The struggle of the peoples of Europe against Napoleon ended in the collapse of the French Empire. However, this did not bring the long-awaited freedom to the peoples.
The victory over Napoleon was used in their own interests by a coalition of monarchist, mostly feudal-absolutist states. The destruction of the Napoleonic empire therefore led to the triumph of the aristocratic-monarchist reaction in Europe.
The time between the Congress of Vienna and July revolution The year 1830 in France is characterized by the dominance of reactionary forces in all European countries. The aristocratic-monarchist reaction tried to hold back the progressive development of society, to restore the absolutist order, destroyed by the French bourgeois revolution and under its powerful influence. But these attempts met with resolute opposition from the growing forces of the new, capitalist society.
From October 1814 to June 1815, the congress of representatives of the European powers met in Vienna. main role Russian Emperor Alexander I, Chancellor of the Austrian Empire Metternich, British Foreign Minister Castlereagh, Prussian Foreign Minister Hardenberg, French Foreign Minister Talleyrand played at the congress. Fighting and bargaining with each other, they determined the main decisions of the congress.
The goal set by the leaders of the congress was to eliminate the political changes and transformations that had taken place in Europe as a result of the French bourgeois revolution and the Napoleonic Wars. They defended in every possible way the principle of "legitimism", i.e., the restoration of the "legitimate" rights of former monarchs who had lost their possessions. In reality, the principle of "legitimism" was only a cover for the arbitrariness of reaction.
Ignoring the national interests of the peoples, the Congress of Vienna, at its own discretion, redrawn the map of Europe. Belgium was annexed to Holland, turned into the Kingdom of the Netherlands. Norway was given to Sweden. Poland was again divided between Russia, Prussia and Austria, with most of the former Grand Duchy of Warsaw passing to Russia.
Prussia acquired part of Saxony and Westphalia, as well as the Rhineland. Austria was given back the lands taken from it during the Napoleonic Wars. Lombardy and the possessions of the former Republic of Venice, as well as Salzburg and some other territories, were annexed to the Austrian Empire.
Italy, about which Metternich contemptuously said that she "represents nothing more than a geographical concept," was again fragmented into a number of states given over to the power of the old dynasties. In the Sardinian kingdom (Piedmont), to which Genoa was annexed, the Savoy dynasty was restored.
The Grand Duchy of Tuscany, the Duchies of Modena and Parma passed into the possession of various representatives of the House of Austria. In Rome, the secular power of the pope was restored, to whom his former possessions were returned. In the Kingdom of Naples, the Bourbon dynasty established itself on the throne.
The small German states liquidated by Napoleon were not restored, and the number German states decreased by almost 10 times. Nonetheless political fragmentation Germany has survived. In Germany, 38 states remained, which, together with Austria, only formally united in the German Confederation.
The Congress of Vienna legalized the colonial conquests made by the British during the war from Spain and France; England took the island of Ceylon, the Cape of Good Hope, Guiana from Holland. In addition, England retained the island of Malta, which was of great strategic importance, and the Ionian Islands. Thus, England consolidated its dominance on the seas and in the colonies.
Switzerland's borders were somewhat expanded, and the congress declared it an eternally neutral state.
In Spain, back in April 1814, the monarchy of the Spanish Bourbons was restored.
The "Final Act" of the Congress of Vienna, worked out as a result of a long struggle in an atmosphere of secret agreements and intrigues, was signed on June 9, 1815.
Article 6 of this act declared the readiness of the powers that signed it to maintain peace and maintain the invariability of territorial boundaries.
The main result was that the Congress of Vienna created new system international relations in Europe, based on the dominance of the four "great powers" (Russia, England, Austria, Prussia), which France joined in 1818 after the withdrawal of the allied troops. For the first time after the Congress of Vienna, the decisive role in this system was played by Russia, which had no equal in the international arena after the Napoleonic wars. England and Austria also had a significant influence on European politics. Prussia was just beginning to strengthen, and France was significantly weakened by the terms of the peace treaty, according to which the independence of France was recognized, but only "to the extent that it is compatible with the security of the allies and the general tranquility of Europe"27. In fact, this meant the possibility of interference in the internal affairs of France by other great powers. So, in France until 1818 the troops of the allies were stationed.
