None of the people knows anything in advance. And the greatest misfortune can befall a person in best place, and most great happiness will find him - in the worst possible way...
Alexander Solzhenitsyn
In Russian foreign policy Empire XIX century there were four wars with the Ottoman Empire. Russia won three of them and lost one. The last war in the 19th century between the two countries was the Russian- Turkish war 1877-1878, in which Russia won. The victory was one of the results of the military reform of Alexander 2. As a result of the war, the Russian Empire regained a number of territories, and also helped to gain the independence of Serbia, Montenegro and Romania. In addition, for non-intervention in the war, Austria-Hungary received Bosnia, and England received Cyprus. The article is devoted to a description of the causes of the war between Russia and Turkey, its stages and main battles, the results and historical consequences of the war, as well as an analysis of the reaction of Western European countries to the increasing influence of Russia in the Balkans.
Historians identify the following reasons for the Russian-Turkish war of 1877-1878:
Now let's look at the reasons for the war between Russia and Turkey in more detail, since it is important to know them and interpret them correctly. Despite the lost Crimean War, Russia, thanks to some reforms (primarily military) of Alexander 2, again became an influential and strong state in Europe. This forced many politicians in Russia to think about revenge for the lost war. But this was not even the most important thing - much more important was the desire to regain the right to have the Black Sea Fleet. In many ways, it was to achieve this goal that the Russian-Turkish War of 1877-1878 was unleashed, which we will talk briefly about later.
In 1875, an uprising against Turkish rule began in Bosnia. The army of the Ottoman Empire brutally suppressed it, but already in April 1876 an uprising began in Bulgaria. Türkiye also cracked down on this national movement. As a sign of protest against the policy towards the southern Slavs, and also wanting to realize its territorial goals, Serbia declared war on the Ottoman Empire in June 1876. The Serbian army was much weaker than the Turkish one. Since the beginning of the 19th century, Russia has positioned itself as the protector of the Slavic peoples in the Balkans, so Chernyaev, as well as several thousand Russian volunteers, went to Serbia.
After the defeat of the Serbian army in October 1876 near Dyuniš, Russia called on Turkey to stop fighting and guarantee the cultural rights of the Slavic people. The Ottomans, feeling the support of Britain, ignored the ideas of Russia. Despite the obviousness of the conflict, the Russian Empire tried to resolve the issue peacefully. Proof of this are several conferences convened by Alexander 2, in particular in January 1877 in Istanbul. Ambassadors and representatives of key European countries gathered there, but did not come to a common decision.
In March, an agreement was signed in London, which obligated Turkey to carry out reforms, but the latter completely ignored it. Thus, Russia has only one option left for resolving the conflict - military. Before the last Alexander 2 did not dare to start a war with Turkey, because he was worried that the war would again turn into resistance of European countries to Russian foreign policy. On April 12, 1877, Alexander 2 signed a manifesto declaring war on the Ottoman Empire. In addition, the emperor concluded an agreement with Austria-Hungary on the latter’s non-entry on the side of Turkey. In exchange for neutrality, Austria-Hungary was to receive Bosnia.
Several important battles took place between April and August 1877:
The main problem for Russia was that the emperor’s inexperienced brother, Nikolai Nikolaevich, commanded the troops. Therefore, individual Russian troops actually acted without a center, which means they acted as uncoordinated units. As a result, on July 7-18, two unsuccessful attempts were made to storm Plevna, as a result of which about 10 thousand Russians died. In August, the third assault began, which turned into a protracted blockade. At the same time, from August 9 until December 28, the heroic defense of the Shipka Pass lasted. In this sense, the Russian-Turkish war of 1877-1878, even briefly, seems very contradictory in events and personalities.
In the autumn of 1877, the key battle took place near the Plevna fortress. By order of the Minister of War D. Milyutin, the army abandoned the assault on the fortress and moved on to a systematic siege. The army of Russia, as well as its ally Romania, numbered about 83 thousand people, and the garrison of the fortress consisted of 34 thousand soldiers. Last Stand took place near Plevna on November 28, Russian army emerged victorious and was finally able to capture the impregnable fortress. This was one of the largest defeats of the Turkish army: 10 generals and several thousand officers were captured. In addition, Russia was establishing control over an important fortress, opening its way to Sofia. This was the beginning of a turning point in the Russian-Turkish war.
