The roof of a house is a rather complex structure. It’s difficult to understand it even superficially if you don’t know the names of the roofing elements and their purpose. Anyone who does not understand the information presented is unlikely to understand what the craftsmen who were entrusted with the construction operation are talking about. roofing structure. Therefore, read carefully, look at the photographs, and be sure to open the video materials, where various roof elements will be offered for consideration.
But we will begin our analysis with one nuance. It is necessary to dot the i’s in terms of the question of how a roof differs from a roof. For ordinary people, these concepts mean the same thing. And many experts do not differentiate between them. It's easier to communicate this way. But purely in construction terminology, these are two different structures.
The roof is a part of the roof that includes the roof covering and several additional elements. A roof is a structure that protects a building from precipitation. That is, it is in its composition except roofing material has all other load-bearing and additional elements. And this will be discussed below. Now let’s figure out what the roof consists of.
You need to start by determining whether the roof structure includes sheathing or not. It’s difficult to say, because it was defined that the roof is the covering of the roof. That is, this clean water roofing material. But let's reason based on the type of the latter.
If these are panels or sheets, then the roofing is a covering in its purest form. If a soft roof is used for the roof, then the sheathing not only serves as a support for the roofing material. It forms the roof itself. That is, we can assume that it is in this case that the continuous sheathing is an element of the roof structure.
Since the conversation turned to flexible roofing materials, it should be noted that it is in them that we can talk about elements that are separate from each other. For example, bitumen shingles. Additional materials are used for its installation. Namely:
lining carpet;
valley carpet;
bitumen mastic, How adhesive composition and a waterproofing layer.
In addition to the three listed materials, other additional elements are also used in roofs with bitumen shingles, and not only. Here is their list:
cornice strip, with the help of which the opening between the laid rafter legs is closed, thereby protecting the attic space from wind, dust and light debris (leaves, twigs, etc.);
ridge strip, which covers the ridge of the roof, or rather the joint between two slopes, the plank can be round, flat or angular;
gable plank, it is also an end or wind shield, which is installed at the junction of the roof with the gables, protecting the gap from dust and debris entering the attic;
drips– these are planks in the form of a corner, which are mounted along the overhang of the eaves, their task is to create conditions for water to flow into the drainage system;
valley lower and upper, these are planks that form the drainage of water from the roof at the junction of the slopes along an inclined plane, the first is laid under the roofing material, the second on top of it;
abutment strips– this is a corner used to close the joint between the roofing material and a vertical plane, for example, a wall, chimney pipe, etc.;
snow guards: their main task is to restrain the avalanche-like descent of snow from the roof slopes; manufacturers offer several varieties of this element, which are selected according to the type of roofing material, but there are also universal models;
roof fencing– an enclosing structure installed around the perimeter of the roof for the safe presence of people on the roof during the production process repair work and service;
rubber cap for sealing round ventilation or chimney pipes that pass through the roof;
roof ladder laid directly on the slope, its purpose is to use it for repair work without stepping on the roofing.
These are all roofing elements with names and their purposes. They are mainly made from galvanized metal sheet: painted or coated with a polymer composition. This does not apply to fences, stairs and some types of snow guards that are made from steel profiles.
Another controversial issue concerns the materials used in the process of roof insulation. That is, they relate to the roof or roof. This is insulation, a layer of vapor and waterproofing. Again, this is a difficult question to answer, so we won’t go any further.
In principle, everything is done with the roof. Let's move on to the question of what the roof is made of.
On our website you can find contacts of construction companies that offer services roof design and repair. You can communicate directly with representatives by visiting the “Low-Rise Country” exhibition of houses.
Let’s immediately say that different roofing structures contain different elements. Some of them are the most important in some designs, in others they are simply absent as unnecessary. Some roofs are erected using a simplified design and technology, while others require more complete equipment with elements. So let's understand roofs.
The construction of the roof structure begins with laying the Mauerlat. This is a beam with a minimum cross-section of 100x100 mm, which is mounted on the walls of the house, to them different ways and fastens. For example, it is attached to brick walls with studs, which are pre-installed in a reinforcing concrete belt. They are attached to wooden ones with metal brackets.
Purpose of the Mauerlat– evenly distribute the loads coming from the entire roof structure. Because the mauerlat beam will be subject to point loads from the rafter legs. To prevent the walls from collapsing under their influence, the Mauerlat distributes the loads along the entire length of the walls.
The next most important element is the rafters. They are the ones who take on the weight of the roof, snow and wind, so these products are made from first-grade lumber, no lower. If boards are used for them, then the thickness of the latter should not be less than 40 mm.
There are certain rules for installing rafter legs depending on their length and cross-section. This mainly concerns the distance between them. The table below outlines this ratio.
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According to the type of installation, rafters are either hanging or layered. In the first case, their upper ends rest against each other. In the second case, they rest against the ridge girder at the top.
If the length of the rafters exceeds 4.5 m, then supports or struts made of beams or boards must be installed under them. Hanging rafter legs must be tied together with ties. All these additional elements are installed either separately or all together.
The video shows how to choose a rafter system for different types of roofs:
An important element of the roof. It forms the ridge, but in a structure with layered rafter legs it is a support for them. The ridge run must be installed horizontally. And they are made from timber or double boards.
The purlin cannot stand on its own, so racks are installed under it. They are placed evenly at the same distance from each other. Sometimes the place of the outer supports is taken by pediments built from bricks or blocks.
Another important element of the roofing structure. Its purpose is to support the posts under the ridge girder. In fact, this is part of the Mauerlat, but not necessarily installed on the wall of the building. The bench can also act as a load-bearing beam.
Let us add that there may be several lying on the roof. Intermediate ones are installed under racks that support rafters longer than 4.5 m.
Depending on the type of roof, other parts are used. For example, the hip variety. Firstly, it is a hipped roof, where two opposite slopes are trapezoids, the other two are triangles. Therefore, the rafter system here is divided into four equal structures in pairs. But the basis of the system is the ridge run. The main part of the rafters of the trapezoidal slopes rests on it.
All other rafter legs rest against diagonal rafters, they are also inclined ribs or skates. It is these elements that create unusual shape roofs. So, shortened rafters are called narozhniki. Their lower ends rest against the Mauerlat, and their upper ends rest against the diagonal ribs. The triangular slopes are completely formed by narozhniks.
Another element of the hip roof is the truss. This is the name given to the support post that supports the diagonal rafter.
