| During the 19th century. Russian-Turkish War (1877-1878)
After the defeat in the Crimean War of 1853-1856, according to the Paris Peace Treaty, Russia lost the right to maintain a navy in the Black Sea and was forced to temporarily abandon its active policy towards Turkey. Only after the annulment of the restrictive articles of the Paris Treaty in 1871 did the Russian government begin to seriously think about revenge and restoration of the role of Russian Empire as protectors and patroness of the Slavs of the Balkan Peninsula, who suffered from Turkish oppression. Soon an opportunity presented itself.
In 1876, an uprising broke out in Bulgaria against the Turks, which Turkish troops suppressed with incredible cruelty. This caused outrage in European countries and especially in Russia, which considered itself the patroness of Christians in the Ottoman Empire. After Turkey rejected the London Protocol, signed on March 31, 1877 by Great Britain, Russia, Austria-Hungary, France, Germany and Italy and providing for the demobilization of the Turkish army and the beginning of reforms in the Balkan provinces of the Ottoman Empire, a new Russian-Turkish war became inevitable. On April 24, Emperor Alexander II signed a manifesto on war with Turkey. On the same day, a 275,000-strong Russian army with 1,250 guns crossed the border Prut and entered Romania, which became an ally of Russia. On June 27, the main forces crossed the Danube.
In the European theater, the Turks initially could oppose the enemy with only an army of 135,000 with 450 guns. There were also several tens of thousands of irregular cavalry - bashi-bazouks, but they were only suitable for fighting Bulgarian partisans and reprisals against civilians, and not for battles with the Russian regular army. In the Caucasus, the 70,000-strong Russian army was confronted by Turkish troops of approximately equal numbers.
Commanded Russian troops in the Balkans Grand Duke Nikolai Nikolaevich, and Turkish - Abdul-Kerim Nadir Pasha. The plan of the Russian command was to quickly move towards Adrianople in order to force the Turks to stop resistance by threatening Istanbul (Constantinople). However, a quick victorious march through the Balkans did not work out. Both the difficulties of moving through mountainous terrain and possible countermeasures were not taken into account.
On July 7, General Gurko’s detachment occupied Tarnovo and moved around the Shipka Pass. Fearing encirclement, the Turks left Shipka without a fight on July 19. On July 15, Russian troops took Nikopol. However, a large Turkish army under the command of Osman Pasha, previously stationed in Vidin, entered Plevna, threatening the right flank and communications of the Russian army. On July 20, an attempt by General Schilder-Schuldner’s detachment to drive the Turks out of Plevna was unsuccessful. Without capturing this fortress, the Russians could not continue their offensive beyond the Balkan ridge. Plevna became the central point where the outcome of the campaign was decided.
On July 31, General Kridner's detachment attacked the troops of Osman Pasha, but was defeated. Meanwhile, another Turkish army, under the command of Suleiman Pasha, transferred from Montenegro, defeated detachments of Bulgarian militias and on August 21 began the assault on Shipka. Fierce fighting continued for four days when it came to bayonet fighting and hand-to-hand combat. Reinforcements approached the Russian detachment defending at the pass, and the Turks were forced to retreat.
On September 11, Russian troops again stormed Plevna, but, having lost 13 thousand people, rolled back to their original position. Suleiman Pasha repeated Shipka's attack, trying to distract Russian troops from Plevna, but was repulsed.
On September 27, General Totle-ben was appointed commander-in-chief of the army, who began a systematic siege of Plevna. Suleiman Pasha's army unsuccessfully tried to break through the Balkans and relieve Plevna in November and early December. On December 10, Osman Pasha launched a final attack to escape the besieged fortress. The Turks passed through two lines of Russian trenches, but were stopped on the third and surrendered. Because of this defeat, changes occurred in the Turkish command. Nadir Pasha was replaced by Mehmet Ali Pasha, but he could not improve the situation.
After the capture of Plevna, Russian troops, despite the harsh winter, immediately moved through the Balkan Mountains. On December 25, Gurko’s detachment passed the Churyak pass and on January 4, 1878 entered Sofia, and in early January the main forces crossed the Balkan ridge at Shipka. On January 10, the division M.D. Skobelev and Prince N.I. Svyatopolk-Mirsky defeated the Turks at Sheinovo and surrounded their detachment, which had previously besieged Shipka. 22 thousand Turkish soldiers and officers were captured.
