First map, which is mentioned, was created on a piece clay.
Imagine how difficult it would be to describe in words all the buildings in your city. It is easier to depict or their position.
Here is the map!
The first map that is mentioned was created on a piece of clay, which was then fired. It was in Egypt over 4000 years ago.
In ancient times, landowners depicted on the maps of their possessions, kings - the lands of their kingdom.
But when a person tried to depict the location of distant objects on a map, he encountered.
This is due to the fact that the Earth is round, so measuring large ones is enough.
Astronomers were of great help to the first cartographers, as their studies were related to the size and shape of the Earth.
Eratosthenes, who was born in 276 BC in Greece, determined the diameter of the Earth. His data was close to real.
His technique for the first time made it possible to correctly calculate the distance to the north and south.
Around the same time, Hipparchus proposed dividing the world map into equal parts along parallels and meridians.
The exact position of these imaginary lines, he believed, would be based on study.
Ptolemy in the second century AD, using this idea, created a corrected map, divided into equal parts by parallels and meridians.
His textbook on geography was the main one in this subject even after the discovery. Discoveries and other travelers have expanded interest in maps and diagrams.
In 1570, Abraham Ortelius published the first collection of maps in Antwerp. The founder of modern cartography is Geradus Mercator.
On his maps, straight lines corresponded to curved lines on a globe. This made it possible to draw a straight line between two points on the map, as well as to determine by the compass.
Such a map is called a "projection", it "projects", or translates the surface of the Earth onto a map.
On the title page of the book (collection of maps) by Abraham Ortelius, the giant Atlas was depicted.
That is why a collection of maps today we call an "atlas".
The world's first jigsaw puzzle was invented by the English cartographer John Spilsbury around 1760. But it was intended not for entertainment, but for educational purposes, as it was a map of Europe cut into states. This teaching method was very visual and the children really liked it, and only many years later other people came up with the idea of releasing game puzzles.
❀ ❀ ❀First cards
Geographic maps have a long history.
Once upon a time, travelers on a long journey had no maps, no navigational instruments - nothing that would allow them to determine their location. I had to rely on my memory, the sun, the moon and the stars. People made sketches of the places they managed to visit - this is how the first maps appeared.
Since ancient times, maps have been one of the most important documents for any state. The rulers of many countries organized expeditions to explore unknown lands, and the main goal of all travelers was, first of all, to compile detailed geographical maps with the application of the most important landmarks on them: rivers, mountains, villages and cities.
The modern name "Map" comes from the Latin "charte", meaning "letter". Translated "chartes" means "a sheet or scroll of papyrus for writing."
It is difficult to determine when the first cartographic images appeared. Among archaeological finds on all continents you can see primitive drawings of the terrain made on stones, bone plates, birch bark, wood, the age of which scientists determine is about 15 thousand years.
The simplest cartographic drawings were already known in the conditions of primitive society, even before the birth of writing (appendix). This is evidenced by primitive cartographic images among peoples who, by the time they were discovered or studied, were at low levels of social development and did not have a written language (Eskimos North America, Nanais of the Lower Amur, Chukchi and Oduls northeast Asia, Micronesians of Oceania, etc.).
These drawings, made on wood, bark, etc. and often distinguished by great plausibility, served to satisfy the needs that arose from the conditions of the general labor of people: to indicate the ways of nomads, places of hunting, etc.
Preserved cartographic images carved on the rocks in the era of primitive society. Particularly remarkable are the Bronze Age rock paintings in the Camonica Valley ( Northern Italy), and among them a plan showing cultivated fields, paths, streams and irrigation canals. This plan is one of the oldest cadastral plans.
Before their appearance, oral stories were the main source of information about the location of an object. But as people began to travel more and more frequently, the need for long-term storage of information arose.
The most ancient of the surviving cartographic images include, for example, a city plan on the wall of Catal Huyuk (Turkey), dating from about 6200 BC. e., cartographic image on a silver vase from Maykop (about 3000 BC), cartographic images on clay tablets from Mesopotamia (about 2300 BC), numerous petroglyph maps of Valcamonica in Italy (1900 -1200 BC), the Egyptian map of gold mines (1400 BC), etc. From Babylon, through the Greeks, the Western world inherited the sexagesimal number system, based on the number 60, in which geographical coordinates are expressed today.
Early cartographers themselves were engaged in collecting descriptions various parts known by that time of the world, interrogating sailors, soldiers and adventurers and displaying the data obtained on a single map, and filling in the missing places with their imagination or honestly leaving blank white spots.