Complex roof structures have different elements that are not found in simpler structures. For example, valley. This is the junction of two slopes, the connection of which is internal corner. Be sure to lay it along the valley rafter leg, and the top is covered with two boards on two different slopes, as shown in the photo below.
Mansard roofs have an element called the top trim. This is nothing more than purlins on which the rafters rest: the upper ends with the lower ends, the lower ones with the upper ends. Part of the upper trim is formed by pediments. It is clear that support posts must be installed under the harness.
So, we have reviewed the main elements of the roof with names and their exact purpose. It should be noted that the decision to select each part must be approached with preliminary calculations. This mainly concerns loads. In principle, there is nothing complicated in the calculations. But this is a topic for another article.
The video explains in detail all the elements of a complex roof:
We understood the topic of what elements the roof and roofing consist of. The most important thing is to no longer confuse both concepts, and, accordingly, their structural elements. Although in everyday life, and even between builders, such a division is not observed. But if somewhere there is a conversation about the roof, then immediately understand that we will talk about the upper part of the roof.
The choice of a specific roof and roofing must be made at the design stage of the building. Modern technologies and building materials allow architects to create a huge variety of solutions, both design features, as well as the coatings and technologies used. When choosing a specific solution, it is taken into account a large number of factors affecting roof elements. Despite such a variety of roof types and designs, they all have several common elements.
| Roof element name | Short description |
|---|---|
| It can be flat, single-slope, gable, multi-slope hip, complex, domed, etc. The rafters themselves can be layered and hanging, whole or extendable. |
| Depending on the type of roofing materials, it can be solid or lattice. Some roofs have a special ventilation counter-lattice. |
| Used during the installation of warm roofs, it consists of a vapor barrier layer, insulation and wind protection. |
| Can be rolled or pieced, made of natural or artificial materials. Roofing materials have a significant impact on its cost and complexity of roofing work. |
The table shows only general names; each type of roof has its own additional elements. Roofs may have windows and gables, gutters and other engineering structures.
Let's look at the most commonly used roof elements using the example of one of the most complex structures – hip roof with a bay window.
The roof in question does not have gables, the main part is covered with a gable hip, the bay window has a hip roof.
Pediment is the front part of a wall of various shapes. On the sides it is limited by two slopes, in the lower part by a cornice. Pediments are most often made from the same building materials as facade walls, but there are other options for constructing these elements.
IN Lately The geometric appearance of the pediments has expanded significantly; now you can find the following forms:
On ordinary buildings, gables most often have a traditional triangular shape.
The part of the roof located between the outer rafters. May have the shape of a trapezoid, rectangle, triangle, etc.
IN apartment buildings roofs are most often single-pitched flat, slope - concrete slab ceilings Such roofs have roll coverings, in some cases may be exploitable. They do it on them winter gardens, recreation areas, swimming pools and other elements to improve the comfort of your stay.
The part of the building protruding beyond the projection of the facade with its own separate roof. The roof of a bay window can be semicircular, rectangular or multi-faceted. In our example, the bay window is symmetrical and located exactly in the middle of the facade wall. The dimensions of the building are 11x13.5 m. The rafter legs and vertical supports rest on the mauerlats and beds.
It is made of boards or timber, fixed along the perimeter of the facade walls or to a specially prepared reinforcing belt. The lower ends of the rafter legs rest on the Mauerlat. The element must be firmly fixed; if the masonry materials of the facade walls do not have high levels of physical strength, then a reinforcing belt must be installed under the Mauerlat. In cobblestone houses, the upper crown is used as a mauerlat. To prevent the walls from spreading, metal or wooden dowels of large diameter and length are used; they connect several crowns of the house together.
Made from timber or boards, attached to load-bearing interior partitions directly to the masonry materials or armored belt, serves as a support for various stops rafter system.
Waterproofing should always be laid between walls and wooden elements; ordinary roofing felt is considered a universal and best option. If you have extra money and a desire to spend it, you can buy modern mastics based on modified bitumen. The construction effect is the same, the financial effect is much different from the option with roofing felt.
This architectural element can be applied to both the ceiling and the roof. The fact is that many supports of the rafter system rest on these beams; without them, the construction of complex roofs is impossible.
The distance between the beams is selected taking into account standard sizes insulation materials. When installing these elements, the features of the bay window roof should be taken into account; the beams must support all rafter legs. The corner beams of the bay window are located on the bisector of the corner, otherwise the roof and the overhang of the cornice will be asymmetrical. Placed on mauerlats and beds or on walls.
The element that separates the vertical plane of the wall from the plane of the roof is called a cornice.
May have several varieties.
If the building has a wooden cornice, then it is recommended to hem it with boards immediately after installing the beams; this greatly simplifies the work on the further construction of the rafter system. In addition, the cornice itself is also much easier to hem immediately after installing the beams. Once the floor beams and cornice are ready, you can begin installing the support frame.
One of the most important load-bearing elements of the roof. Consists of vertical supports nailed to the beams and horizontal ridge girders. The dimensions of the support frame depend on the size of the roof; complex options may have several support frames: one is installed under the ridge, the rest in the weakest places of the rafters.
The joint line of the upper parts of the roof slopes. Simple roofs have only one ridge; complex roofs have several.
A special device is installed on the supporting frame of the bay window roof - a centering core.
Roofing ridge
All the rafters of the bay window roof converge on it. This is a centering element approximately 50 cm high and about thirty centimeters thick. It is made from solid lumps or laminated boards, serves as a support for the rafters, and is fixed on the vertical support of the bay window frame.
The most important and most famous element of the roof. They bear all the forces of the roof and are made of boards various sizes. The calculation is done at the house design stage. At the top, the rafters are fixed to each other or to the ridge board, they can rest against the ridge girder or have a separate support frame.
At the bottom, the rafter legs rest against the mauerlat and can be hanging on layers.
They are attached to the rafters, lengthen these elements, allowing you to reduce the cost of the rafter system and improve it performance characteristics. To make fillies, thin boards can be used; significant forces are not applied to them. The fillies allow you to extend the slope beyond the wall to a considerable distance and additionally protect the gable walls from the negative effects of natural precipitation.
Purpose - to improve the appearance of the overhangs of the roof slopes, to minimize the risk of the roof being undermined by sharp gusts of wind. It is made of boards, then covered with wooden or plastic soffits.
Used only in complex multi-pitched roofs, the longest elements of the rafter system. They require special attention during manufacturing and installation.