On eastern front the Russian-Turkish war of 1877-1878 also developed rapidly. At the beginning of November, another important strategic fortress was captured - Kars. Due to simultaneous failures on two fronts, Turkey completely lost control over the movement of its own troops. On December 23, the Russian army entered Sofia.
Russia entered 1878 with a complete advantage over the enemy. On January 3, the assault on Phillipopolis began, and already on the 5th the city was taken, before Russian Empire the road to Istanbul was opened. On January 10, Russia enters Adrianople, the defeat of the Ottoman Empire is a fact, the Sultan is ready to sign peace on Russia’s terms. Already on January 19, the parties agreed on a preliminary agreement, which significantly strengthened Russia’s role in the Black and Marmara Seas, as well as in the Balkans. This caused great concern in European countries.
England expressed its dissatisfaction most of all, which already at the end of January sent a fleet into the Sea of Marmara, threatening an attack in the event of a Russian invasion of Istanbul. England demanded that Russian troops be withdrawn from the Turkish capital, and also begin to develop a new treaty. Russia found itself in difficult situation, which threatened to repeat the scenario of 1853-1856, when the entry of European troops violated Russia's advantage, which led to defeat. Taking this into account, Alexander 2 agreed to revise the treaty.
On February 19, 1878, in a suburb of Istanbul, San Stefano, a new treaty was signed with the participation of England.
The main results of the war were recorded in the San Stefano Peace Treaty:
However, these conditions did not suit either European states. As a result, in June-July 1878, a congress was held in Berlin, at which some decisions were revised:
The Russian-Turkish War of 1877-1878 traditionally became a “minute of glory” for many soldiers and military leaders. In particular, several Russian generals became famous:
In Bulgaria there are over 400 monuments erected in honor of the Russians who fought in the war with the Ottomans in 1877-1878. There are many memorial plaques, mass graves, etc. One of the most famous monuments is the Freedom Monument on the Shipka Pass. There is also a monument to Emperor Alexander 2. There are also many settlements, named after Russians. Thus, the Bulgarian people thank the Russians for the liberation of Bulgaria from Turkey, and the end of Muslim rule, which lasted more than five centuries. During the war, the Bulgarians called the Russians themselves “brothers,” and this word remained in the Bulgarian language as a synonym for “Russians.”
Historical reference
The Russian-Turkish War of 1877-1878 ended with the complete and unconditional victory of the Russian Empire, however, despite the military success, European states quickly resisted the strengthening of Russia's role in Europe. In an effort to weaken Russia, England and Turkey insisted that not all the aspirations of the southern Slavs were realized, in particular, not the entire territory of Bulgaria received independence, and Bosnia passed from Ottoman occupation to Austrian occupation. As a result, the national problems of the Balkans became even more complicated, eventually turning the region into the “powder keg of Europe.” It was here that the assassination of the heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne took place, becoming the reason for the outbreak of the First World War. This is generally a funny and paradoxical situation - Russia wins victories on the battlefields, but over and over again suffers defeats in the diplomatic fields.
Russia was regaining lost territories, the Black Sea Fleet, however, never achieved the desire to dominate the Balkan Peninsula. This factor was also used by Russia when joining the First world war. For the Ottoman Empire, which was completely defeated, the idea of revenge persisted, which forced it to enter into a world war against Russia. These were the results of the Russian-Turkish war of 1877-1878, which we briefly reviewed today.
The leading direction of the second foreign policy half of the 19th century V. remained eastern question. Crimean War aggravated contradictions in the Balkans and in the region Mediterranean Sea. Russia was very concerned about the insecurity of its borders in the Black Sea region and the lack of ability to defend its interests in the eastern Mediterranean, especially in the straits.
