practical application in public practice, fundamentally new methods and means of producing products, materials, new sources of energy, methods and means of converting and transmitting information. Such studies are carried out in relatively narrow directions, rely on the existing theoretical and empirical knowledge, and are oriented for the most part to the future needs of society. The probability of obtaining results that are practically applied is 50-70%.
Discoveries in the fields of fundamental research over the past decades have mainly occurred in such scientific areas: space exploration, earth sciences, nuclear physics and elementary particle physics, plasma physics, radio electronics, optics, magnetism and solid state physics, mechanics and automation, chemistry and materials science , biology and medicine.
Today, more and more new objects of nature and technology are involved in the sphere of fundamental research, the study of which takes place both on the way of penetrating into ever deeper areas of the structure of the microcosm, space, the World Ocean, continents, the earth's interior, and in the direction of learning more and more complex forms of organization of matter ( including biospheric), revealing new properties, phenomena and regularities inherent in these objects, establishing the possibilities of their use in social practice. At present, it is fundamental research that plays the leading role in solving the problems of modern global studies, primarily environmental issues. The importance of fundamental research is also growing in the field of socio-economic institutions of science.
Applied research uses, as it were, the springboard on which samples of equipment and technology are created and tested, and from which their introduction into production begins. By their nature and direction, they act as an effective factor in the real process of turning science into a direct productive force of social development.
Modern applied research is mostly aimed at creating new and improving existing ones. technical means, technologies, materials, energy structures and the like. They are based on already known laws, phenomena and properties of objects of the material world, including objects of "second nature" (technology). At the same time, applied research is based not only on the results of fundamental research, but also on industrial information. The pronounced focus of applied research determines the high probability of obtaining practically important results, which is 80-90%.
An important functional link in the "science-production" system is development - the direct use of the results of fundamental and applied research in production. They include design, construction, creation of a prototype, development of primary production technology, that is, they are the beginning of the introduction of scientific achievements into social practice. The US National Science Foundation views development as the systematic use of scientific knowledge to produce useful materials, mechanisms, systems and methods, including the design and improvement of "prototypes" and processes. In a word, developments are a kind of "symbiosis" of elements of science and production. The probability of obtaining a final positive result at the development stage increases to 95-97%.
The revolutionary impact on science today is often provided not only by the achievements of fundamental disciplines, but also by discoveries that arise in the mainstream of applied research and development. The reverse impact of the latter on fundamental knowledge often gives rise to fundamentally new ideas about reality, changes in the scientific picture of the world. For example, in last years there was a certain restructuring of the scientific picture of the world after taking into account the ideas about the self-organization of physical systems. This was due to the results of such applied research as revealing the effects of nonequilibrium phase transitions and the formation of dissipative structures.
Thus, today it can be argued that science is increasingly expressively turning into the productive force of society, being embodied in technology and technological processes. On this path, science differentiated into fundamental and applied. The fundamental component of science, expressing the degree of its maturity, provides production with such knowledge that, on the one hand, reflects the fundamental regularity of the nature and development of objects of reality, and on the other hand, makes it possible to implement the regulators of the progress of social production. Application branch sufficiently developed scientific knowledge directly reflects the process of transforming science into a productive force, its systematic impact on the comprehensive organization of production. It is characteristic that in the modern era of scientific and technological progress, the role of applied research is growing, which increasingly requires a correlative connection with the results of fundamental scientific research.
The ratio between fundamental and applied (including development) research forms a fairly dynamic system with unstable, moving boundaries. On the whole, the closer in time and in social understanding, the more concrete the transforming goal that fundamental research faces, the closer they collide with applied research. However, the peculiarity and priority of fundamental research lies primarily in the fact that their results are evaluated depending on whether, in the end, a significant increase in our knowledge in the material world and its laws has been achieved. In other words, fundamental research is of particular importance for the development of science and culture in general, with which the shift in the optimization of social practice is bound to correlate.
In the conditions of the modern scientific and technological revolution, when new and interdisciplinary branches of knowledge arise, the processes of differentiation and integration of sciences, scientific directions, methods and means of cognition are extremely intensified, the question of the correct distinction between fundamental and applied sciences is of particular importance. Academician BM Kedrov considers fundamental sciences from three historically established points of view. According to the first of them, which reflects an objective genetic approach, natural sciences are primarily fundamental, which study qualitatively unique forms of motion (organization) of matter, their development in many ways created the foundation for the emergence of the humanities and social sciences.