Special elements to increase the rigidity of fixation of corner rafters. They can rest on floor beams or specially installed elements.
The largest elements of a complex roof cover the bay window. One end rests against the centering core, where the upper edge meets, and the other end against the beams.
This is the general initial structure of the roof; in the future, it is necessary to install various vertical, horizontal and inclined connections to increase the rigidity of the structure and increase its load-bearing capacity. The quantity is calculated individually for each roof; each truss option may have significant differences. But there is common types elements of rafter systems.
It is installed at an angle to the vertical, one end rests against the rafter, the other against the vertical support and the floor beam.
It supports the rafter leg, is installed vertically, the lower end rests against the floor beam.
It is mounted in the upper third of the rafter leg, installed at an angle, the lower end rests against a horizontal tie.
Fixes two rafter legs into the truss structure.
Racks, ties and struts are made of boards, long vertical supports and purlins are made of timber. Designers often suggest making these elements from paired boards, which is cheaper and more reliable. Paired boards always have higher bending resistance than timber of the same thickness.
The junction of the slopes under obtuse angle. The most dangerous element of the roof, this is where leaks most often occur. A special beam or board is installed in the valleys, which is called a valley. During the construction of valleys, you need to use only high-quality lumber, and be sure to take measures to protect them from rotting and damage by pests.
They are used to strengthen the structure on large roofs, made from bars or boards.
All elements of the rafter system must be rigidly fixed to each other. This can be done either with the help of modern metal perforated plates and corners, or with ordinary nails or metal staples. After all the work is completed, you can begin making the sheathing.
Holds roofing material technical specifications depends on physical characteristics roofing coverings. The sheathing can be solid or lattice. A very important element from the point of view of the longevity of the roof. The sheathing must ensure that the roofing will not sag under the weight of the snow cover, the sheets of metal tiles are firmly fixed and will not come off due to sudden gusts of wind.
Sheathing can be made from either new or used lumber. The main requirement for them is the absence of putrefactive damage. Appearance does not matter; the sheathing is always hidden by roofing coverings.
Mounted on warm roofs, provides adequate natural ventilation conditions to remove moisture. Increases the service life of the roof and prevents premature failure of loaded elements of the rafter system. The linear parameters of the counter-lattice have strict standardized values. Failure to follow the recommendations of professionals causes a violation of the effectiveness of natural ventilation; the consequences of such a situation are very unpleasant.
They are fixed on the sheathing from the side of the gables. They perform two functions: they prevent roof undermining and improve the appearance of the house. Can be wooden, metal or plastic.
They improve the design appearance of the roof and prevent the rafter system from getting wet. Made from metal or lumber.
Construction boards
The main task is to create an airtight roof covering and protect the interior from wind, rain and snow. Currently, there are many types of roofing, each roof element has its own specifications. When choosing, you need to look not so much at the cost, but at the operating time. Cheap roofing It lasts for about ten years; economically, it is very expensive to completely replace the roof after such a short service life.
The element is present only in warm roofs and consists of several layers.
Warm roof elements may have various names materials used, but this does not change their structural function.
Purpose - to drain melt and rain water from the roof slopes, to prevent excessive soil moisture under the foundation of the building, to protect the base from waterlogging. These roof elements can be made of plastic or metal and have different prices and shapes. But they always consist of the same elements.
This roofing element performs two functions: it protects gutters from excessive forces during the spring melting of snow from the roof slopes and prevents injury to pedestrians. Snow guards are made of metal pipes or sheet steel. They must be fixed to the rafters or sheathing; screwing only to the roof in places where it sag is prohibited. The choice of a specific type of snow guards and their installation locations depends on the climatic zone of the building.
Roof elements can be residential or non-residential. Recently, residential attic spaces have been called attics, but they were used for such purposes before. Unfortunately, not as often as many home owners would like. The problem was the extreme backwardness of Soviet construction technologies and materials. As soon as imported goods appeared on the domestic market, attics became very popular in our country.
Non-residential attic spaces are most often used in various extensions and utility buildings. They are used only for storing various things; in rural areas they are converted for storing crops.
The article gives the names of elements according to the terminology of building codes and regulations; in practice, builders can call certain structures with different words, but their purpose does not change. It is recommended to always use the correct terminology to prevent inevitable confusion and annoying errors.
Hip– a triangular slope of a hip or hip roof from the end of the building.
Hip (hipped) roof- the roof of a rectangular building with four slopes, two of which are trapezoidal (along the long slopes), two are triangular (along the short slopes). All 4 slopes of a hip roof are triangular.
Endo?va (groove)- an internal angle formed at the junction of two slopes. Atmospheric precipitation converges into the valley, which exposes it to significant loads. This places increased demands on both the roofing material and the quality of the valley itself.
Cornice– a horizontal profiled projection that supports the roof and protects the building from precipitation.
Eaves overhang- the lower edge of the roof along the perimeter, protruding beyond the plane of the external walls.
Horse– the upper horizontal edge of the roof.
Counter-lattice– bars installed along the rafter leg under the sheathing and used to secure the waterproofing film.
filly- a piece of board that extends the lower end of the rafter leg to accommodate the roof overhang or continuous sheathing lying on the eaves.
Roof– the upper fence (shell) of the roof, directly exposed to atmospheric influences. Protects the building from penetration of atmospheric precipitation. It consists of a waterproofing layer and a base (sheathing, continuous flooring), laid over the load-bearing structures of the roof.
Roof– the upper enclosing part of the building. It consists of a load-bearing part that transfers the load from snow, wind and the roof’s own weight to the walls or individual supports and the outer shell - the roof.
Sill– horizontal (lying) beam. The purpose is to distribute pressure on the ceiling.
Attic- a floor in the attic space that is formed entirely or partially by the surface of a sloping roof.
Mauerlat- a rafter beam that serves as a support for the rafters and is intended to distribute the load. Located on the top edge of the walls.
Mezzanine- a small-height superstructure above a part, usually the central one, of a low-rise residential building, having its own roof rising above the common one.
Lathing- beams or boards attached to the rafters and serving as the basis for the roofing.
Roof base– the surface on which the roofing covering is laid. Usually performed in the form of sheathing or continuous flooring.
Parapet– a solid wall of small height installed along the edge of the roof, etc.
Run– horizontally located beam. The purlin is an additional support for the rafters.
Ribs– intersections of slopes forming inclined lines.