Suleiman Pasha's army retreated to Philippopolis (Plovdiv), since the road to Constantinople was already cut by Russian troops. Here, in the battle of January 15-17, 1878, the Turks were defeated by General Gurko’s detachment and lost more than 20 thousand people and 180 guns. The remnants of Suleiman Pasha's troops fled to the coast Aegean Sea and from there we crossed to Istanbul.
On January 20, Skobelev occupied Adrianople without a fight. The Turkish command no longer had any significant forces in the Balkan theater. On January 30, Russian troops reached the Silivri-Chataldzhi-Karaburun line, coming close to the last defensive positions in front of Istanbul. On January 31, 1878, a truce was signed in Adrianople.
In the Caucasus, Grand Duke Mikhail Nikolaevich was considered the nominal commander, but his chief of staff, General Mikhail Loris-Melikov, was actually in charge of operations. On October 15, Russian troops defeated the army of Ahmed Mukhtar Pasha at Aladzhi. After that the strongest Turkish fortress Kare was left almost without a garrison and surrendered on November 18.
On March 3, 1878, the Peace of San Stefano was signed. According to this world, Kara, occupied during the war, as well as Ardahan, Batum and Bayazet went to Russia in Transcaucasia. Russian troops remained in Bulgaria for two years. In addition, Southern Bessarabia returned to the Russian Empire. Bulgaria, as well as Bosnia and Herzegovina, received autonomy. Serbia, Montenegro and Romania were declared independent. Türkiye had to pay Russia an indemnity of 310 million rubles.
However, at the Berlin Congress of the Great Powers in June-July 1878, Russia's achievements were significantly curtailed. Bayazet and Southern Bulgaria were returned to Turkey. Bosnia and Herzegovina was occupied by Austria-Hungary, and Cyprus by England.
Russia's victory was achieved thanks to the numerical superiority and higher combat effectiveness of Russian troops. As a result of the Russian-Turkish War of 1877-1878, the Ottoman Empire was ousted from most of the Balkan Peninsula and finally became a minor European power - the object of the claims of stronger neighbors.
Russian losses in this war amounted to 16 thousand killed and 7 thousand died from wounds (there are other estimates - up to 36.5 thousand killed and 81 thousand died from wounds and diseases). The Turks lost, according to some estimates, about 17 thousand people, the Romanians allied with the Russians - 1.5 thousand. There are no reliable estimates of the number of deaths from wounds and diseases in the Turkish army, but given the very poor organization of the sanitary service in Turkey, there were probably significantly more of them than in the Russian army. Turkish losses in prisoners exceeded 100 thousand people, and the number of Russian prisoners was insignificant.
The Russo-Turkish War of 1877-1878 was the last successful war waged by the Russian Empire. But the fact that victory over such a relatively weak enemy as the Turkish army was achieved by Russian troops at a high price, and only thanks to the full effort of all forces, testified to the crisis of Russian military power. A quarter of a century later, during Russo-Japanese War, this crisis fully manifested itself, and then followed the defeat of the Russian army in the battles of the First World War and its collapse in 1917.
The War with Turkey of 1877-1878 and its consequences confirmed that the Russian army was never revived after Crimean War to the level of the first-class army that it was during the war with Napoleon. Russia dealt a mortal blow to the Ottoman Empire, after which Turkish influence on the Balkan Peninsula could never be restored, and the secession of all South Slavic countries from Turkey became a matter of the very near future. However, the desired goal of hegemony in the Balkans and control over Constantinople and the Black Sea straits was not achieved. A struggle developed between all the great powers for influence on the newly independent Balkan states, which continued until the First World War.
Based on materials from the portal "Great Wars in Russian History"
The leading direction of foreign policy of the second half of the 19th century. remained eastern question. The Crimean War aggravated contradictions in the Balkans and in the region Mediterranean Sea. Russia was very concerned about the insecurity of its borders in the Black Sea region and the lack of ability to defend its interests in the eastern Mediterranean, especially in the straits.
