The organization and holding of the Congress of Vienna was a significant event both for European states, and for all world practice as a whole. Let's consider some issues of its implementation in more detail.
Goals: It was originally stated that Congress of Vienna convened to determine the fate of the French Emperor Napoleon Bonaparte, as well as to develop and take measures to prevent similar situations in future. However, the adviser to the Austrian Chancellor Metternich Friedrich Gentz, who was Secretary General Congress of Vienna, in February 1815, wrote: “Loud phrases about “reconstruction of the social order, renewal of the political system of Europe,” “Permanent peace based on a fair distribution of forces,” etc. and so on. were pronounced to calm the crowd and to impart to this solemn assembly some appearance of dignity and grandeur, but the real purpose of the Congress was to divide the inheritance of the vanquished among the victors.” And, indeed, all participants in the Congress sought to grab as much as possible for themselves at any cost, regardless of their contribution to the defeat of Napoleon.
Time of the Congress of Vienna: from September 1814 to June 1815.
Composition and number of participants: there were 216 delegates from the European winning countries at the Congress. The Russian delegation was headed by Emperor Alexander I, Great Britain - Keslreagh, and a little later - Wellington, Austria - Francis I, Prussia - Hardenberg, France - Charles-Maurice Talleyrand. The leading role in resolving the most important issues at the Congress was played by Alexander I and the Austrian Chancellor Metternich. In addition, despite the fact that Talleyrand represented defeated France, he managed to successfully defend its interests on a number of issues.
Plans of the participants of the Vienna Congress: All delegations came to the Congress in Vienna with certain plans.
During the negotiations during the Congress of Vienna, a number of important scandalous events occurred:
Results of the Congress of Vienna: The Congress of Vienna was unique in its significance historical event. Its results can be summarized as follows:
1. A few days before Waterloo, namely on June 9, 1815, representatives of Russia, Austria, Spain, France, Great Britain, Portugal, Prussia and Sweden signed the Final General Act of the Congress of Vienna. According to its provisions, the inclusion of the territory of the Austrian Netherlands (modern Belgium) into the new Kingdom of the Netherlands was authorized, but all other Austrian possessions returned to Habsburg control, including Lombardy, the Venetian region, Tuscany, Parma and the Tyrol. Prussia received part of Saxony, a significant territory of Westphalia and the Rhineland. Denmark, a former ally of France, lost Norway to Sweden. In Italy, the power of the Pope over the Vatican and the Papal States was restored, and the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies was returned to the Bourbons. The German Confederation was also formed. Part of the Duchy of Warsaw created by Napoleon became part of Russian Empire called the Kingdom of Poland, and the Russian emperor became the Polish king.
In addition, the General Act contained special articles that related to relations between European countries. For example, rules were established for the collection of duties and navigation on the border and international rivers Mozyl, Meuse, Rhine and Scheldt; the principles of free navigation were determined; the annex to the General Act spoke of the prohibition of trade in blacks; In all countries, censorship was tightened and police regimes were strengthened.
2. After the Congress of Vienna, the so-called “Vienna system of international relations” emerged.
It was at the Congress of Vienna that three classes of diplomatic agents were established, which are still in use today; a unified procedure for the reception of diplomats was determined, and four types of consular offices were formulated. Within the framework of this system, the concept of great powers was formulated for the first time (then primarily Russia, Austria, Great Britain), and multichannel diplomacy finally took shape.
Alexander I came up with the idea of creating the Holy Union of European States, as he understood that the decisions of the Congress should be formalized organizationally.
The founding document of the Holy Alliance was the Act of the Holy Alliance, developed by Alexander I himself and signed in Paris on September 26, 1815 by the Russian and Austrian emperors and the Prussian king.
The purpose of creating the Holy Alliance was: on the one hand, to play the role of a deterrent against national liberation and revolutionary movements, and on the other, to unite, if necessary, all its participants in defense of the inviolability of borders and existing orders. This was reflected in the Act of the Holy Alliance, which declared that due to the great changes in European countries over the course of three recent years the members of the sacred Union decided that “in any case and in every place they will begin to give each other benefits, reinforcements and assistance for the preservation of faith, peace and truth.”