Rigel– a horizontal element of a building structure. In roofs it connects rafters.
Eaves- the outer lower strip of the roof slope, protruding beyond the outer contour of the wall.
Scat– edge, inclined surface of the roof.
Dormer windows– openings for lighting and ventilation of attic spaces, as well as for exits to the roof.
Rafters- roof elements that serve as support for the roof. The upper ends of the rafters are joined together at an angle, and the lower ends rest on the external walls of the building. Load-bearing structure for a pitched roof.
Slope- indicator of roof steepness.
Gable(front side) - the completion of the facade of a building, limited by cornices. A pediment that lacks a horizontal cornice is called a gable.
Gable overhang- the inclined edge of the roof above the wall of the building.
Ridge- the line of intersection of two slopes forming an external inclined angle.
Attic- this is the space between the roof and the ceiling of the upper floor.
Tong– top end wall building, which has an acute-angled shape and is located between two slopes of the roof, but, unlike the pediment, is not separated by a cornice.
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Installation of a gable roof is actively practiced in private construction, since it is the simplest and affordable way construction of a reliable roof for the house. This article describes the main stages of installation, which can be performed independently, with a certain skill in roofing work.
Roof structure gable type consists of load-bearing elements (mauerlat, rafter system) and enclosing elements (roof). A gable roof (gable) has two roofing surfaces located at a certain slope to the outer walls of the building, which ensures natural drainage of moisture from melted snow and rainwater. According to SNiP, the angle of inclination of such a roof should be more than 5°.
The choice of roof slope angle is influenced by:
The construction of a gable roof with a large angle of inclination is usually practiced when relatively lightweight roofing materials are used and in regions without large wind loads, since the pitched roof of a building is a sail. In addition, the steep pitched roof - practical option for areas with big amount precipitation - rain moisture is quickly and successfully removed from it, and the accumulated snow slides down under its own weight.
Low-slope roofs experience minimal wind loads, but are very sensitive to snow loads. To avoid destruction of the structure under load from snow masses, in winter period The roof should be cleaned regularly.
In private construction, gable roofs are most often erected with an angle of inclination from 35 to 60°. This is the best option in terms of the ratio of roof resistance to atmospheric loads and reasonable costs for materials for installing the rafter system, as well as roofing pie.
Installation of a gable roof begins with the installation of a mauerlat or floor beams, depending on the type of rafter system chosen. The Mauerlat acts as a foundation for the roof structure. It is this that allows you to evenly distribute the load (the weight of the rafter system itself, snow and wind loads, the weight of people servicing the roof), transferring it to the building structures of the structure.
Mauerlat is a timber made of coniferous species wood with a cross section of 150×150 mm (most often). When erecting a gable roof, it is mounted on two parallel walls. If the project provides for the installation of layered rafters with a ridge girder on supports, then the Mauerlat beam should also be laid on the middle load-bearing wall.
When building wooden houses, the mauerlat is not mounted - it is an element for laying on building structures made of brick, foam concrete blocks and other materials. On small buildings, the Mauerlat can be attached to the walls using forged wire embedded in the masonry. When building a house, it is practiced to install a monolithic beam with installed fasteners.
To create a beam, wooden formwork is mounted in the upper part of the walls, and metal reinforcement bars are attached (at least 2 pairs of parallel lines, one above the other). Using wire, studs or anchors are attached to the reinforcement. It is important to install them in increments of no more than 1 meter, strictly vertically. The prepared formwork is poured with concrete.
The length of the stud with a diameter of about 14 mm is determined based on the thickness of the monolithic beam, the thickness of the Mauerlat beam plus one or two layers of roofing felt waterproofing. In this case, when laying the Mauerlat, the studs must be at least 3 cm above its surface so that it is possible to secure the beam using nuts with wide washers.
When preparing to install a monolithic beam, you should determine in advance the installation location of the fasteners for the Mauerlat. The beam can be laid strictly along the axis of the beam or with a shift to the inner or outer side of the wall. To secure the Mauerlat, you need to make holes for the studs.
The Mauerlat is mounted at least 5 cm from the outer edge of the wall.
If the roof frame is planned to be made of metal elements, a channel or I-beam metal profile can act as a Mauerlat.
Rafter system with hanging rafters can be installed without a power plate. In this case, the lower parts of the rafter legs are attached to the floor beam, which is laid across the walls. The beam acts as a tie and provides rigidity to the truss. Construction of a gable roof using this principle is usually used when constructing buildings with a small span, most often from timber or logs. It is not recommended to install support beams on walls made of piece materials, since a point load can destroy building structures.
The rafter system includes the rafters themselves (rafter legs), as well as a number of other elements, the installation of which is necessary to ensure structural rigidity:
Rafter systems can be mounted from wood or metal, or a combination of both types of materials.
Designing a rafter system is an important stage in preparation for construction. Errors in the design can lead to the roof collapsing over time under the influence of operational loads. On the other hand, having designed an excessive safety margin for the roof frame, you will have to spend extra money on its construction.
The design of the rafter system of a gable roof is based on the most stable and rigid geometric figure - a triangle. When installing rafter systems of simple design, the rafters are made of timber with a cross-section from 40×150 mm to 100×250 mm. The choice of a specific value depends on the following factors:
In turn, the installation step of the rafter legs is influenced by the type of roofing pie - if a warm roof is to be installed, then this parameter is selected taking into account the width of the roll or sheet insulation.
Types of rafter structures
When considering how to build a gable roof, it is necessary to pay attention to the specifics of constructing rafter systems of various designs - with hanging and layered rafters. Rafter legs are the main element of the frame of a gable roof. They serve as a support for the roofing pie. Hanging rafters do not have intermediate supports and rest only on the walls of the building. Layered rafters have additional support points.
A truss, assembled from two rafter legs and a lower tie or an upper crossbar, is a structure that works in compression and bending. The bursting effect from the rafter legs mounted at an angle is compensated by the horizontal lintel. The higher the tie is mounted, the stronger and more rigidly one should be secured. This design allows you to cover even wide spans.
The upper part of the hanging rafters can be attached in various ways. The rigid fastening of the upper ends of the rafter legs is reinforced with the help of overhead elements made of wood or metal. When attaching the rafter legs to the mauerlat, a cutout (saddle) is made on the lower part of the rafter, after which the element is rigidly secured with nails and twisted wire. If rafters are installed on a floor beam, a stop is cut into the beam to prevent movement, and a single or double tooth is cut into the rafter. Installation is carried out using various metal fasteners.