The first maps contained a huge number of inaccuracies: at first, no one even thought about the severity of measurements, scales, topographic signs. But even such cards were highly valued. With their help, it was possible to repeat the path traveled by the discoverer and avoid the troubles that lay in wait for travelers in many.
Starting from the VI century. BC e., the main contribution to the technology of creating maps in the ancient world was made by the Greeks, Romans and Chinese.
Unfortunately, no Greek maps of that time have been preserved, and the contribution of the Greeks to the development of cartography can only be assessed from textual sources - the works of Homer, Herodotus, Aristotle, Strabo and other ancient Greeks - and subsequent cartographic reconstructions.
Greek contributions to cartography included the use of geometry to create maps, the development of map projections, and the measurement of the earth.
It is believed that the ancient Greek scientist Anaximander is considered the Creator of the first geographical map. In the VI century. BC. he drew the first map of the then known world, depicting the Earth in the form of a flat circle surrounded by water.
The ancient Greeks were well aware of the spherical shape of the Earth, as they observed its rounded shadow during periods of lunar eclipses, saw ships appear from the horizon and disappear behind it.
The Greek astronomer Eratosthenes (circa 276-194 BC) as early as the 3rd century BC. e. accurately calculated the size of the globe. Eratosthenes wrote the book "Geography", for the first time using the terms "geography", "latitude" and "longitude". The book consisted of three parts. In the first part, the history of geography was outlined; the second describes the shape and size of the Earth, the boundaries of land and oceans, the climates of the Earth; in the third, the land was divided into parts of the world and sphrageds - prototypes of natural zones, and a description was made individual countries. He also compiled a geographical map of the inhabited part of the Earth.
As already noted above, Eratosthenes proved the sphericity of the Earth and measured the radius of the globe, and Hipparchus (about 190–125 BC) invented and used a system of meridians and parallels for cartographic projections.
In the Roman Empire, cartography was placed at the service of practice. For military, commercial and administrative needs, road maps were created. The most famous of them is the so-called Peutinger table (a copy of the 4th century map), which is a scroll of 11 glued sheets of parchment 6 m 75 cm long and 34 cm wide. It shows the road network of the Roman Empire from the British Isles to the mouth of the Ganges, which is about 104,000 km, with rivers, mountains, settlements.
The crowning achievement of the cartographic works of the Roman time was the eight-volume work "Guide to Geography" by Claudius Ptolemy (90-168), where he summarized and systematized the knowledge of ancient scientists about the Earth and the Universe; indicating the coordinates of many geographical points in latitude and longitude; which outlines the basic principles of creating maps and provides the geographical coordinates of 8000 points. And, which during the I4 centuries enjoyed such great popularity among scientists, travelers, merchants that it was reprinted 42 times.
"Geography" of Ptolemy contained, as already mentioned, all the information about the Earth available by that time. The maps attached to it differed in great accuracy. They have a degree grid.
Ptolemy compiled detailed map A land like no one has ever created before him. It depicted three parts of the world: Europe, Asia and Libya (as Africa was then called), the Atlantic (Western) Ocean, the Mediterranean (African) and the Indian Seas.
The well-known at that time rivers, lakes and peninsulas of Europe and North Africa were quite accurately depicted, which cannot be said about the lesser-known regions of Asia, recreated on the basis of fragmentary, often contradictory geographical information and data.
8000 (eight thousand) points of the Atlantic to the Indian Ocean were plotted by coordinates; the position of some of them was determined astronomically, and the majority was plotted along the routes.
The map is stretched to the east. On famous countries half of the card is given. In its southern part, a huge continent is depicted, called the Unknown Land.
Regardless of European traditions, cartography developed in China. The oldest surviving document on the official surveying of the country and the making of maps is from the Zhou Dynasty (1027-221 BC). And the most ancient Chinese maps of the surviving are considered to be maps on bamboo plates, silk and paper, discovered in the Fanmatang graves of the Qin (221-207 BC) and Western Han (206 BC - 25 AD) times. AD) dynasties, as well as in the Mawangdui graves of the Western Han dynasty.
These maps are comparable in character and detail to topographic maps. In terms of accuracy, they significantly exceeded even later European maps.
The main Chinese contribution to the creation of maps was the invention no later than the 2nd century. BC e. paper, on which maps began to be drawn, and a rectangular grid of coordinates, which was first used by the great Chinese astronomer and mathematician Zhang Heng (78-139 AD). Subsequently, Chinese cartographers invariably used a rectangular grid of coordinates.