As the national liberation war intensified in the Balkans, a mass movement in support of the South Slavs grew in Russia. A new wave of public indignation arose in connection with the brutal suppression by the Turkish authorities of the April uprising in Bulgaria. Outstanding Russian scientists, writers, artists spoke in defense of the Bulgarian people - D.I. Mendeleev, N.I. Pirogov, L.N. Tolstoy, I.S. Turgenev, F.M. Dostoevsky, I.S. Isakov, I.E. Repin and others.
In July 1876 The governments of Serbia and Montenegro demanded that Turkey stop the massacre in Bosnia and Herzegovina. However, this demand was not satisfied, and on July 30, both Slavic states declared war on Turkey. About 5 thousand Russian soldiers joined the Serbian army. Russian volunteer doctors worked in hospitals in Serbia and Montenegro, among whom were such famous doctors as N.V. Sklifosovsky, S.P. Botkin.
In acute international situation Tsarism sought to avoid open participation in the conflict that arose. Türkiye refused to guarantee the rights of the Christian population.
April 12, 1877 Russia declared war Turkey. Events unfolded in the Balkans and Transcaucasia. On the day war was declared, the Russian army crossed the Romanian border and moved towards the Danube. On July 7, Russian troops captured the Shipka Pass.
A large military group under the command of Suleiman Pasha. One of the heroic episodes of the war began - defense of Shipka Pass.
In extremely difficult conditions, with multiple superiority of enemy forces, Russian troops repelled the attacks of Turkish troops.
At the same time, the enemy managed to concentrate large forces in the fortress Plevna, located at the intersection of major roads. In November 1977, Plevna surrendered, which became the most important event during the war. After the capture of Plevna by Russian troops, the final period of the war began.
On December 3, a detachment under the command I.V. Gurko in the most difficult conditions of mountainous terrain at 25-degree frost, he crossed the Balkans and liberated Sofia.
Another squad under the command F.F. Radetzky Through the Shipka Pass he reached the fortified Turkish camp of Sheinovo. One of the things happened here major battles a war during which the enemy was defeated. Russian troops moved towards Constantinople.
Events also developed successfully in the Transcaucasian theater of military operations. At the beginning of May 1877, Russian troops successfully captured the fortresses of Ardahan and Kare.
Negotiations on a peace treaty with Turkey have ended 19 February 1878 in San Stefano, near Constantinople. According to the contract Serbia, Romania and Montenegro received full independence. The creation was proclaimed Bulgaria- an autonomous principality in which Russian troops were stationed for two years. Türkiye committed to reforms in Bosnia and Herzegovina. Northern Dobruja was transferred to Romania. Russia was returning Southern Bessarabia, rejected by the Treaty of Paris. Cities in Asia went to Russia Ardahan, Kars, Batum, Bayazet and a large area up to Saganlung, inhabited mainly by Armenians. The San Stefano Treaty met the aspirations of the Balkan peoples and had progressive significance for the peoples of Transcaucasia.
The Western powers could not come to terms with the strengthening of Russian positions in the Balkans and the Caucasus. They refused to recognize the terms of the Treaty of San Stefano and demanded its revision. Russia was forced to give in.
IN July V Berlin A congress opened in which European states, acting as a united front, changed the Treaty of San Stefano. Southern Bulgaria came under Turkish rule. The territories of independent Serbia, Montenegro and Romania were reduced. Austria-Hungary occupied Bosnia and Herzegovina, England occupied Cyprus.
IN last quarter XIX century contradictions are growing between the great powers: Russia, England, France, Germany and Austria-Hungary. Their confrontation determined the situation in the world, affecting the interests of other states. Late XIX- beginning of the twentieth century. marked by the creation of blocs of states.
June 6 1881 An Austro-Russian-German treaty was signed, which went down in history under the name “ Union of Three Emperors" The agreement established the mutual obligations of the parties to maintain overall neutrality in the event of war between one of them and the fourth party. In general, this agreement was beneficial to Russia, but it was short-lived and easily terminated, which predetermined its weakness.
Despite the conclusion of the treaty, the policy of the Russian government began to increasingly acquire anti-German features. In 1887, decrees were issued limiting the influx of German capital into Russia and increasing duties on the import of metal, metal products and coal, for products chemical industry etc.