There is no cutout in the Mauerlat timber so as not to weaken the load-bearing capacity of the roof support.
A roof frame with layered rafters is installed if the building has a middle load-bearing wall or columnar supports. The span between the supports should be no more than 6.5-7 meters. The width of the floor can be increased by installing additional supports: up to 11.5-12 meters with one additional support and up to 15-15.5 meters with two. To increase the rigidity of the rafter system and expand the opening between the supports, you should install a rack with struts under the ridge girder. The load on the roof is transferred by the middle part of the rafters to the internal supports, and by the lower ends to the external walls.
Installation of a rafter system with layered rafters is somewhat simpler than assembling and installing roof trusses. After installing the ridge girder on the gables of the building or special racks, the rafters are attached to it with the upper part.
In some cases, it is advisable to use both layered and hanging rafters when installing the roof frame.
The construction of the rafter system must be carried out using high-quality material to ensure the durability of the roof. The lumber must have a strict geometric shape; wood defects are not allowed. To prevent wooden elements from warping after installation, the material must be well dried. Before installation, it is necessary to treat the prepared parts with a fire-retardant agent.
Roofing pie device
The question of how to properly build a gable roof, in particular, is related to the competent execution of the roofing pie. The functionality of the structure and its ability to provide reliable protection of the building from external influences depends on this.
When installing the roof, it is important to follow the designed pitch of the sheathing, having previously installed a counter-lattice to create a ventilation gap for the roofing pie. To ensure the necessary air circulation in the under-roof space, a ventilation duct is installed in the ridge part, and ventilation holes are provided in the lining of the eaves overhangs.
Particular attention is paid to reliable waterproofing of the roof, otherwise moisture condensed on wooden elements can cause rotting of the structures. If the attic of a gable roof is intended to be used as a living space, it is necessary to provide reliable insulation and vapor barrier for the roof.
To ensure the strength and durability of a gable roof, you should carefully approach the development of the project, the choice of materials and compliance with the work technology.
Installation of a gable roof, how to build it correctly, construction
The roof structure is considered the most complex component of a residential building in terms of design and installation. The roof is exposed to wind, precipitation and cold, therefore it must be airtight and durable to create comfortable conditions accommodation. The main part of the roof is the rafter system, with the help of which the shape of the structure is created, the optimal angle of inclination is set and secured waterproofing material. The number of elements of the rafter system, as well as their location, is determined by the configuration of the roof.
The rafter system is a certain number of supporting elements that create the geometry of the roof and frame, which gives rigidity to the roof structure and the desired slope. The main parameters of the components of the rafter system and their location are determined taking into account permanent and temporary loads.
In general, the rafter system is assigned the following tasks:
In addition, the rafter system serves as the basis on which the waterproofing material and sheathing under finishing coat.
At correct drafting rafter system diagrams, the roof will be reliable and durable and will last for a long time. According to experts, a well-built frame is of greater importance, therefore, there is no need to save at this stage. Therefore, it is best to entrust the design of the roof and its installation to professional craftsmen.
The rafter system of a building consists of a certain set of additional elements and has its own level of installation complexity. The number of auxiliary parts is determined taking into account the loads from the roofing material and some environmental factors.
When choosing the type of rafter system, you should pay attention to the following factors:
No roof is complete without a rafter system. The quality of the roof structure largely depends on what is included in the roof truss system. Vertical supports, horizontal ties and rafter legs provide a reliable foundation and support for the roofing. To make the frame, it is necessary to use lightweight materials that do not load the frame at home. They must be durable, with high load-bearing capacity and good resistance to negative natural phenomena.
The most common options are:
All elements of the rafter system are interconnected. Thanks to this, the structure has rigidity and the necessary strength, and the weight from the roofing is evenly distributed across the load-bearing walls and partitions. The presence of certain structural elements, their cross-section and location depend on the selected roofing material, the angle of inclination of the slopes and the purpose of the attic space.
The main details of the rafter system are the following:
To construct a simple rafter system design, it is enough to use a mauerlat, ridge beam and rafters. Increasing the level of complexity leads to the use of additional elements that make the structure more durable and resistant to deflections.
The architectural features of the structure have a great influence on the configuration of the roof, since the load from the roof structure must be evenly distributed between all load-bearing walls and partitions.
In this regard, the following types of rafter system are distinguished:
The result of choosing the types of rafter system and their structural elements can be a simple roof with one or two slopes, or a more complex one - hip and hip.
Construction of the rafter system: types of rafters, structural elements, roof details, what is included, parts
The roof of the building protects it from cold, rain and wind. This is as important an element as the outer walls and foundation. The rafter system is the supporting frame of the roof. It takes on all the loads: from structures, from snow and wind. To avoid problems during operation, the roof structure of the house must be strong and reliable. Do-it-yourself installation of a rafter system should only be done after careful preparation and study of all the necessary information.
Before you start installing the roof of a private house, you need to distinguish between two concepts. Non-professionals are often confused, but builders clearly distinguish between the definitions of roof and roofing. The roof is the entire structure that separates the building from the street above. The roof structure of a private house includes rafters, all other load-bearing elements, thermal insulation material, roofing.
Rafters - load-bearing roof structures
The roof is the top part of the roof. She is also roofing covering . The installation of a roof requires careful selection of materials. After all, the reliability of waterproofing and comfort of living will depend on it.
To properly install a rafter system with your own hands, you must take into account a certain set of rules. Without taking them into account, the structure will not be able to effectively resist negative impacts from outside.
First of all, it is worth considering strength. All elements must withstand the load without destruction. The design of the roof truss system involves a preliminary calculation of the load-bearing structures according to the first limit state. It is he who checks the elements of the rafter system for strength.
The rafter system must be strong and rigid
The second requirement is rigidity. The maximum deflection is taken into account here. Roof structure wooden house or any other should not sag too much. Allowable deformations in the middle of the span are equal to the length of this span divided by 200. Before starting construction, the design of the rafter system must be calculated according to the second group limit states- for rigidity.
Do-it-yourself roof raftering is done taking into account that the structure is light in weight. Otherwise, the load on the walls and foundations increases greatly. It is for this reason that wood has become widespread as a base material. The wooden rafter system has sufficient strength, but weighs relatively little. Attention should be paid not only to the roof structure, but also to choosing the right roofing material. It shouldn't be too heavy. Ceramic tiles have lost their popularity not only because of the cost, but also because the roof of the house, its walls and foundations must be reinforced to accommodate it.