However, according to many historians, the content of this act was extremely vague and flexible and the most varied practical conclusions could be drawn from it, but its general spirit did not contradict, but rather favored, the reactionary mood of the then governments. Not to mention the confusion of ideas belonging to completely different categories, in it religion and morality completely displace law and politics from the areas that undoubtedly belong to the latter. Built on the legitimate basis of the divine origin of monarchical power, it establishes a patriarchal relationship between sovereigns and peoples, and the former are charged with the obligation to rule in the spirit of “love, truth and peace,” and the latter must only obey: the document does not at all talk about the rights of the people in relation to power mentions.
The purpose of the Union was mutual assistance in suppressing revolutionary anti-monarchist protests in Europe - echoes of the anti-Christian French Revolution - and strengthening the foundations of Christian statehood. Alexander I intended, through such a Union, to also eliminate the possibility of military clashes between monarchical Christian states. The monarchs who entered into an alliance vowed to maintain the inviolability of borders in Europe and to subordinate the entire order of mutual relations to “the lofty truths inspired by the eternal law of God the Savior”, “to be guided by no other rules than the commandments of the holy faith” and “to regard ourselves as members of a single people” Christian." The Act of the Holy Alliance was symbolically signed in Orthodox holiday Exaltation of the Holy Cross. The high spiritual meaning of the Holy Alliance is also reflected in the unusual wording of the union treaty, which is not similar either in form or in content to international treatises: “In the name of the Most Holy and Indivisible Trinity! Their Majesties, the Emperor of Austria, the King of Prussia and the Emperor of All Russia, as a result of the great events that have marked the last three years in Europe, and especially as a result of the benefits that God's Providence has been pleased to pour out on the states, whose government has placed its hope and respect in the One God, having felt inner conviction of how necessary it is for the present powers to subordinate the image of mutual relations to the highest truths inspired by the eternal law of God the Savior, they solemnly declare that the subject of this act is to reveal to the face of the universe their unshakable determination, both in the management of the states entrusted to them, and in political relations to all other governments, to be guided by no other rules than the commandments of the holy faith, the commandments of love, truth and peace, which were not limited to their application solely to privacy, must, on the contrary, directly control the will of the kings and guide all their actions, as a single means of affirming human decisions and rewarding their imperfections. On this basis, Their Majesties have agreed in the following articles...”
In the first years after the creation of the Holy Alliance, despite the existing differences in the views of its participants, European states on many issues foreign policy acted in concert, especially in the fight against free thought and democratization of the masses. At the same time, they closely watched each other and hatched their own plans.
In general, during the existence of the Holy Alliance, several of its congresses took place:
The Congress of Vienna, convened in Europe by representatives of the leading European states, was of great importance. After the Congress of Vienna, the so-called “Vienna System of International Relations” emerged and a decision was made to create the Holy Alliance.
French bourgeois revolution the end of the 18th century and the Napoleonic wars led to complete redistribution of European borders and the destruction of old feudal . That is why, after the fall of the Napoleonic Empire, European diplomats decided to hold a special congress, at which special treaties would be developed that would restore borders and old monarchical regimes. The Congress of Vienna of 1814 - 1815 and its results have not yet lost their relevance.
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The main reason for convening representatives of the great powers was the need to reconsider European borders, redrawn by the Napoleonic wars, and consolidate monarchical orders, restoring the rights of the old European dynasties. The victorious countries (allies) also wanted to strengthen their political positions.
It was decided to hold the congress Russia, Germany, England and Austria. Its main goal is restore the French monarchy and secure new borders within Europe.
The Congress of Vienna began in October 1814. The events ended in July 1815. The leader of Austrian diplomacy of that time presided - Count Metternich.
Important! The entire congress took place in conditions of secret and obvious rivalry between countries, conspiracies and intrigues, but despite this, it was Vienna that created what is called modern diplomacy.
Before the work began, two coalitions were formed:
The start of the Congress of Vienna was delayed for a long time, there were reasons for this: intricate intrigues and political confrontation. By November 1, it was finally possible to develop an appropriate declaration.
Since negotiations had been in full swing for a long time, the official no opening ceremony was held.
France, whose interests were represented by an experienced diplomat Talleyrand, immediately managed to influence the decisions of other great powers, taking advantage of differences among the former members of the coalition.
All European powers took part in the negotiations, except Ottoman Empire . Who represented Russia at the congress? The composition of the participants was as follows (table):
Let us briefly look at the agreements reached. The main decisions taken during the negotiations were set out in the Final Act. Russia played a leading role at the congress, largely thanks to active work Alexander I, who secured for himself status of "Savior of Europe".