By the end of the 80s, Russia’s contradictions with Austria-Hungary and Germany became more significant than the contradictions with England. In resolving international issues Russian government began to look for partners. An important prerequisite for such a step was the serious changes in the entire European situation caused by the conclusion of 1882 Triple Alliance between Germany, Austria-Hungary and Italy. In the early 90s, there were signs of a rapprochement between the participants of the Triple Alliance and England. Under these conditions, a rapprochement between Russia and France began, which had not only a political, but also an economic basis. Since 1887, Russia began to regularly receive French loans. August 27 1891. was concluded Russian-French alliance, and in 1892 - a military convention. In January 1894, the treaty was ratified by Alexander III.
M ir was signed in San Stefano on February 19 (March 3), 1878. The representative from Russia, Count N.P. Ignatiev even gave up some of the Russian demands in order to finish the matter on February 19 and please the Tsar with the following telegram: “On the day of the liberation of the peasants, you freed Christians from under the Muslim yoke.”
The Treaty of San Stefano changed the entire political picture of the Balkans in favor of Russian interests. Here are its main conditions. /281/
Serbia, Romania and Montenegro, previously vassals of Turkey, gained independence.
Bulgaria, a previously powerless province, acquired the status of a principality, although vassal in form to Turkey (“paying tribute”), but actually independent, with its own government and army.
Turkey undertook to pay Russia an indemnity of 1,410 million rubles, and from this amount it ceded Kaps, Ardahan, Bayazet and Batum in the Caucasus, and even Southern Bessarabia, seized from Russia after the Crimean War.
Official Russia noisily celebrated the victory. The king generously showered awards, but with choice, falling mainly to his relatives. Both Grand Dukes - “Uncle Nizi” and “Uncle Mikha” - became field marshals.
Meanwhile, England and Austria-Hungary, reassured about Constantinople, began a campaign to revise the Treaty of San Stefano. Both powers took up arms especially against the creation of the Bulgarian Principality, which they correctly regarded as an outpost of Russia in the Balkans. Thus, Russia, having just barely defeated Turkey, which was considered a “sick man,” found itself faced with a coalition from England and Austria-Hungary, i.e. a coalition of “two big guys.” For a new war with two opponents at once, each of whom was stronger than Turkey, Russia had neither the strength nor the conditions (a new revolutionary situation was already brewing within the country). Tsarism turned to Germany for diplomatic support, but Bismarck declared that he was only ready to play the role of an “honest broker” and proposed convening an international conference on the Eastern Question in Berlin.
On June 13, 1878, the historic Berlin Congress opened[ 1 ]. All his affairs were carried out by the “Big Five”: Germany, Russia, England, France and Austria-Hungary. Delegates from six more countries were extras. A member of the Russian delegation, General D.G. Anuchin, wrote in his diary: “The Turks are sitting like logs.”
Bismarck presided over the congress. The English delegation was headed by Prime Minister B. Disraeli (Lord Beaconsfield), the long-term (from 1846 to 1881) leader of the Conservative Party, which to this day honors Disraeli as one of its creators. France was represented by Foreign Minister V. Waddington (English by birth, which did not stop him from being an Anglophobe), Austria-Hungary by Foreign Minister D. Andrássy, once a hero of the Hungarian revolution of 1849, sentenced to death for this by an Austrian court , and now the leader of the most reactionary and aggressive forces of Austria-Hungary. The head of the Russian /282/ delegation was formally considered the 80-year-old Prince Gorchakov, but he was already decrepit and ill. In fact, the delegation was led by the Russian ambassador in London, former chief of gendarmes, ex-dictator P.A. Shuvalov, who turned out to be a much worse diplomat than a gendarme. Evil tongues claimed that he had occasion to confuse the Bosporus with the Dardanelles.