The weight of the roofing material for a wooden rafter structure should not be too large
Special requirements are placed on the quality of the material. Manufacturing wooden elements should be made only from good raw materials. It is worth considering the following recommendations:
The rafter system diagram includes many elements. To understand drawings and correctly perceive information, you need to know at least the basic ones. So, what is the roof made of?
Ridge, cornice and slopes - the main part of the roof
First of all, these are the ridge, cornice and slopes. These elements are the main parts. The ridge is the topmost part of the structure. Cornice or overhang - bottom. Slopes are inclined surfaces that are located between the ridge and the cornice.
The construction of a rafter system requires knowledge of load-bearing elements. These include:
Load-bearing elements hip roof
Another element of the rafter system is a truss. This is a one-piece structure that consists of rafters, tie rods, struts and racks, rigidly connected to each other. The truss has a triangular shape, and inside it is divided into several smaller triangles, which provides it with good stability.
Roofs of pitched roofs are different forms. It is worth highlighting here:
The most common are gable and hip roofs
The most common option is a gable or hipped hip roof. The first requires the construction of pediments. Broken lines are relevant when constructing an attic. At first the rafters go at a steep angle, and then at a smaller one. This technology allows you to raise the ceiling attic room. We also recommend reading about the rafter system for a half-hip roof.
There are two designs:
Installing a roof on a wooden house is only possible using the former. This is caused by two rules:
These two statements contradict each other, so the rafter system of a wooden house can only contain layered elements.
Only layered rafters are installed in a wooden house
Layered beams are elements that rest on the Mauerlat at the lowest point and on the ridge girder at the top. This allows you to reduce the horizontal thrust that acts on the walls when the rafters try to move apart and take a horizontal position. Elements can be reinforced with racks or struts. In this case, contractions can be placed through one pair of legs.
Hanging tanks are supported only at the lowest point on the Mauerlat. At the top they just rest against each other. To prevent the system of wooden elements from moving apart, tightening must be done. It is better to install them on each pair of legs. This option is characterized by a strong thrust effect on the external walls, but it allows you to get more free space inside the attic.
Before you make a rafter system with your own hands, you need to carefully study the nodes. To build your home, you shouldn't save time or money. Only in this case the result will please you for many years.
Main rafter connection units
Mounting points for the roof truss system that deserve special attention, are represented by the following:
Mauerlat to the wall
This node can be performed in several ways. The choice largely depends on the wall material. The construction of a building made of brick, block or concrete allows the use of the following methods:
Connecting the Mauerlat to the wall during construction brick buildings performed using anchors
In wooden construction, the upper crown of the wall acts as a mauerlat. It is connected to the previous ones using a dowel. IN frame house Mauerlat is top harness walls It is fixed to the frame posts using a notch and metal corners with holes for self-tapping screws. Read more about attaching the Mauerlat to the wall.
Rafters to the mauerlat
Fastening is carried out in two ways:
Rigid fastening can be with or without a notch. It is recommended to do the cutting on the rafters, and not on the mauerlat, since this weakens it. In both cases, the leg is rigidly fixed with nails, screws, staples or metal corners.
With rigid fastening, it is better to make a notch on the rafters and fix the structure with fasteners
For hinged fastening, a special part is used - a slide.. They allow the beam to move without obstacles when the walls of the building shrink.
The hinged connection allows the beam to move
Additionally, the rafter legs are attached to the wall. This is necessary to prevent the roof from being blown off by the wind. For fastening, use a twist of two wires with a diameter of 4 mm, fixed to the wall with an anchor or a ruff. In a wooden house, twisting can be replaced with staples. Fastening is carried out on each beam or through one.
At the ridge level
The layered elements rest on a ridge girder with a notch. Additionally, a board overlay is made on both sides. An overlay is also needed for hanging elements. It can be wooden or metal with holes for screws.
The ridge girder and rafters are connected using a notch
Splicing rafters
There are several methods for splicing roof rafters with your own hands. The choice between them largely depends on the experience of the master. The splice point is located at a distance of 0.15 span lengths from the support. In this case, not only the ridge girder and the Mauerlat are considered supports, but also the struts and racks.
Splicing rafters along the length
There are five ways:
To build a high-quality roof, you need to carefully study the technology, choose the right type of rafters and methods of connecting elements at important nodes. This is especially important when building a rafter system with your own hands.
Roof truss system for a private house: design and installation
Each roof is based on a large number of beams, rafters, posts and purlins, which are collectively called the rafter system. Behind centuries-old history Many types and methods of its organization have accumulated, and each has its own characteristics in the construction of nodes and cuts. Let's talk in more detail about what the rafter system of a gable roof can be and how the rafters and other elements of the system should be attached.
In cross-section, a gable roof is a triangle. It consists of two rectangular inclined planes. These two planes are connected at the highest point into a single system by a ridge beam (purlin).
Gable roof diagram
Now about the components of the system and their purpose:
There may still be fillies in the system. These are boards that extend the rafter legs to form an overhang. The fact is that to protect the walls and foundation of the house from precipitation, it is desirable that the roof ends as far from the walls as possible. To do this, you can take long rafter legs. But the standard length of lumber of 6 meters is often not enough for this. Ordering non-standard is very expensive. Therefore, the rafters are simply extended, and the boards with which this is done are called “fillies”.
There are quite a few designs of rafter systems. First of all, they are divided into two groups - with layered and hanging rafters.
The difference in the design of layered and hanging rafters
These are systems in which the rafter legs rest only on the external walls without intermediate supports (load-bearing walls). For gable roofs the maximum span is 9 meters. When installing a vertical support and a strut system, it can be increased to 14 meters.
The good thing about the hanging type of gable roof rafter system is that in most cases there is no need to install a mauerlat, and this makes the installation of rafter legs easier: there is no need to make cuts, just bevel the boards. To connect the walls and rafters, a lining is used - a wide board, which is attached to studs, nails, bolts, crossbars. With this structure, most of the thrust loads are compensated, the impact on the walls is directed vertically downwards.
Types of rafter systems with hanging rafters for different spans between load-bearing walls
Gable roof rafter system for non- big houses
Exists cheap option rafter system when it is a triangle (photo below). Such a structure is possible if the distance between the external walls is no more than 6 meters. For such a rafter system, you can not make calculations based on the angle of inclination: the ridge must be raised above the tie to a height of at least 1/6 of the span length.