Each country received part of the land or restored to its former boundaries. In table form this can be represented as follows:
| A country | Territories |
| Kingdom of the Netherlands (new) | Holland + Austrian Netherlands + Luxembourg (accession of representatives of the House of Orange to the throne) |
| Austria (restoration of the borders and empire of the Austrian Habsburgs) | Austria + returned territories of Italy + Tyrol, Salzburg, Dalmatia. |
| Prussia (adding territories by decreasing French territory) | Prussia + part of the Polish lands (Western Poland and Polish Pomerania) |
| Denmark | Lost Norwegian territories (due to being an ally of Napoleonic France), but the return of Holstein (Germany) |
| Sweden | Sweden + Norwegian territories |
| France | Loss of part of the Austrian and German lands, transfer of Italian territories in favor of the Kingdom of Sardinia and the Lombardo-Venetian Kingdom. |
| Austria | Acquired a large number of Polish territories (Chervonnaya Rus + Lesser Poland) |
| Britannia | Protectorate over Malta and the Ionian Islands; the annexation of Hanover with its elevation to the rank of a kingdom under the protectorate of the British Crown. |
| Russian empire | The Duchy of Warsaw (Polish Kingdom) was annexed to the territory of the empire. |
During the territorial redistribution of European lands, most Poland suffered. In history this is sometimes called the “Fourth Repartition of Poland.”
Attention! The political contradictions and territorial differences that emerged at the beginning of the Congress of Vienna quickly ended after Napoleon returned to France (“Hundred Days”). Even before the Battle of Waterloo, all agreements were signed, according to which Russia and Prussia renounced part of their claims in order to preserve the anti-French military alliance.
Map of Europe after the Congress of Vienna.
Among other decisions taken at the Congress of Vienna are the following:
Attention! German diplomats particularly advocated for the political unification of the German states, which ultimately did not happen. A disunited Germany was beneficial to both Russia, Prussia and Austria.
Particularly important decisions are considered to be the creation of a union and new system of diplomatic relations between countries.
Division of European lands.
The system of international relations or the System of the European Concert, formed in Europe after the Congress of Vienna in 1814 -1815, enshrined:
The rules and principles of international diplomacy, formed at the Congress of Vienna and in the 20-30s, formed the basis of modern geopolitical system. We can say that it was at this time that the classical diplomacy.
The end of the Congress in Vienna meant the beginning new era in the life of European countries.
Holy Alliance was not a fully formed European diplomatic organization, but regularly performed its main function - maintaining conservative-monarchical orders in the new, post-Napoleonic Europe and the suppression of all national liberal movements. In 1815, three states joined the Union: Russian Empire, Austria and Prussia, but later almost all European states joined it, except Vatican, Britain and the Ottoman Empire.
Attention! The initiator of the creation of the Union was Emperor Alexander Pavlovich. On the one hand, he was motivated by the idea of becoming a peacemaker in Europe and preventing the emergence of new military conflicts. On the other hand, he wanted to strengthen monarchical regimes and his own power, preventing the spread of the ideas of liberalism, of which he himself had been an adherent for a long time (even “granted” a constitution to the Kingdom of Poland).
The Holy Alliance did not last long until it began (1853).
Congress of Vienna 1814-1815
Vienna system of international relations
The Congress of Vienna of 1814 - 1815 outlined a new balance of power in post-Napoleonic Europe, defining the leading role in international politics of such powers as Russian Empire, Austria, Prussia and Britain. At this congress it was formed new system diplomatic relations between countries, and the Holy Alliance became the strongest European diplomatic alliance for a long time.
The organization and holding of the Vienna Congress became a significant event both for European states and for the entire world practice in general. Let's consider some issues of its implementation in more detail.
Objectives: The Congress of Vienna was originally declared to be convened to determine the fate of the French Emperor Napoleon Bonaparte, and to develop and implement measures to prevent similar situations in the future. However, Friedrich Gentz, an adviser to the Austrian Chancellor Metternich, who was the General Secretary of the Congress of Vienna, wrote in February 1815: “Loud phrases about “restructuring the social order, updating the political system of Europe,” “Permanent peace based on a fair distribution of forces,” etc. d. and so on. were pronounced in order to calm the crowd and give this solemn meeting some appearance of dignity and grandeur, but the true goal of the Congress was to divide the inheritance of the vanquished among the victors” 11 Protopopov A.S., Kozmenko V.M., Elmanova N.S. History of international relations and foreign policy of Russia (1648-2000). Textbook for Universities / Ed. A.S. Protopopova. - M.: Aspect Press, 2001. - P.75.. And, indeed, all participants in the Congress sought to grab as much as possible at any cost, regardless of their contribution to the defeat of Napoleon 22 there..