However, the "Vienna system" proved to be fragile. The common enemy has disappeared, and the sharpest disagreements between different countries were preserved. None of the powers was completely satisfied with the results of the Congress of Vienna: old contradictions were replaced by new ones.
England, having received a significant part of the French colonies, intensified its expansion around the world, which inevitably led it into conflicts with other powers. The interests of Austria, which had achieved dominance in Germany, came into conflict with the interests of Prussia. And all states were afraid that the Russian emperor would become the sole ruler of Europe. To prevent possible conflict the great powers needed common goal that would bring them together. And such a goal was the struggle against revolutions and the liberation movement in Europe. The initiator of such a union was Alexander I. On September 14, 1815, he sent a declaration to the King of Prussia and the Emperor of Austria, in which he called on them “in all cases and in every place”28 to defend absolute monarchical power and fight against revolutions and popular movements. This was beneficial to all monarchs, who gladly supported the initiative of the Russian emperor and created the so-called Holy Alliance. Officially, it included the rulers of Russia, Austria and Prussia, who undertook, in the event of a threat to any of them, “to give each other benefits, reinforcements and assistance”29. In fact, England also participated in the activities Holy Union. The creation of the Holy Union did not completely remove the contradictions between its members. They manifested themselves as the political situation in Europe became more complicated.
Russia's policy in Europe at that time was ambivalent, which is connected with personality and political views Emperor Alexander I.
On the one hand, Russia was an active participant in the Holy Alliance, supported its measures to suppress liberation movements. On the other hand, there were elements of liberalism in the international policy of Alexander I. So, Alexander I introduced a constitution in the Kingdom of Poland, which became part of Russia after the Congress of Vienna. The policy of Alexander I was also uncertain in relation to the national liberation movement that flared up in Greece, which sought to overthrow Turkish oppression and become an independent state. In terms of the principles of the Holy Alliance, Russia had to support the Turkish government. But the difficulty was that the Greeks were Orthodox, and the Turks were Muslims, and the struggle of the Greeks for independence enjoyed great popularity and support in Russian society. In addition, it was politically beneficial for Russia to support the Greeks, since the liberation Orthodox Greece could strengthen Russian influence in the Balkans. In 1820-1821. in the Austrian cities of Troppau (now the city of Opava in the Czech Republic) and Laibach (now Ljubljana), a congress of the Holy Alliance was held. It took place in the atmosphere of the upsurge of the revolutionary movement in Europe. In 1820 there were uprisings in Spain and Italy. The struggle of the Greeks for independence continued. Even in Russia, just during the work of the congress, unrest of soldiers broke out in the Semyonovsky Guards Regiment. All this rallied the great powers for a time, and they unanimously condemned the rebellious Greeks. Alexander I, contrary to the interests of Russia, supported this opinion, but after a few years he changed his position: the Greeks were provided with diplomatic support, which contributed to their liberation from the Turks. But the contradictions between the great powers were again not eliminated, and subsequently they only aggravated. The Holy Alliance turned out to be a fragile formation. The political order in Europe, based on the monarchical principles of the Holy Alliance, did not last long.
Congress of Vienna and its decisions
From October 1814 to June 1815, the congress of representatives of the European powers met in Vienna. The main role at the congress was played by the Russian Emperor Alexander I, Chancellor of the Austrian Empire Metternich, British Foreign Minister Castlereagh, Prussian Foreign Minister Hardenberg, and French Foreign Minister Talleyrand. feuding and bargaining with each other, they determined the main decisions of the congress.
The goal set by the leaders of the congress was to eliminate the political changes and transformations that had taken place in Europe as a result of the French bourgeois revolution and the Napoleonic wars. They defended in every possible way the principle of "legitimism", i.e., the restoration of the "legitimate" rights of former monarchs who had lost their possessions. In reality, the principle of "legitimism" was only a cover for the arbitrariness of reaction.
Ignoring the national interests of the peoples, the Congress of Vienna, at its own discretion, redrawn the map of Europe. Belgium was annexed to Holland, turned into the Kingdom of the Netherlands. Norway was given to Sweden. Poland was again divided between Russia, Prussia and Austria, with most of the former Grand Duchy of Warsaw passing to Russia. Prussia acquired part of Saxony and Westphalia, as well as the Rhineland. Austria was given back the lands taken from it during the Napoleonic Wars. Lombardy and the possessions of the former Republic of Venice, as well as Salzburg and some other territories, were annexed to the Austrian Empire.