As the national liberation war intensified in the Balkans, a mass movement in support of the South Slavs grew in Russia. A new wave of public indignation arose in connection with the brutal suppression by the Turkish authorities of the April uprising in Bulgaria. Outstanding Russian scientists, writers, artists spoke in defense of the Bulgarian people - D.I. Mendeleev, N.I. Pirogov, L.N. Tolstoy, I.S. Turgenev, F.M. Dostoevsky, I.S. Isakov, I.E. Repin and others.
In July 1876 The governments of Serbia and Montenegro demanded that Turkey stop the massacre in Bosnia and Herzegovina. However, this demand was not satisfied, and on July 30, both Slavic states declared war on Turkey. About 5 thousand Russian soldiers joined the Serbian army. Russian volunteer doctors worked in hospitals in Serbia and Montenegro, among whom were such famous doctors as N.V. Sklifosovsky, S.P. Botkin.
In acute international situation Tsarism sought to avoid open participation in the conflict that arose. Türkiye refused to guarantee the rights of the Christian population.
April 12, 1877 Russia declared war Turkey. Events unfolded in the Balkans and Transcaucasia. On the day war was declared, the Russian army crossed the Romanian border and moved towards the Danube. On July 7, Russian troops captured the Shipka Pass.
A large military group under the command of Suleiman Pasha. One of the heroic episodes of the war began - defense of Shipka Pass.
In extremely difficult conditions, with multiple superiority of enemy forces, Russian troops repelled the attacks of Turkish troops.
At the same time, the enemy managed to concentrate large forces in the fortress Plevna, located at the intersection of major roads. In November 1977, Plevna surrendered, which became the most important event during the war. After the capture of Plevna by Russian troops, the final period of the war began.
On December 3, a detachment under the command I.V. Gurko in the most difficult conditions of mountainous terrain at 25-degree frost, he crossed the Balkans and liberated Sofia.
Another squad under the command F.F. Radetzky Through the Shipka Pass he reached the fortified Turkish camp of Sheinovo. One of the largest battles of the war took place here, during which the enemy was defeated. Russian troops moved towards Constantinople.
Events also developed successfully in the Transcaucasian theater of military operations. At the beginning of May 1877, Russian troops successfully captured the fortresses of Ardahan and Kare.
Negotiations on a peace treaty with Turkey have ended 19 February 1878 in San Stefano, near Constantinople. According to the contract Serbia, Romania and Montenegro received full independence. The creation was proclaimed Bulgaria- an autonomous principality in which Russian troops were stationed for two years. Türkiye committed to reforms in Bosnia and Herzegovina. Northern Dobruja was transferred to Romania. Russia was returning Southern Bessarabia, rejected by the Treaty of Paris. Cities in Asia went to Russia Ardahan, Kars, Batum, Bayazet and a large area up to Saganlung, inhabited mainly by Armenians. The San Stefano Treaty met the aspirations of the Balkan peoples and had progressive significance for the peoples of Transcaucasia.
The Western powers could not come to terms with the strengthening of Russian positions in the Balkans and the Caucasus. They refused to recognize the terms of the Treaty of San Stefano and demanded its revision. Russia was forced to give in.
IN July V Berlin A congress opened in which European states, acting as a united front, changed the Treaty of San Stefano. Southern Bulgaria came under Turkish rule. The territories of independent Serbia, Montenegro and Romania were reduced. Austria-Hungary occupied Bosnia and Herzegovina, England occupied Cyprus.
IN last quarter XIX century contradictions are growing between the great powers: Russia, England, France, Germany and Austria-Hungary. Their confrontation determined the situation in the world, affecting the interests of other states. Late XIX- beginning of the twentieth century. marked by the creation of blocs of states.
June 6 1881 An Austro-Russian-German treaty was signed, which went down in history under the name “ Union of Three Emperors" The agreement established the mutual obligations of the parties to maintain overall neutrality in the event of war between one of them and the fourth party. In general, this agreement was beneficial to Russia, but it was short-lived and easily terminated, which predetermined its weakness.
Despite the conclusion of the treaty, the policy of the Russian government began to increasingly acquire anti-German features. In 1887, decrees were issued limiting the influx of German capital into Russia and increasing duties on the import of metal, metal products and coal, and on products chemical industry etc.