But with this construction, the rafters experience significant bending loads. To compensate for them, either rafters of a larger cross-section are taken or the ridge part is cut in such a way as to partially neutralize them. To give greater rigidity, wooden or metal plates are nailed on both sides at the top, which securely fasten the top of the triangle (also see the picture).
The photo also shows how to extend rafter legs to create a roof overhang. A notch is made, which should extend beyond the line drawn from the inner wall upward. This is necessary to shift the location of the cut and reduce the likelihood of the rafter breaking.
Ridge knot and fastening of rafter legs to the backing board with a simple version of the system
For mansard roofs
An option with the installation of a crossbar - used when organizing a living space under the roof - an attic. In this case, it serves as the basis for lining the ceiling of the room below. For reliable operation of a system of this type, the crossbar cut must be hingeless (rigid). The best option is in a semi-frying pan (see picture below). Otherwise, the roof will become unstable to loads.
Rafter system of a gable roof with a raised tightening and a crossbar insertion unit
Please note that in this scheme there is a Mauerlat, and the rafter legs must extend beyond the walls to increase the stability of the structure. To secure them and dock them with the Mauerlat, a notch is made in the form of a triangle. In this case, with an uneven load on the slopes, the roof will be more stable.
With this scheme, almost the entire load falls on the rafters, so they need to be taken with a larger cross-section. Sometimes the raised puff is reinforced with a pendant. This is necessary to prevent it from sagging if it serves as a support for ceiling cladding materials. If the tie is short, it can be secured in the center on both sides with boards nailed to the nails. With a significant load and length, there may be several such belays. In this case, too, boards and nails are enough.
For large houses
If there is a significant distance between the two outer walls, a headstock and struts are installed. This design has high rigidity, since the loads are compensated.
Gable roof rafter system for a large span and ridge and rafter insertion units
With such a long span (up to 14 meters), it is difficult and expensive to make the tie in one piece, so it is made from two beams. It is connected by a straight or oblique cut (picture below).
Straight and oblique cut for connecting the tie
For reliable joining, the connection point is reinforced with a steel plate mounted on bolts. Its dimensions should be more sizes notches - the outermost bolts are screwed into solid wood at a distance of at least 5 cm from the edge of the notch.
In order for the circuit to work properly, it is necessary to make the struts correctly. They transfer and distribute part of the load from the rafter legs to the tie and provide structural rigidity. Metal pads are used to strengthen connections
Fastening struts for a rafter system with hanging rafters
When assembling a gable roof with hanging rafters, the cross-section of lumber is always larger than in systems with layered rafters: there are fewer load transfer points, therefore each element bears a greater load.
In gable roofs with layered rafters, the ends rest on the walls, and the middle part rests on load-bearing walls or columns. Some schemes push through the walls, some don't. In any case, the presence of a Mauerlat is mandatory.
The simplest version of layered rafters
Non-thrust schemes and notch units
Houses made of logs or timber do not respond well to thrust loads. For them they are critical: the wall may fall apart. For wooden houses, the rafter system of a gable roof must be non-thrust. Let's talk about the types of such systems in more detail.
The simplest non-thrust rafter system diagram is shown in the photo below. In it, the rafter leg rests on the mauerlat. In this version, it bends without pushing the wall.
A simple non-braced gable roof system with layered rafters
Pay attention to the options for attaching the rafter legs to the Mauerlat. In the first, the support area is usually beveled, its length being no more than the section of the beam. The depth of the cut is no more than 0.25 of its height.
The top of the rafter legs is laid on the ridge beam, without fastening it to the opposite rafter. The structure turns out to be two pitched roofs, which in the upper part are adjacent (but not connected) to one another.
The option with rafter legs fastened at the ridge part is much easier to assemble. They almost never push against the walls.
Option for attaching rafters without bracing to walls
To operate this scheme, the rafter legs at the bottom are attached using a movable connection. To secure the rafter leg to the mauerlat, one nail is driven from above or a flexible steel plate is placed from below. See the photo for options for attaching rafter legs to the ridge girder.
If you plan to use heavy roofing material, you need to increase bearing capacity. This is achieved by increasing the cross-section of the rafter system elements and strengthening the ridge assembly. It is shown in the photo below.
Reinforcing the ridge assembly for heavy roofing material or for significant snow loads
All of the above gable roof schemes are stable in the presence of uniform loads. But in practice this practically never happens. There are two ways to prevent the roof from sliding towards a higher load: by installing a screed at a height of about 2 meters or by struts.
Options for rafter systems with contractions
Installing contractions increases the reliability of the structure. In order for it to work properly, it needs to be secured to them with nails at the places where it intersects with the drains. The cross-section of the timber for the scrum is the same as for the rafters.
Schemes of rafter systems for gable roofs with contractions
They are attached to the rafter legs with bots or nails. Can be installed on one or both sides. See the figure below for attaching the screed to the rafters and ridge girder.
Attaching the screed to the rafters and ridge beams
In order for the system to be rigid and not “creep” even under emergency loads, it is enough in this option to ensure rigid fastening of the ridge beam. In the absence of the possibility of its horizontal displacement, the roof will withstand even significant loads.
In these options, for greater rigidity, rafter legs, also called struts, are added. They are installed at an angle of 45° relative to the horizon. Their installation allows you to increase the span length (up to 14 meters) or reduce the cross-section of beams (rafters).
The brace is simply placed at the required angle to the beams and nailed on the sides and bottom. An important requirement: the strut must be cut accurately and fit tightly to the posts and rafter leg, eliminating the possibility of it bending.
Systems with rafter legs. There is a spacer system on top, a non-spacer system on the bottom. The correct cutting nodes for each are located nearby. Below - possible strut mounting schemes
But not in all houses the average load-bearing wall is located in the middle. In this case, it is possible to install struts with an angle of inclination relative to the horizon of 45-53°.
Rafter system with off-center vertical girder
Systems with struts are necessary if significant uneven shrinkage of the foundation or walls is possible. Walls can settle differently on wooden houses, and foundations can settle on layered or heaving soils. In all these cases, consider installing rafter systems of this type.
If the house has two load-bearing walls, install two rafter beams, which are located above each of the walls. The beams are laid on the intermediate load-bearing walls, the load from the rafter beams is transferred to the beams through the racks.