Italy, about which Metternich contemptuously said that she "represents nothing more than a geographical concept," was again fragmented into a number of states given over to the power of the old dynasties. In the Sardinian kingdom (Piedmont), to which Genoa was annexed, the Savoy dynasty was restored. The Grand Duchy of Tuscany, the duchies of Modena and Parma passed into the possession of various representatives of the Austrian House of Habsburg. In Rome, the secular power of the pope was restored, to whom his former possessions were returned. In the Kingdom of Naples, the Bourbon dynasty established itself on the throne.
The small German states liquidated by Napoleon were not restored, and the number of German states was reduced by almost 10 times. Nevertheless, Germany's political fragmentation persisted. In Germany, 38 states remained, which, together with Austria, only formally united in the German Confederation.
The Congress of Vienna legalized the colonial conquests made by the British during the war from Spain and France; England took the island of Ceylon, the Cape of Good Hope, Guiana from Holland. In addition, England retained the island of Malta, which was of great strategic importance, and the Ionian Islands. Thus, England consolidated its dominance on the seas and in the colonies.
Switzerland's borders were somewhat expanded, and the congress declared it an eternally neutral state.
In Spain, back in April 1814, the monarchy of the Spanish Bourbons was restored.
The “Final Act” of the Congress of Vienna, worked out as a result of a long struggle in an atmosphere of secret agreements and intrigues, was signed on June 9, 1815. Article 6 of this act declared the readiness of the powers that signed it to observe peace and maintain the immutability of territorial borders.
Question 01. Tell us about the life of the Parisian nobility during the empire. How was Napoleon's power exalted?
Answer. The nobility was new, formed from the big bourgeoisie and the top of the army. She tried in many ways to copy the life of the pre-revolutionary nobility in the presence of new slogans (toasts, songs). It was possible to copy the old aristocracy, first of all, in luxury, but in the field of taste, sophistication of manners. new nobility lack of upbringing and education. The exaltation of Napoleon's power was the main manifestation of loyalty and the key to career growth. The emperor’s birthday was added to the national holidays, all masses in churches ended with a prayer for the emperor, etc.
Question 02. List the reasons for the weakening of the Napoleonic empire.
Answer. The reasons:
1) the strongest crop failures within two years;
2) the continental blockade caused a decline in production;
3) due to constant wars, taxes increased;
4) the ongoing war in the Iberian Peninsula required more and more resources;
5) a huge blow to the empire caused the death of almost the entire great army in Russia.
Question 03. On what occasion were the words "brilliant chimera" said? Explain their meaning. Do you agree with Fouche's opinion?
Answer. Minister Fouche allegedly said these words about Napoleon's plans to conquer Russia. But this is known only from his memoirs, so perhaps he attributed this phrase to himself when the result of the campaign had long been known. Regarding the correctness of this phrase, it is worth recalling that Napoleon was not going to conquer Russia, he wanted to defeat her army (preferably not far from the border) and thereby force Alexander I to actually observe the continental blockade.
Question 04. What events in history received the name "Napoleon's Hundred Days"? Tell about them.
Answer. So called the period between the return of Napoleon from the island of Elba to his second abdication, as a result of which he ended up on the island of St. Helena. Napoleon voluntarily left his place of exile with a handful of soldiers and landed on the French coast. The government sent troops against him several times, but they went over to the side of the emperor. Napoleon even sent a playful message to Louis XVIII: "King, my brother, do not send me more soldiers, I have enough of them." Very quickly, Bonaparte again subjugated all of France and went to Belgium, where he was defeated at the Battle of Waterloo by the combined army of Great Britain, Prussia, the Netherlands, Hanover, Nassau and Brunswick-Luneburg. After that, the emperor hastily arrived in Paris and signed his second and final abdication there.
Question 05. Complete the table (see tasks for § 11).
Question 06. Determine the significance of the decisions of the Congress of Vienna in the history of Europe. Show territorial changes on the map.
Answer. The Congress of Vienna determined the post-war structure of Europe. For the first time in history, he documented the principles of international relations, which were supposed to prevent new pan-European wars. However, many others possible consequences succeeded in preventing French diplomacy led by Talleyrand. The latter was able to sow mutual distrust between the delegations of the victorious countries; as a result, France did not suffer significant territorial losses and retained the status of a great European power.