By the end of the 80s, Russia’s contradictions with Austria-Hungary and Germany became more significant than the contradictions with England. In resolving international issues Russian government began to look for partners. An important prerequisite for such a step was the serious changes in the entire European situation caused by the conclusion of 1882 Triple Alliance between Germany, Austria-Hungary and Italy. In the early 90s, there were signs of a rapprochement between the participants of the Triple Alliance and England. Under these conditions, a rapprochement between Russia and France began, which had not only a political, but also an economic basis. Since 1887, Russia began to regularly receive French loans. August 27 1891. was concluded Russian-French alliance, and in 1892 - a military convention. In January 1894, the treaty was ratified by Alexander III.
Many contemporaries are convinced that in the past historians paid little attention to such an event as the Russian-Turkish War of 1877-1878. Briefly, but as clearly as possible, we will discuss this episode in the history of Russia. After all, like any war, it is in any case the history of the state.
Let's try to analyze such an event as the Russian-Turkish war of 1877-1878, briefly, but as clearly as possible. First of all, for ordinary readers.
The main opponents of this armed conflict were the Russian and Ottoman empires.
Many important events took place during it. The Russian-Turkish War of 1877-1878 (briefly described in this article) left its mark on the history of almost all participating countries.
On the side of the Porte (the historically acceptable name for the Ottoman Empire) were Abkhaz, Dagestan and Chechen rebels, as well as the Polish Legion.
Russia, in turn, was supported by the Balkans.
First of all, let's look at the main reasons for the Russian-Turkish War of 1877-1878 (briefly).
The main reason for the outbreak of the war was the significant increase in national consciousness in some Balkan countries.
This kind of public sentiment was associated with the April Uprising in Bulgaria. The cruelty and mercilessness with which the Bulgarian rebellion was suppressed forced some European countries (especially the Russian Empire) to show sympathy for Christians located in Turkey.
Another reason for the outbreak of hostilities was the defeat of Serbia in the Serbo-Montenegrin-Turkish War, as well as the failed Constantinople Conference.
On April 24, 1877, the Russian Empire officially declared war on the Porte. After the Chisinau solemn parade, Archbishop Paul at a prayer service read out the manifesto of Emperor Alexander II, which spoke of the beginning of military action against the Ottoman Empire.
In order to avoid intervention by European states, the war had to be carried out “quickly” - in one company.
In May of the same year, troops of the Russian Empire were introduced into the territory of the Romanian state.
Romanian troops, in turn, began to take an active part in the conflict on the side of Russia and its allies only three months after this event.
The organization and preparedness of the Russian army was noticeably affected by the military reform carried out at that time by Emperor Alexander II.
The Russian troops included about 700 thousand people. The Ottoman Empire had about 281 thousand people. Despite the significant numerical superiority of the Russians, a significant advantage of the Turks was the possession and equipping of the army with modern weapons.
It is worth noting that the Russian Empire intended to spend the entire war on land. The fact is that the Black Sea was completely under the control of the Turks, and Russia was allowed to build its ships in this sea only in 1871. Naturally, what kind of short term it was impossible to build a strong flotilla.
This armed conflict was fought in two directions: Asian and European.
As we mentioned above, with the beginning of the war, Russian troops were brought into Romania. This was done to eliminate the Danube fleet of the Ottoman Empire, which controlled the crossings of the Danube.
The Turkish river flotilla could not resist the actions of enemy sailors, and soon the Dnieper was crossed by Russian troops. This was the first significant step towards Constantinople.
Despite the fact that the Turks were able to briefly delay the Russian troops and gain time to strengthen Istanbul and Edirne, they were unable to change the course of the war. Due to the inept actions of the military command of the Ottoman Empire, Plevna capitulated on December 10.
After this event, the active Russian army, which at that time numbered about 314 thousand soldiers, was preparing to go on the offensive again.
At the same time, it resumes against Porta fighting Serbia.
On December 23, 1877, a raid through the Balkans was carried out by a Russian detachment, which at that moment was under the command of General Romeiko-Gurko, thanks to whom Sofia was occupied.