A century later, the Chinese cartographer Pei Xiu (224-271) developed the principles of mapping based on the use of a rectangular grid of coordinates, as well as the principles of measuring distances based on the laws of geometry.
Invented by the Chinese in the 8th century. book printing allowed them to be the first in world history to start printing maps. The first surviving printed Chinese map dates from 1155.
Medieval cards
In the early Middle Ages, cartography fell into decline.
After the collapse in the IV century. During the Roman Empire, the scientific and cartographic achievements of Ancient Greece and Rome were forgotten in Europe for several centuries. Up to the X century. some revival in the creation of maps was observed only in monasteries, where, to illustrate theological works, small schematic maps of the world were placed - mappae mundi, depicting the Earth in the form of a circle divided into five thermal zones.
The question of the shape of the Earth ceased to be important for the philosophy of that time, many again began to consider the Earth flat. The so-called T and O maps became widespread, on which the surface of the Earth was depicted as consisting of a disk-shaped land surrounded by an ocean (letter O).
The land was depicted as divided into three parts Europe, Asia and Africa. Europe was separated from Africa by the Mediterranean Sea (lower part of the letter T), Africa from Asia by the Nile River (right side of the T crossbar), and Europe from Asia by the Don River (Tanais) (left side of the T crossbar).
Cartographers of that time, hiding their geographical ignorance, filled the map with various artistic drawings: deserts and forests were “inhabited” by wild animals, habitable places were filled with figures of people, the seas were decorated with drawings of ships and marine animals.
Against the backdrop of the decline of geography and cartography in Europe during the early Middle Ages, Arab cartography successfully developed (in general, Greek culture reached Europeans mainly thanks to the Arabs). The Arabs perfected Ptolemy's methods of determining the latitude, they learned to use observations of the stars instead of the Sun. This improved the accuracy. Here, in Baghdad, in the ninth century. was translated into Aramaic and then into Arabic Geography of Ptolemy.
The heyday of Arabic cartography is associated with the name of the Arab geographer and cartographer Idrisi (1100–c. 1165), who created a map of the part of the world known at that time on a silver plate measuring 3.5 x 1.5 m, as well as on 70 sheets of paper. An interesting feature of the Idrisi map, as well as other maps compiled by the Arabs, is that the south was depicted on top of the map.
The spread of the compass in the Mediterranean since the 10th-11th centuries and the needs of merchant shipping caused the appearance here at the end of the 13th century. the first navigation charts - portolan charts, or compass charts. Catalonia is considered their homeland. Portolan charts depicted in detail the coastline of the Mediterranean and Black Seas, indicated many geographical names, and at a number of points compass grids were applied indicating the position of the cardinal points and intermediate directions.
In addition, some of them depicted the coast of the Atlantic Ocean from Denmark to Morocco and the British Isles. In the second half of the XV century. numerous images of compass roses began to be placed on portolan charts. The oldest surviving portolan chart is the Pisa Map, dating from around the end of the 13th century.
A certain revolution in European cartography was arranged by the introduction of a magnetic compass at the end of the 13th and beginning of the 14th centuries. Appeared new type charts - detailed compass charts of the shores of portolans (portolans). A detailed image of the coastline on portolans was often combined with the simplest division into cardinal points T and O maps. The first portolan that has come down to us dates back to 1296. Portolans served a purely practical purpose, and as such cared little for taking into account the shape of the Earth.
In the middle of the XIV century, the era of the Great geographical discoveries.
Because of this, interest in cartography also intensified. Important Achievements cartographies of the pre-Columbian period - Fra Mauro's map (1459, this map, in a sense, adhered to the concept of a flat Earth) and "Earth's apple" - the first globe compiled by the German geographer Martin Beheim.
After the discovery of America by Columbus in 1492, new advances were made in cartography - a whole new continent appeared for exploration and imaging. The outlines of the American continent became clear already by the 1530s.
The invention of printing greatly helped the development of cartography.
The next revolution in cartography is the creation of the first atlases by Gerhardt Mercator and Abraham Ortelius globe. At the same time, Mercator had to create cartography as a science: he developed the theory of cartographic projections and a system of notation. And the name "atlas" was introduced for the collection of maps by the Flemish cartographer Gerard Mercator, who published "Atlas" in 1595.
An atlas of Ortelius called Theatrum Orbis Terrarum was printed in 1570, the full atlas of Mercator was not printed until after his death. All navigators of the 16th and early 17th centuries. used this atlas, which included 70 (seventy) large format maps, accompanied by an explanatory text.