Systems with rafter beams
In these systems, a ridge run is not installed: it provides expansion forces. The rafters in the upper part are connected to one another (cut and joined without gaps), the joints are reinforced with steel or wooden plates, which are nailed.
In the upper non-thrust system, the pushing force is neutralized by the tightening. Please note that the tightening is placed under the purlin. Then it works effectively (top diagram in the figure). Stability can be provided by racks, or joints - beams installed diagonally. In the spacer system (in the picture it is below) the crossbar is a crossbar. It is installed above the purlin.
There is a version of the system with racks, but without rafter beams. Then a stand is nailed to each rafter leg, the other end of which rests on the intermediate load-bearing wall.
Fastening the rack and tightening in the rafter system without a rafter purlin
To fasten the racks, 150 mm long nails and 12 mm bolts are used. Dimensions and distances in the figure are indicated in millimeters.
Gable roof rafter system: device, components
The roof is an integral element of every home. When starting construction, repairs or even routine maintenance, many owners of private houses are surprised at how complex a system, consisting of many different components, is an ordinary roof. Therefore, before starting work, you should understand each of the components and their purpose. We list the most common roofing elements that are found in most cases.
Typically the roof consists of the following elements:
The roof may have a different design. Sometimes there are additional elements, and some roofs are built according to a simplified design. But usually all these components are used during construction. Now let's talk about each of them in more detail.
The ridge is the topmost element that covers the joint between the roof slopes. Most often found on gable roofs. But sometimes it can be seen on more complex hipped slopes.
It can be made from various materials, depending on the main roofing material - metal tiles, slate, corrugated sheets, ondulin and other materials.
It is a base on which waterproofing material is laid - most often tiles. When using slate and corrugated sheets, some builders prefer to abandon it in order to reduce work time, reduce the load on the rafters, and at the same time reduce the cost of purchasing building materials.
The rough flooring is laid directly on the rafters. Typically made from thick plywood, fiberboard, chipboard or boards.
The counter-lattice is installed on the rough flooring. The bars that form it are laid across the roof. Its main purpose is to ensure ventilation of the entire under-roof space - between the roof and the sheathing.
The sheathing is installed on top of the counter-lattice. The bars are laid along the roof. The roof itself is laid and fixed onto the sheathing. Thus, the lathing takes the entire weight of the covering and transfers it to the counter-lattice, which, in turn, transfers the load to the rafters.
The perpendicular arrangement of the wooden blocks from which the sheathing and counter-lattice are made allows for the most even distribution of the load.
If ondulin or roofing felt is used as the main roofing material, this greatly simplifies the process. Laying is done directly on top of the rough flooring - intermediate elements of the roof covering are not necessary.
A rafter is a large cross-section block fixed at a certain angle on the top of the wall and transferring the load from the roof to it.
Rafter truss post is a vertical bar installed between the rafters and the matrix. Its main purpose is to partially relieve the load from the rafters, as well as organize the walls of the attic.
Crossbar - a board connecting paired rafters at the bottom. Thanks to it, the rigidity of the truss increases.
The filly is a board that extends the rafter (or rather, the rafter leg), allowing you to organize the overhang of the roof.
The rafter system consists of all of the above elements. It represents a triangular truss that not only transfers the load from the roof, snow and other things to the wall, but also resists the wind.
The height of the triangle formed by the rafter system depends on the intensity of winds and the amount of snowfall in the region. How stronger than the wind, the lower the triangle should be to reduce resistance. On the other hand, the higher height makes it easier to remove snow from the roof.
The cross-section of the bars used as rafters depends not only on the type of roof, but also on the amount of snow falling during the winter and the strength of the winds. When designing, it is necessary to take into account both permanent and temporary loads - otherwise, after a heavy snowfall, the rafters may break, which will lead to the complete destruction of the roof.
Roof overhang - part of the structure that extends beyond external walls. It allows you to reduce the amount of moisture that gets onto the surface of the walls due to precipitation. Its length should be at least 70-80 cm.
These are the most common roofing elements. Knowing them, everyone can imagine a standard roof. But there are also many other elements that are desirable, and in some cases mandatory, when constructing a roof.
Often home owners need to remove some structures through the roof. This could be a cable from a television antenna, ventilation, or a pipe from a fireplace, heating boiler or stove.
It is in such cases that special roof passage elements are used. They are made of both metal and clay, which allows you to choose a suitable option for both roofing and metal tiles. Installation is possible during installation of the coating and during repairs. Roofing passage elements are usually installed on the sheathing using self-tapping screws of the appropriate length.
A special, carefully calibrated shape eliminates the possibility of rain or melt water seeping through the cracks usually formed when connecting elements of different shapes.
Of course, if we talk about the structure of the roof, then it is necessary to mention the safety elements of the roof.
First of all, this includes:
It’s worth starting with snow guards - according to many experts, they are the most important element security. Their purpose is to eliminate the possibility of unplanned ice and snow falling off the roof. This problem is especially relevant for our country, most of whose regions are located in rather difficult climatic zones. Heavy snowfalls and significant daily temperature changes often lead to very unpleasant consequences.
Over the course of several heavy snowfalls, alternating with warm, sunny days and cold nights, a mixture of snow and ice weighing several tons can form on the roof. Often, under its weight, this mass slides off the roof, especially if ondulin, roofing felt without powder, corrugated sheets or metal tiles are used as the main covering.
A block of snow and ice can break a car, and if it falls on a person, at best, he will suffer fractures. Snow guards made in the form of mesh, slats or tubes prevent snow from falling off the roof.
Guardrails are necessary to ensure the safety of the person climbing onto the roof. If a home owner needs to remove snow, adjust an antenna, or perform other work, there is always the risk that he will fall - due to dizziness or a gust of wind. But the fence allows you to almost completely eliminate such a danger.
To easily move around the roof by climbing onto it using an extension ladder, causing minimal damage, special ladders are installed. They make it easy to climb onto the ridge, while at the same time distributing the load from the human body over a large area, preventing damage to the roofing material.
Finally, the transition bridges. They are a profile with teeth, made of sheet metal. Special shape eliminates the possibility of bridges becoming clogged with snow. Installed along the roof, they provide easy access to the right place, not only distributing the load over its entire area, but also reducing the risk of slipping.
As you can see, a regular roof has a much more complex design than it might seem at first glance. But still, having studied the various elements, their location and purpose, every reader can easily understand its structure. This will greatly simplify the repair, and, if necessary, the design of a new roof.