According to the second point of view, which embodies the structural historical approach, the fundamental sciences include mathematics, astronomy, physics, chemistry, biology, geology, geography, history, philosophy, and the like, which arose in ancient times and constitute the "cornerstones of all knowledge" , are pivotal in the creation of interdisciplinary sciences (astrophysics, geochemistry, soil science, biospherology, etc.).
Accordingly, from the third point of view, which corresponds to the structural functional approach and is the most common at present, the fundamental sciences include theoretical - exact ("guards") and "pure" sciences aimed at revealing the laws of nature, society and thinking. The task of the applied sciences is to apply these laws in their specific research.
METHOD OF SCIENTIFIC KNOWLEDGE
« Facts in science are not the most important thing ... Science never has a bare empirical character, the main thing in it is the method. These deep content words belong to the original Russian philosopher and writer M. M. Strakhov, he cited them in his work "On the method natural sciences and their significance in general education" (1865). Questions of natural history were at the center of Strakhov's scientific interests, who considered the world as a harmonious whole, as a kind of "hierarchy of beings and phenomena."
scientific method(from the Greek way, a way of research, teaching, presentation) is a system of rules and methods of approach to the study of the phenomena and laws of nature, society and thinking; way, way to achieve certain results in knowledge and practice; the method of theoretical research and practical implementation of something that comes from the knowledge of the laws of development of objective reality and the object, phenomenon, process that are being studied. Knowledge of the scientific method, its capabilities makes it possible to determine the correct path for studying objects and phenomena, helps the researcher to choose the essential and eliminate the secondary, outline the path of ascent from the known to the unknown, from the simple to the complex, from the individual to the partial and general, from the initial positions to the universal and the like. Ultimately, this is the method of action of a researcher in a particular branch of knowledge, which is based on well-known principles and is aimed at gaining new scientific knowledge; a kind of algorithm of actions when receiving new data or processing information, which ensures the controllability of cognitive activity, reproducibility of results and their general scientific nature.
Even F. Bacon insisted on the special importance of the scientific method, emphasizing that a poorly gifted person who has mastered the correct method is able to do more than a genius who is not familiar with this method. Eleven years after Bacon's death, R. Descartes' work "Discourse on Method" was published, which contained a fairly clear theoretical justification for the role of method in cognition.
In the history of science, the method was called upon to liberate knowledge from accidents, passions and weaknesses of the individual human approach. In our time, the dependence of the cognitive process on the characteristics of the subject, the style of thinking he has mastered, is becoming more and more expressive. The fact is that while science was engaged in clearly defined subjects, one could hope for the predictability of constructing a clear logical scheme of the essential relationships of the object being studied, and placing it on a solid foundation for experiment. In the complex problems of modern science, symbolized by the term "complex system", the logical connections cannot be fully described. In the analysis of geographic data, in particular, it is practically impossible to construct a closed logical scheme that can be unambiguously and convincingly compared with the results of a certain experiment. It is here that the personal experience and intuition of the researcher, the use of successful analogies for solving similar tasks, and the like, take precedence. In this context, historically, the interest of scientists in the methodology of science has grown naturally, and this is a sign that the choice of research method has ceased to seem something indisputable, as if independent of research activities prescribed by science itself.
Determining the significance of the scientific method, it is worth recalling the words of the famous mathematician L. Carnot: " The sciences are like a majestic river, the course of which is easy to follow after it acquires a certain regularity, but if you want to go along the river to its source, then it is nowhere to be found, because it is nowhere to be found, in a certain sense, the coil is scattered over the entire surface of the Earth. .
Outstanding Philosopher and one of the founders of geography, I. Kant, said: if we want to call something a method, then this must be a way of acting in accordance with the principles. Therefore, a method is such a mode of action that is carried out in accordance with the "fundamentals", that is, it has a foundation in the corresponding theoretical principles. It is the method that acts as a way of approach and general direction actions in solving a certain group of tasks and follows from the meaningful application of the necessary system of principles. Note that this system of principles itself can be considered a method if it acts directly as a regulator of actions in solving a specific group of tasks. If, however, this system of principles is considered not from the side of their practical functioning in the activity of the researcher, but from the side of theoretical justification, then we will not talk about the method as such, but about the methodology. It is the latter, in essence, that is the theory of the method of the corresponding cognitive activity. But this is a theory of a special kind, which substantiates and regulates the rules and standards of the work of the researcher (subject) regarding the theoretical reconstruction of the essence of the object of knowledge.