Each map of his atlas is carefully engraved on copper and provided with a degree grid. On the map of the hemispheres, the continents of the Old and New Worlds were depicted in full detail, but their outlines did not yet correspond to reality. One of the maps is dedicated to the southern mainland (Magelania), which stretched from South Pole to 40-50 ° S, twice crossed the Tropic of Capricorn and was distant from South America Strait of Magellan. Tierra del Fuego and New Guinea were depicted as its peninsulas.
Improvement in the accuracy of maps is facilitated by more exact ways determination of latitudes and longitudes, the discovery by Snell in 1615 of the method of triangulation and the improvement of instruments - geodetic, astronomical and clocks (chronometers). Although some rather successful attempts at compiling large maps (Germany, Switzerland, etc.) were made at the end of the 14th century and in XVII centuries but only in the 18th century. we see great success in this regard, as well as a significant expansion of more accurate cartographic information in relation to Vost. and Sev. Asia, Australia, North. America, etc.
An important technical achievement of the 18th century was the development of methods for measuring heights above sea level and methods for displaying heights on maps. Thus, it became possible to take topographic maps. The first topographic maps were taken in the 18th century in France.
The first map of Russia called "The Big Drawing" was compiled, as scientists suggest, in the second half of the 16th century. However, neither the "Large Drawing" nor its subsequent supplemented and modified copies have come down to us. Only the appendix to the map has survived - "The Book of the Big Drawing". It contained interesting information about the nature and economic activity of the population, about the main roads and main rivers as communication routes, about "cities" and various defensive structures on the borders of the Russian state.
Thus, the geographical map is the greatest creation of mankind. It serves as a wonderful means of understanding and transforming the world around us. Engineers and researchers, geologists and agronomists, scientists and the military turn to her, and everyone finds the right answers to their questions.
When working with a map, it is possible to simultaneously survey a significant surface area or the entire surface of the Earth.
Only a map allows you to see and study mutual arrangement continents and quarters of cities, traffic flows between countries and bird migration routes.
With the help of the map, one can draw conclusions about many processes, processes and patterns of our planet. On some maps you can see the bottom of the ocean, the structure earth's crust, ice sheets of the past and even a glimpse into the future.
The primitive drawings of the area found by archaeologists on stones, birch bark, wood and even on a piece of mammoth tusk, whose age reaches about 15 thousand years, indicate that the origin of the map goes back to the distant past.
So, the map is not just the most important source of geographical knowledge, but a special means of information, it cannot be replaced by either text or a living word.
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Grandfather and woman are sitting near the hut on a bench. Grandfather says:
- Look, the tourists are coming. Now they are asking for directions.
- How do you know?!
- You see - they got the map ... they look at the compass.
(how it was)
It is difficult to say when the first prototype of the map appeared. Apparently, many thousands of years ago, when a person first needed to explain to his fellow tribesmen how to get to a source or cave suitable for habitation. We draw similar "maps" - diagrams today to explain to the interlocutor the location of any object.
The first professional cards originated in Mesopotamia and in ancient egypt. The development of the state, associated with trade and the development of new lands, would be very difficult without maps.
The first map of the world known to us in the modern sense of the word was compiled by the Greek materialist philosopher Alexander of Miletus (about 610 BC). It depicts the earth as a cylinder surrounded by water. In the 4th century BC.
Aristotle, observing the round shadow of the earth, at the moment lunar eclipse I came to the obvious conclusion that only a spherical object can give such a shadow. In the Middle Ages, the initiative in the development of geography and cartography passed to the scientists of the East. Abu Reyhan Muhammad ibn Ahmed al Biruni created his own geodesy or determined the boundaries of places to clarify the distances between villages. The situation changed with the beginning of the great era of great geographical discoveries.
Since that time, the ability to determine the coordinates geographical feature, and map the area has become a common skill of sailors and explorers of new lands. By the end of the 16th century all European part continent has already been studied and described in detail, which cannot be said about the Asian.
Experts note the accuracy, surprising for that time, with which the maps indicate: Chukotka, western Alaska, Kamchatka, Sakhalin, China, Mongolia, India. Under Tsar Peter the Great, a state topographic and cartographic service was established in Russia. In the 19th century, there were no unexplored objects left on the world map, with the exception of some islands in the Pacific Ocean, the North Polar and circumpolar regions.