The Congress worked for exactly a month. Its final act was signed on July 1 (13), 1878. During the congress, it became clear that Germany, concerned about the excessive strengthening of Russia, did not want to support it. France, not yet recovered from the defeat of 1871, gravitated toward Russia, but was so afraid of Germany that it did not dare to actively support Russian demands. Taking advantage of this, England and Austria-Hungary imposed decisions on the congress that changed the Treaty of San Stefano to the detriment of Russia and the Slavic peoples of the Balkans, and Disraeli did not act like a gentleman: there was a case when he even ordered an emergency train for himself, threatening to leave the congress and thus disrupt his work.
The territory of the Bulgarian Principality was limited to only the northern half, and southern Bulgaria became an autonomous province of the Ottoman Empire called "Eastern Rumelia". The independence of Serbia, Montenegro and Romania was confirmed, but the territory of Montenegro was also reduced compared to the Treaty of San Stefano. Serbia cut off part of Bulgaria in order to create a rift between them. Russia returned Bayazet to Turkey, and as an indemnity exacted not 1,410 million, but only 300 million rubles. Finally, Austria-Hungary negotiated for itself the “right” to occupy Bosnia and Herzegovina. Only England seemed to have received nothing in Berlin. But, firstly, all the changes in the Treaty of San Stefano, beneficial only for Turkey and England, which stood behind it, were imposed on Russia and the Balkan peoples by England (together with Austria-Hungary), and secondly, the British government a week before the opening The Berlin Congress forced Turkey to cede Cyprus to it (in exchange for an obligation to defend Turkish interests), which the Congress tacitly sanctioned.
Russian positions in the Balkans, won in the battles of 1877-1878. at the cost of the lives of more than 100 thousand Russian soldiers, were undermined in the verbal debates of the Berlin Congress in such a way that the Russian-Turkish war, although won for Russia, was unsuccessful. Tsarism was never able to reach the straits, and Russia’s influence in the Balkans did not become stronger, since the Berlin Congress divided Bulgaria, cut off Montenegro, transferred Bosnia and Herzegovina to Austria-Hungary, and even quarreled Serbia with Bulgaria. The concessions of Russian diplomacy in Berlin testified to the military-political inferiority of tsarism and, paradoxical as it may seem after the war was won, the weakening of its authority in the international arena. Chancellor Gorchakov, in a note to the Tsar about the results of the congress, admitted: “The Berlin Congress is the darkest page in my career.” The king added: “And in mine too.”
Austria-Hungary's speech against the Treaty of San Stefano and Bismarck's brokerage, which was unfriendly towards Russia, worsened the traditionally friendly Russian-Austrian and Russian-German relations. It was at the Berlin Congress that the prospect of a new balance of power emerged, which would ultimately lead to the First World War: Germany and Austria-Hungary against Russia and France.
As for the Balkan peoples, they benefited from the Russian-Turkish war of 1877-1878. a lot, although less than what they would have received under the Treaty of San Stefano: this is the independence of Serbia, Montenegro, Romania and the beginning of the independent statehood of Bulgaria. The liberation (albeit incomplete) of the “Slav brothers” stimulated the rise of the liberation movement in Russia itself, because now almost none of the Russians wanted to put up with the fact that they, as the famous liberal I.I. Petrunkevich, “yesterday’s slaves were made citizens, but they themselves returned home as slaves as before.”
The war shook the position of tsarism not only in the international arena, but also within the country, revealing the ulcers of the economic and political backwardness of the autocratic regime as a consequence incompleteness"great" reforms of 1861-1874. In a word, like the Crimean War, the Russian-Turkish War of 1877-1878. played the role of a political catalyst, accelerating the maturation of a revolutionary situation in Russia.
Historical experience has shown that war (especially if it is ruinous and even more so unsuccessful) exacerbates social contradictions in an antagonistic, i.e. poorly organized society, exacerbating the misfortunes of the masses, and accelerating the maturation of the revolution. After the Crimean War, a revolutionary situation (the first in Russia) arose three years later; after the Russian-Turkish 1877-1878. - by the next year (not because the second war was more ruinous or shameful, but because the severity of social contradictions at the beginning of the war of 1877-1878 was greater in Russia than before the Crimean War). The next war of tsarism (Russian-Japanese 1904-1905) entailed a real revolution, since it turned out to be more ruinous and shameful than even the Crimean War, and social antagonisms were much more acute than during not only the first, but also the second revolutionary situations . In the conditions of the world war that began in 1914, two revolutions broke out in Russia one after another - first democratic, and then socialist. /284/
Historiographical information. War of 1877-1878 between Russia and Turkey is a phenomenon of great international significance, since, firstly, it was fought over the Eastern question, then almost the most explosive of the issues in world politics, and, secondly, it ended with the European Congress, which redrew the political map in the region, then perhaps the “hottest”, in the “powder keg” of Europe, as diplomats called it. Therefore, it is natural for historians from different countries to be interested in the war.