According to the Russian academician I. T. Frolov (1981), general method each science is the result of knowledge of the laws of development of the object of this science, it is the result of awareness of the forms in which the content of science moves. Consequently, the method of science can in no way be understood as somewhat formal, as artificial methods and forms of operation with the empirical material of science, a simple set of tools for cognition, a logical apparatus, seemingly indifferent in its essence to the content of science, its objective laws. The method, according to Hegel, " not the external form, but the soul and the concept of content.
It is the method of science that fixes the general laws of development of the object of science in a logical form. These laws constitute that primitive, determining, which is the starting point in the construction of her method. They are developed during historical development each science, to the extent of knowing the objective laws and deepening knowledge about them. Therefore, the difference between method and content (theory) in science is rather relative. The method and theory of science as form and content are two sides of a single whole. Therefore, the method determines the main starting positions for subsequent cognition even before it unfolds in its specificity. Moreover, the method essentially determines the results of cognition. A limited, immature method predetermines adequate assessments of science itself, the errors of its conclusions.
On the whole, the scientific method is a real form of human thinking, a specific scientific research, which always has a certain content and significance, is certainly predetermined by the concrete historical level of knowledge and practice. It is clear that the scientific method is not something absolute, forever given attribute of cognitive theoretical activity. It is organically connected with the system scientific theories, concepts, categories and laws, which, in turn, are discovered and developed through the scientific method, the foundation of which is the subject and purpose of cognitive activity.
Being an important tool of scientific knowledge, a powerful engine of science, the method also acts as a unifying basis for the development of science, its synthesis, which includes retrospective characteristics of the subject (object) of knowledge. At the same time, the scientific method is an important means of increasing the efficiency of scientific knowledge and its intensification. Ultimately, this kind of regulatory normative function of the scientific method provides a specific historical system of scientific knowledge with the ability for self-promotion and development, for an expanded recreation of scientific knowledge (V.P. Vorontsov, O.T. Moskalenko, 1986).
The structure of the scientific method can be represented as follows:
1) worldview provisions and theoretical principles that characterize the content of knowledge; 2) methodological techniques that meet the specifics of the subject being studied; 3) techniques that are used to record facts, direct the course of the study, and formalize its results.
Thus, the method embodies a certain relationship between theory, methodology and research techniques, which are interconnected quite flexibly and flexibly. Each of these elements, while maintaining the leading, cementing role of theory, functionally has a certain independence. Therefore, it is quite reasonable to evaluate the method as a system of regulative principles of cognitive activity.
The highest level of knowledge of each science, as noted above, is the creation of a system of theoretical knowledge, a general theory of the subject of reality, which is being studied. Therefore, the most important methodological problem of each science should be to determine the ways for the subsequent development of its theoretical component, which, in turn, is the most effective and constructive means of developing the method of this science.
Indeed, in science, cognitive activity, research methods are extremely important, which, unfortunately, so far, in particular in geography, have not acquired an unambiguous interpretation in understanding their heuristic nature and meaningful characteristics. But it is precisely in the methods of cognition that orderliness, systematicity, and purposefulness of cognitive actions are clearly distinguished, control over research procedures is carried out, established facts and dependencies are coordinated.
Any method of scientific knowledge seems to have a two-component structure. Forming the latter, the rules and standards take into account the specifics of the object being studied, and at the same time the regulatory specifics of the logic of cognitive activity. Proportional ratios of these components in each specific method are different. At the empirical level of cognition, methods designed for the sensual reproduction of an object predominate. With the transition to theoretical knowledge, the proportions change in the interests of methods that take into account logical requirements.
The classification of scientific methods remains a debatable issue today, due to the inconsistency of the criteria and principles that are proposed. In particular, according to the nature and role in cognition, methods-approaches and methods-techniques (specific rules, research operations) are singled out; According to the functional purpose, methods of empirical and theoretical research are distinguished.