The introduction of the metric system and the zero meridian greatly simplified the language of maps. Modern geodesy and cartography are fundamentally different from the science of the past. Satellite navigation systems make it possible to compile maps of various scales with extraordinary accuracy. But even today, like hundreds of years ago, the good old sextant is indispensable for the navigator and astronomer-surveyor.
P.S.- Sextant (in navigation - sextant) - a navigational measuring instrument,
used to measure the height of the sun above the horizon
to determine geographical coordinates terrain.
The company is going on a planned business trip:
- Is the city big?
- No, 3 megabytes...
And continues to download the map to the phone.
It is impossible to establish when a person made the first card. It is only known that many millennia before our era, man already knew the surrounding area well and knew how to depict it on sand or tree bark. These cartographic images served to indicate roaming routes, hunting places, etc.
Many more hundreds of years passed. People, in addition to hunting and fishing, began to engage in cattle breeding and agriculture. This new, higher stage of culture was also reflected in drawings-plans. They become more detailed, more expressive, more accurately convey the character of the area.
To this day, a very valuable ancient drawing hunting grounds of the North Caucasus. This engraving was made on silver around 3000 BC. e., i.e. This cultural monument of the inhabitants of the ancient Caucasus was found by scientists during excavations of one of the mounds on the banks of the river. Kuban near Maykop.
IN ancient world The drawing up of geographical maps has reached a great development. The Greeks established the sphericity of the Earth and its dimensions, introduced cartographic projections, meridians and parallels into science.
One of the most famous scientists of the ancient world, geographer and astronomer Claudius Ptolemy, who lived in the city of Alexandria (at the mouth of the Nile River) in the 2nd century, compiled a detailed map of the Earth, which no one had created before him.
This map shows three parts of the world - Europe, Asia and Libya (as Africa was then called), as well as Atlantic Ocean, Mediterranean and other seas. The map has already a degree grid. Ptolemy introduced this grid in order to more correctly depict the spherical shape of the Earth on the map. The rivers, lakes, peninsulas of Europe and North Africa known at that time are shown quite accurately on Ptolemy's map.
If we compare Ptolemy's map with the modern one, it is easy to see that the areas located far from the area mediterranean sea, i.e., known to Ptolemy only by rumor, received fantastic outlines.
Particularly striking is the fact that Asia is not depicted in its entirety. Ptolemy did not know where it ended in the north and east. He also did not know about the existence of the Arctic and Pacific Oceans. Africa continues on the map to the South Pole and passes into some kind of land, connecting in the east with Asia. Ptolemy did not know that Africa ended in the south and was washed by the ocean. He did not know about the existence independent continents America, Antarctica and Australia. Indian Ocean Ptolemy depicted a closed sea, into which it is impossible to pass on ships from Europe. And yet in ancient world and in subsequent centuries, until the 15th century, no one compiled the best card world than Ptolemy.
The Romans made extensive use of maps for administrative and military purposes; they compiled road maps.
During the Middle Ages, the achievements of ancient science were forgotten for a long time. The Church entered into a fierce struggle with scientific ideas about the structure and origin of the world.
Fables were taught in schools about the creation of the world by God in six days, about the global flood, about heaven and hell. The idea of the sphericity of the Earth was considered "heretical" by churchmen and was strictly persecuted. The idea of the Earth has taken on an absolutely fantastic form. In the VI century. Byzantine merchant monk Cosmas Indikoplios depicted the Earth in the shape of a rectangle.
The main type of maps are rough, far from reality and devoid of a scientific basis "monastery maps". They testify to the decline of cartography in medieval Europe. During this period, many small closed states arose in Europe. With a subsistence economy, these feudal states did not need connections with the outside world.
By the end of the Middle Ages, trade and navigation began to develop in the cities of Europe, art and science flourished.
In the XIII-XIV centuries. in Europe, a compass and marine navigation charts, the so-called portolans, appear.
On these maps, the coastline was depicted in detail and very accurately, while the inner parts of the continents remained empty or were filled with pictures from the life of the peoples inhabiting them.
The era of great geographical discoveries created the conditions for the rise of cartographic science: navigators needed a good, truthful geographical map. In the XVI century. more correct maps appeared, built in new cartographic projections.
Geographic maps include a lot of scientific material. If you compare different maps of the same area, study them, you can get a very detailed idea of \u200b\u200bthis area.
Therefore, maps are a huge source of knowledge. But a map can become a real source of knowledge only when you have a certain stock of geographical knowledge.
Anyone with knowledge of geography and the ability to read a map can accurately understand the terrain depicted on it, rivers, mountain lakes, high or low hills, cities and villages, railways.