In Russian pre-revolutionary historiography, the war was portrayed as follows: Russia selflessly strives to liberate its “Slavic brothers” from the Turkish yoke, and the selfish powers of the West prevent it from doing so, wanting to take over Turkey’s territorial inheritance. This concept was developed by S.S. Tatishchev, S.M. Goryainov and especially the authors of the official nine-volume “Description of the Russian-Turkish War of 1877-1878.” on the Balkan Peninsula" (St. Petersburg, 1901-1913).
Foreign historiography for the most part portrays the war as a clash of two barbarities - Turkish and Russian, and the Western powers - as civilized peacemakers who always helped the Balkan peoples fight against the Turks by intelligent means; and when the war broke out, they stopped the beating of Turkey by Russia and saved the Balkans from Russian rule. This is how B. Sumner and R. Seton-Watson (England), D. Harris and G. Rapp (USA), G. Freytag-Loringhofen (Germany) interpret this topic.
As for Turkish historiography (Yu. Bayur, Z. Karal, E. Urash, etc.), it is imbued with chauvinism: Turkey’s yoke in the Balkans is presented as progressive tutelage, the national liberation movement of the Balkan peoples as the inspiration of European powers, and all wars , which were led by the Sublime Porte in the 18th-19th centuries. (including the war of 1877-1878) - for self-defense from aggression of Russia and the West.
More objective than others are the works of A. Debidur (France), A. Taylor (England), A. Springer (Austria)[ 2 ], where the aggressive calculations of all powers participating in the war of 1877-1878 were criticized. and the Berlin Congress.
For a long time, Soviet historians did not pay attention to the war of 1877-1878. proper attention. In the 20s, M.N. wrote about her. Pokrovsky. He sharply and wittily denounced the reactionary policies of tsarism, but underestimated the objectively progressive consequences of the war. Then, for more than a quarter of a century, our historians were not /285/ interested in that war, and only after the second liberation of Bulgaria by force of Russian weapons in 1944, the study of the events of 1877-1878 was resumed in the USSR. In 1950, a book by P.K. Fortunatov “War of 1877-1878.” and the liberation of Bulgaria" is interesting and bright, the best of all books on this topic, but small (170 pp.) - this is only a brief overview of the war. Somewhat more detailed, but less interesting, is the monograph by V.I. Vinogradova[ 3 ].
Labor N.I. Belyaeva[ 4 ], although great, is emphatically special: a military-historical analysis without due attention not only to socio-economic, but even to diplomatic subjects. The collective monograph “Russian-Turkish War of 1877-1878”, published in 1977 for the 100th anniversary of the war, edited by I.I., is of the same nature. Rostunova.
Soviet historians thoroughly investigated the causes of the war, but in covering the course of military operations, as well as their results, they contradicted themselves, equals sharpening the aggressive goals of tsarism and the liberation mission tsarist army. The works of Bulgarian scientists (X. Hristov, G. Georgiev, V. Topalov) on various issues of the topic have similar advantages and disadvantages. A generalizing study of the war of 1877-1878, as thorough as the monograph by E.V. Tarle about the Crimean War, still not.
1 . For more details, see: Anuchin D.G. Berlin Congress // Russian antiquity. 1912, No. 1-5.
2 . Cm.: Debidur A. Diplomatic history of Europe from the Vienna to the Berlin Congress (1814-1878). M., 1947. T 2; Taylor A. The struggle for dominance in Europe (1848-1918). M., 1958; Springer A. Der russisch-tiirkische Krieg 1877-1878 in Europa. Wien, 1891-1893.