In a word, science in many ways is a kind of unity of knowledge and cognitive activity. Knowledge grows out of activity, but scientific activity itself is impossible without knowledge. This antinomy is resolved in a method that, being living knowledge-action, most adequately expresses the active side of science. The unity of knowledge and activity in science finds its concrete embodiment in the unity of its theory and method.
The scientific method arises on the foundation of the existing system of scientific knowledge, the level of generalization of the practice of cognition achieved by it. But in its development, the scientific method goes beyond the limits of this system, leads to its change and the creation of a new one. The scientific method is revolutionary in nature, aimed at increasing knowledge, the transition of scientific knowledge to a new qualitative level of its development. However, it is not a product of the spontaneous activity of the researcher's mind, divorced from life practice. The scientific method is determined by the nature of the subject (object) that is being studied, and serves a specific practical purpose, organizing and directing the research process. Depending on the degree of complexity of the cognitive task, the methods for solving it also change, various research techniques, theoretical generalizations, formal logical means, types of observations, experiments, and the like are used. In any branch of science, under the conditions of the process of integrating scientific knowledge, which is developing quite rapidly, not one method is usually used, but a whole system of methods, cognitive procedures and techniques that arose and developed not only in related, but also in distant branches of knowledge. . This applies primarily to geographical science, in particular physical geography, the objects of study of which are distinguished by the extreme complexity of their nature and the spatio-temporal "trajectory" of existence.
In the very general view According to their structure, scientific research is divided into fundamental and applied.
Basic research is aimed at discovering new, previously unexplored phenomena and laws of nature and social reality, as well as at creating new research methodologies. Their goal is to expand scientific knowledge in general. They are conducted on the border of the known and the unknown and have a significant degree of uncertainty.
Applied research is aimed at finding ways to use the phenomena and laws of nature to create new and improve existing funds and ways human activity. Their goal is to establish as many options for the practical exploitation of existing scientific knowledge as possible.
The difference between fundamental science and applied science was very accurately characterized by D. Thomson, the discoverer of the electron, in a speech delivered by him in 1916: “ By research in fundamental science, I mean research not for the purpose of applying its results inindustry, but only to increase knowledge about the Laws of Nature. Thomson also argued that applied science improves old methods while basic science creates new methods, and that " if applied science leads to reforms, then fundamental science leads to revolutions, which, whether political or scientific, are powerful tools if you are on the winning side».
Applied research is differentiated into search, research and development work. Exploratory research is aimed at establishing the factors that affect the object or process under study. Research work is related to the creation of new technologies, pilot plants, and devices. Development research is aimed at selecting design characteristics created technical device.
The final stage of applied research, as a rule, is development, that is, a purposeful process of converting scientific and technical information into a form suitable for development in industry, preparation for implementation.
One of the fundamental differences between fundamental and applied research is precisely that any applied research is always such a scientific project, the results of which are initially addressed to manufacturers and customers and which is guided by the needs or desires of these customers. Fundamental research is primarily addressed to other members of the scientific community and are aimed primarily at expanding knowledge about the world as such.
At the same time, one must understand that at the present stage of the development of science and technology, fundamental and applied research converge at some points. For example, modern engineering requires not only short term projects, aimed at solving special problems, but also a broad long-term program of fundamental research, specially designed for the development of technical sciences in general. At the same time, modern fundamental research (especially in technical sciences) is very closely related to practical applications.
Among other things, the current stage of development of science and technology is characterized by the use of fundamental research methods to solve applied problems. At the same time, the fact that a study is fundamental does not mean that its results are pragmatically useless, and work aimed at applied goals can be of a fundamental nature. The criteria for their separation are mainly the time factor and the degree of generality. It is quite legitimate to talk today about fundamental industrial research.
We must also remember that in some cases, not being a source, fundamental science acts basisone or the other technological advances. This role of fundamental science can usually only be revealed retrospectively. A striking example of this state of affairs is the creation nuclear reactors and atomic bombs. In a certain respect, the atomic project can be considered as an application of the special theory of relativity, which actually became the source of the technological inventions mentioned above.
Thus, it is clearly seen that the nature of the links between fundamental and applied sciences- this is one of the most profound and difficult problems in the history and methodology of scientific knowledge.