Time of the Congress of Vienna: from September 1814 to June 1815.
Composition and number of participants: there were 216 delegates from the European winning countries at the Congress. The Russian delegation was headed by Emperor Alexander I, Great Britain - Keslreagh, and a little later - Wellington, Austria - Francis I, Prussia - Hardenberg, France - Charles-Maurice Talleyrand. The leading role in resolving the most important issues at the Congress was played by Alexander I and the Austrian Chancellor Metternich. In addition, despite the fact that Talleyrand represented defeated France, he managed to successfully defend its interests on a number of issues.
Plans of the participants of the Vienna Congress: All delegations came to the Congress in Vienna with certain plans.
1. Alexander I, whose troops were in the center of Europe, was not going to give up what he had conquered. He wanted to create the Duchy of Warsaw under his own auspices, giving it its own constitution. In exchange for this, in order not to offend his ally Frederick William III, Alexander hoped to transfer Saxony to Prussia.
2. Austria planned to regain the lands conquered from it by Napoleon, and to prevent a significant strengthening of Russia and Prussia.
3. Prussia really wanted to annex Saxony and retain Polish lands.
5. France, not counting on any territorial acquisitions, did not want the predominance of some European countries over others.
During the negotiations during the Congress of Vienna, a number of important scandalous events occurred:
· Firstly, England, France and Prussia entered into a secret agreement on January 3, 1815, which contained the obligation of the three powers to jointly prevent Saxony from joining Prussia on any terms. In addition, they agreed not to allow any redistribution of existing borders, that is, annexation of territories to a particular country or separation from them.
· Secondly, almost immediately after its conclusion, the above-mentioned secret agreement received scandalous publicity, which, naturally, influenced the work of the Vienna Congress. This happened in Paris during the historical period known as the "100 days". Having landed in France with a small group of soldiers and officers loyal to him, Napoleon entered Paris on March 19, 1815. One of three copies of the secret treaty was discovered in the office of the escaped Louis XVIII. At the direction of Napoleon, it was urgently transported to Alexander I, who handed it over to Metternich. Thus, all other delegations became aware of the “secret” conspiracy of some participants in the Vienna Congress.
· Thirdly, the very fact of the short-term restoration of Napoleon's empire was unexpected and unforeseen.
· Fourthly, an important event was the final defeat of Napoleon at Waterloo and the return of the royal Bourbon dynasty to Paris.
Results of the Congress of Vienna: In terms of its significance, the Congress of Vienna was a unique historical event. Its results can be summarized as follows:
1. A few days before Waterloo, namely on June 9, 1815, representatives of Russia, Austria, Spain, France, Great Britain, Portugal, Prussia and Sweden signed the Final General Act of the Congress of Vienna. According to its provisions, the inclusion of the territory of the Austrian Netherlands (modern Belgium) into the new Kingdom of the Netherlands was authorized, but all other Austrian possessions returned to Habsburg control, including Lombardy, the Venetian region, Tuscany, Parma and the Tyrol. Prussia received part of Saxony, a significant territory of Westphalia and the Rhineland. Denmark, a former ally of France, lost Norway to Sweden. In Italy, the power of the Pope over the Vatican and the Papal States was restored, and the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies was returned to the Bourbons. The German Confederation was also formed. Part of the Duchy of Warsaw created by Napoleon became part of the Russian Empire under the name the Kingdom of Poland, and the Russian emperor also became the Polish king.
In addition, the General Act contained special articles that related to relations between European countries. For example, rules were established for the collection of duties and navigation on the border and international rivers Mozyl, Meuse, Rhine and Scheldt; the principles of free navigation were determined; the annex to the General Act spoke of the prohibition of trade in blacks; In all countries, censorship was tightened and police regimes were strengthened.
2. After the Congress of Vienna, the so-called “Vienna system of international relations” emerged.
It was at the Congress of Vienna that three classes of diplomatic agents were established, which are still in use today. 11 The first class includes ambassadors and papal legates (nuncios); to the second - envoys (internunniums); to the third - chargés d'affaires; a unified procedure for the reception of diplomats was determined, and four types of consular offices were formulated. Within the framework of this system, the concept of great powers was formulated for the first time (then primarily Russia, Austria, Great Britain), and multichannel diplomacy finally took shape.