3 . Cm.: Vinogradov V.I. Russian-Turkish War 1877-1878 and the liberation of Bulgaria. M., 1978.
4 . Cm.: Belyaev N.I. Russian-Turkish War 1877-1878 M., 1956.
The Russo-Turkish War of 1877-1878 was a war between the Russian Empire and Ottoman Turkey. It was caused by the rise of national liberation movement in the Balkans and the aggravation of international contradictions in this regard.
Uprisings against Turkish rule in Bosnia and Herzegovina (1875-1878) and Bulgaria (1876) caused social movement in Russia in support of the fraternal Slavic peoples. Responding to these sentiments, the Russian government came out in support of the rebels, hoping that if they were successful, they would strengthen their influence in the Balkans. Great Britain sought to pit Russia against Turkey and take advantage of the weakening of both countries.
In June 1876, the Serbo-Turkish War began, in which Serbia was defeated. To save it from death, Russia in October 1876 turned to the Turkish Sultan with a proposal to conclude a truce with Serbia.
In December 1876, the Constantinople Conference of the Great Powers was convened and tried to resolve the conflict diplomatically, but the Porte rejected their proposals. During secret negotiations, Russia managed to obtain guarantees of non-interference from Austria-Hungary in exchange for the Austrian occupation of Bosnia and Herzegovina. In April 1877, an agreement was concluded with Romania on the passage of Russian troops through its territory.
After the Sultan rejected new project reforms for the Balkan Slavs, developed at the initiative of Russia, on April 24 (April 12, old style), 1877, Russia officially declared war on Turkey.
In the European theater of operations, Russia had 185 thousand soldiers; together with its Balkan allies, the size of the group reached 300 thousand people. Russia had approximately 100 thousand soldiers in the Caucasus. In turn, the Turks in the European theater had a 186,000-strong force, and in the Caucasus they had approximately 90,000 soldiers. On the Black Sea he almost completely dominated Turkish fleet In addition, the Porte had the Danube flotilla.
In the context of the restructuring of the entire internal life of the country, the Russian government was unable to prepare for a long war, and the financial situation remained difficult. The forces allocated to the Balkan theater of operations were insufficient, but the morale of the Russian army was very high.
According to the plan, the Russian command intended to cross the Danube, cross the Balkans with a swift offensive and move on the Turkish capital - Constantinople. Relying on their fortresses, the Turks hoped to prevent Russian troops from crossing the Danube. However, these calculations of the Turkish command were disrupted.
In the summer of 1877, the Russian army successfully crossed the Danube. An advance detachment under the command of General Joseph Gurko quickly occupied the ancient capital of Bulgaria, the city of Tarnovo, and then captured an important passage through the Balkans - the Shipka Pass. Further advance was suspended due to lack of forces.
In the Caucasus, Russian troops captured the fortresses of Bayazet and Ardahan, defeated the Anatolian Turkish army during the Battle of Avliyar-Alajin in 1877, and then captured the fortress of Kars in November 1877.
The actions of Russian troops near Plevna (now Pleven) on the western flank of the army were unsuccessful. Because of gross mistakes During the tsarist command, the Turks managed to detain large forces of Russian (and somewhat later Romanian) troops here. Three times Russian troops stormed Plevna, suffering huge losses, and each time without success.
In December, the forty thousand-strong garrison of Plevna capitulated.
The fall of Plevna caused the rise of the Slavic liberation movement. Serbia entered the war again. Bulgarian militias fought heroically in the ranks of the Russian army.
By 1878, the balance of power in the Balkans had changed in favor of Russia. The Danube Army, with the assistance of the Bulgarian population and the Serbian army, defeated the Turks while crossing the Balkans in the winter of 1877-1878, in the battle of Sheinovo, Philippopolis (now Plovdiv) and Adrianople, and in February 1878 reached the Bosporus and Constantinople.
In the Caucasus, the Russian army captured Batum and blocked Erzurum.