Question 07. Which countries formed the Holy Alliance? What tasks did they set for the organization?
Answer. The Holy Alliance was created by Austria, Prussia and Russia, but soon all other European sovereigns and governments joined it, not excluding Switzerland with German free cities; only the English prince-regent and the Pope did not subscribe to it, which did not prevent them from being guided by the same principles in their policy; the Turkish sultan was not accepted as a member of the Holy Alliance as a non-Christian sovereign.
The members of the union set themselves the task of preserving the legitimate rulers in all countries of Europe and counteracting any manifestations of the revolution by all means, up to the introduction of their troops into the territory of other states, even without the consent of the monarchs of these states.
In the last days of March 1814, the Allied troops triumphantly entered Paris. This meant the complete defeat of Napoleonic France and the final cessation of many years of European wars. Napoleon himself soon abdicated and was exiled to Elba, and the victorious allies sat down at the negotiating table to remake the map of European countries.
For this, the Congress of Vienna was convened, which was held in Austria in 1814-1815. It was attended by representatives of Russia, England, Austria, Prussia, France and Portugal.
The main issues considered were the following: the redistribution of Europe in favor of the victorious countries, the restoration of monarchical power in Europe and the prevention of any possibility of Napoleon returning to power.
In France, representatives of the Bourbon dynasty were restored in their rights, and the throne was taken by Louis XVIII, the closest heir to the executed. In addition, the winners wanted to restore the previous system - the feudal noble-absolutist. Of course, after all the political achievements French Revolution this goal was utopian, but nevertheless, for many years Europe entered the regime of conservatism and reaction.
The main problem there was a redistribution of land, especially Poland and Saxony. Russian emperor Alexander I wanted to annex the Polish lands to the territory of Russia, and give Saxony to the power of Prussia. But the representatives of Austria, England and France in every possible way prevented such a decision. They even signed a secret one against the territorial aspirations of Prussia and Russia, so at the first stage such a redistribution did not take place.
In general, the Congress of Vienna showed that the main preponderance of forces was observed in Russia, Prussia, England and Austria. Bargaining and feuding among themselves, the representatives of these countries carried out the main redistribution of Europe.
In the spring of 1815, Napoleon managed to escape from Elba, he landed in France and began a new military campaign. However, his soldiers were soon completely defeated at Waterloo, and the Congress of Vienna in 1815 began to work in an accelerated mode. Now its participants tried to make final decisions on the territorial structure of Europe as quickly as possible.
In early July 1815, the General Act of the Congress was signed, according to which France was deprived of all previously conquered lands. To Russia departed which was now called the Kingdom of Poland. The Rhineland, Posen, Westphalia and most of Saxony were transferred to Prussia. Austria annexed Lombardy, Galicia and Venice to its territory, and in the principalities (German Union), this country turned out to be the most influential. Of course, this affected the interests of the Prussian state.
In Italy, the Sardinian kingdom was restored, annexing Savoy and Nice to it, while affirming the rights of the Savoy dynasty. Tuscany, Modena and Parma came under the authority of the Austrian representatives. Rome again came under the authority of the Pope, who was given back all his former rights. In Naples, the Bourbons sat on the throne. The Kingdom of the Netherlands was formed from Holland and Belgium.
The small German states that Napoleon abolished were, for the most part, never restored. Their total number has decreased by almost ten times. Nevertheless, the fragmentation of Germany, which now had 38 states, remained as before.
England passed the colonial lands that she had taken from Spain, France and Holland. and Ceylon, Guiana, the Ionian Islands are now finally entrenched in the British kingdom.
A confederation of nineteen Swiss cantons was formed, which proclaimed "perpetual neutrality". Norway was transferred to the power of Sweden, removing it from Denmark.
But at the same time, without exception European states they feared the excessive strengthening of Russia, since it was this country that belonged to the role of the winner over the Napoleonic troops.
The Vienna Conference ended there, but in the autumn of 1815 Alexander I decided to consolidate the new European order and establish the leading role of Russia and England. On his initiative, an agreement was signed on the creation of which included Austria, Prussia and Russian empire. According to the agreements, these states promised to help each other in the event of revolutions or popular uprisings.
The Congress of Vienna and its decisions had a decisive influence on the entire European system. Only after 1917, when the First World War, the European territory will be redrawn again.