3. The decision was made to create the Holy Alliance.
Congress of Vienna 1814-1815 - a pan-European conference, during which a system of treaties was developed aimed at restoring the feudal-absolutist monarchies destroyed by the French Revolution of 1789 and the Napoleonic Wars, and new borders of European states were determined. The congress, held in Vienna from September 1814 to June 1815, chaired by the Austrian diplomat Count Metternich, was attended by representatives of all European countries (except the Ottoman Empire). The negotiations took place in conditions of secret and overt rivalry, intrigue and behind-the-scenes conspiracies.
On March 30, 1814, the Allies entered Paris. A few days later, Napoleon abdicated the throne and went into exile on the island of Elba. The Bourbon dynasty, overthrown by the revolution, returned to the French throne in the person of Louis XVIII, brother of the executed King Louis XVI. The period of almost continuous bloody European wars is over.
Restoration, if possible, of the old absolutist-noble regime: in some places - serfdom, in others - semi-serfdom; such was the social fundamental basis of the policy of the powers that united after the end of the war. In this regard, the achievements of the powers that defeated France in 1814 could not be called durable. Full recovery pre-revolutionary regime both in the economy and in politics after the crushing blows dealt French Revolution and Napoleon, it turned out to be not only difficult, but also hopeless.
Russia was represented at the congress by Alexander I, K.V. Nesselrode and A.K. Razumovsky (Johann von Anstett took part in the work of the special commissions);
Great Britain - R. S. Castlereagh and A. W. Wellington;
Austria - Franz I, K. Metternich,
Prussia - K. A. Hardenberg, W. Humboldt,
France - Charles Maurice de Talleyrand-Périgord
Portugal - Pedro de Sousa Holstein de Palmela
All decisions of the Congress of Vienna were collected in the Final Act of the Congress of Vienna. Congress authorized the inclusion of the territory of the Austrian Netherlands (modern Belgium) into the new Kingdom of the Netherlands, but all other Austrian possessions returned to Habsburg control, including Lombardy, the Venetian region, Tuscany, Parma and the Tyrol. Prussia received part of Saxony, a significant territory of Westphalia and the Rhineland. Denmark, a former ally of France, lost Norway to Sweden. In Italy, the power of the Pope over the Vatican and the Papal States was restored, and the Bourbons returned the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies. The German Confederation was also formed. Part of the Duchy of Warsaw created by Napoleon became part of the Russian Empire under the name the Kingdom of Poland, and the Russian Emperor Alexander I became the Polish king. Austria received the southern part of Lesser Poland and most of Red Ruthenia. Western lands Greater Poland with the city of Poznan and Polish Pomerania returned to Prussia. This division of Poland between powers is sometimes referred to in historical scholarship as the “Fourth Partition of Poland.”
International recognition of Switzerland's neutrality took place. The proclamation of the policy of neutrality had a decisive influence on the subsequent development of Switzerland. Thanks to neutrality, she managed not only to protect her territory from the devastating military conflicts of the 19th and 20th centuries, but also to stimulate economic development by maintaining mutually beneficial cooperation with the warring parties.
In the fall of 1814, representatives of all European powers gathered in Vienna for an international congress to resolve a complex set of issues inherited from the era of the French Revolution and the Napoleonic Wars. At the same time, each of the great powers sought to ensure only their own interests, and together they imposed their will on weaker states. The main issues were resolved by agreement between representatives of the great powers - Great Britain, Austria, Prussia and Russia. They quickly agreed on the new borders of France, but for a long time they could not overcome differences over Poland and Saxony.
Endless discussions at the Congress of Vienna were interrupted by Napoleon's return to power. Having fled from the Elbe in the spring of 1815 and landed in France with a small detachment, he soon victoriously entered Paris at the head of an army dissatisfied with the return of the Bourbons. These were Napoleon's famous "Hundred Days". The emperor waited for some time, hoping to conclude a favorable agreement with the powers, and then launched an offensive in Belgium. The short-term war ended on June 18, 1815 near the Belgian village Waterloo, where Prussian and English troops, with the participation of local militia, defeated Napoleon's army.
Meanwhile, the Congress of Vienna practically completed its work. The powers managed to reach a compromise on the most difficult issue, which in reality meant another division of Poland. On June 8, 1815, a constitution was proclaimed German Confederation, which replaced the Holy Roman Empire of the German nation, and the next day the solemn signing of the General Act of the Congress of Vienna took place.
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