The ruling circles of Russia faced the specter of a big war with the European powers, for which Russia was not ready. The army suffered heavy losses and experienced supply difficulties. The command stopped the troops in the town of San Stefano (near Constantinople), and on March 3 (February 19, old style), 1878, a peace treaty was signed here.
According to it, Kars, Ardahan, Batum and Bayazet, as well as Southern Bessarabia, were ceded to Russia. Bulgaria and Bosnia and Herzegovina received broad autonomy, and Serbia, Montenegro and Romania received independence. In addition, Türkiye was obliged to pay an indemnity of 310 million rubles.
The terms of the treaty caused a negative reaction from Western European states, which feared Russia's enormously increased influence in the Balkans. Fearing the threat of a new war, for which Russia was not prepared, the Russian government was forced to revise the treaty at an international congress in Berlin (June-July 1878), where the San Stefano Treaty was replaced by the Berlin Treaty, which was unfavorable for Russia and the Balkan countries.
The material was prepared based on information from open sources
1) The aggravation of the eastern question and Russia’s desire to play an active role in international politics;
2) Russian support for the liberation movement of the Balkan peoples against the Ottoman Empire
3) Turkey’s refusal to satisfy Russia’s ultimatum to stop hostilities in Serbia
| Year | Event |
| 1875 | Uprising in Bosnia and Herzegovina. |
| April 1876 | Uprising in Bulgaria. |
| June 1876 | Serbia and Montenegro declare war on Turkey; funds are being collected in Russia to help the rebels and volunteers are being signed up. |
| October 1876 | The defeat of the Serbian army near Djunis; Russia presents Turkey with an ultimatum to stop hostilities. |
| January 1877 | Conference of European Ambassadors in Constantinople. A failed attempt to resolve the crisis. |
| March 1877 | European powers signed the London Protocol obliging Turkey to carry out reforms, but Turkey rejected the proposal. |
| April 12, 1877 | Alexander 2 signed a manifesto on the beginning of the war in Turkey. |
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Main events of the war |
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Capture of Russian fortresses on the Danube by Russian troops |
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Crossing of Russian troops across the Russian-Turkish border in the Caucasus |
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Capture of Bayazet |
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Establishment of the blockade of Kars |
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Defense of Bayazet by the Russian detachment of Captain Shtokovich |
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Russian army crossing the Danube at Zimnitsa |
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Transition through the Balkans of the advanced detachment led by General I.V. Gurko |
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Occupation of the Shipkinsky Pass by a detachment of I.V. Gurko |
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Unsuccessful assault on Plevna by Russian troops |
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Siege and capture of Plevna |
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Storming of Kars by Russian troops |
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Captivity of the Plevna garrison |
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Transition through the Balkans of detachment I.V. Gurko |
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Occupation of Sofia by troops of I.V. Gurko |
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Transition through the Balkans of the detachments of Svyatopolk-Mirsky and D.M. Skobeleva |
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Battle of Sheinovo, Shipka and Shipka Pass. Defeat of the Turkish army |
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Establishment of the blockade of Erzurum |
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The offensive of the detachments of I.V. Gurko to Philippopolis and its capture |
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Capture of Adrianople by Russian troops |
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Capture of Erzurum by Russian troops |
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Occupation of San Stefano by Russian troops |
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Treaty of San Stefano between Russia and Turkey |
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Berlin Treaty. Discussion of the Russian-Turkish peace treaty on international congress |
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Dissatisfaction with European powers and putting pressure on Russia. Submitting the articles of the treaty for discussion at the international congress |
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1. Türkiye paid Russia a large indemnity |
1. The amount of indemnity has been reduced |
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2. Bulgaria turned into an autonomous principality, annually paying tribute to Turkey |
2. Only Northern Bulgaria gained independence, while Southern Bulgaria remained under Turkish rule |
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3. Serbia, Montenegro and Romania gained full independence, their territory increased significantly |
3. The territorial acquisitions of Serbia and Montenegro have decreased. They, as well as Romania, gained independence |
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4. Russia received Bessarabia, Kars, Bayazet, Ardagan, Batum |
4. Austria-Hungary occupied Bosnia and Herzegovina, and England occupied Cyprus |