On December 27-28, the battle of Sheinovo took place, in which the troops of the Southern detachment took part. The result of this battle was the encirclement and defeat of the 30 thousandth
On January 8, the troops of the Russian Empire, without any resistance, captured one of the key points of the Turkish army - the city of Edirne.
The main objectives of the Asian direction of the war were to ensure the security of their own borders, as well as the desire of the leadership of the Russian Empire to break the Turks’ concentration exclusively on the European theater of operations.
The Abkhaz rebellion that occurred in May 1877 is considered to be the beginning of the Caucasian Company.
Around the same time, Russian troops leave the city of Sukhum. It was possible to return it back only in August.
During operations in Transcaucasia, Russian troops captured many citadels, garrisons and fortresses: Bayazit, Ardagan, etc.
In the second half of the summer of 1877, hostilities were temporarily “frozen” for the reason that both sides were awaiting the arrival of reinforcements.
Beginning in September, the Russians began to adhere to siege tactics. So, for example, the city of Kars was taken, which opened the victorious path to Erzurum. However, its capture never took place due to the conclusion of the San Stefano Peace Treaty.
In addition to Austria and England, Serbia and Romania were also dissatisfied with the terms of this truce. It was believed that their services in the war were not appreciated. This was the beginning of the birth of a new - Berlin - Congress.
At the final stage, we will summarize the results of the Russian-Turkish war of 1877-1878 (briefly).
There was an expansion of the borders of the Russian Empire: more specifically, Bessarabia, which was lost during the
In exchange for helping the Ottoman Empire defend against the Russians in the Caucasus, England stationed its troops on the island of Cyprus in the Mediterranean Sea.
Russian-Turkish War 1877-1878 (briefly discussed by us in this article) played a big role in international relations.
It gave rise to a gradual shift away from confrontation between the Russian Empire and Great Britain for the reason that countries began to focus more on their own interests (for example, Russia was interested in the Black Sea, and England in Egypt).
Despite the fact that this war is not considered a particularly significant event in history Russian state, a considerable number of historians have studied it. The most famous researchers whose contribution was noted as the most significant are L.I. Rovnyakova, O.V. Orlik, F.T. Konstantinova, E.P. Lvov, etc.
They studied the biographies of participating commanders and military leaders, significant events, and summed up the results of the Russian-Turkish war of 1877-1878, briefly described in the presented publication. Naturally, all this was not in vain.
Economist A.P. Pogrebinsky believed that the Russian-Turkish War of 1877-1878, which briefly and quickly ended with the victory of the Russian Empire and its allies, had a huge impact, primarily on the economy. The annexation of Bessarabia played an important role in this.
According to the Soviet politician Nikolai Belyaev, this military conflict was unjust and aggressive in nature. This statement, according to its author, is relevant both in relation to the Russian Empire and in relation to the Porte.
It can also be said that the Russian-Turkish war of 1877-1878, briefly described in this article, primarily showed the success of the military reform of Alexander II, both in organizational terms and in technical terms.
The war between the Russian and Ottoman empires lasted from April 12, 1877 to February 18, 1878. A number of Balkan states also acted on Russia’s side. The result of the war was the liberation of the Balkan peoples from Ottoman rule, the independence of Romania, Serbia and Montenegro, as well as the acquisition of broad autonomy by Bulgaria. In addition, Russia annexed the Kara region and Southern Bessarabia, and Romania annexed Silistra. Also, part of the territory of the Ottoman Empire was occupied by Great Britain and Austria-Hungary.
Prerequisites
The 19th century was marked by an intensification of the struggle for independence among the peoples of the European part of the Ottoman Empire. After a series of uprisings in 1815, autonomy was achieved for Serbia. In 1829, under the Treaty of Adrianople, Turkey granted autonomy to Moldavia and Wallachia, and in 1830, after many years of war, it recognized the independence of Greece. In 1866-1869 there was an uprising in Crete, which was suppressed by the Porte. Nevertheless, the islanders managed to achieve a number of privileges. In 1875, the Bosnian uprising began, in 1876 - the April uprising in Bulgaria, which were suppressed by the Ottoman government. The cruelty of the Turks caused outrage in Europe. Serbia and Montenegro declared war on Turkey, and numerous Russian volunteers fought on the side of the Serbs. Russia, eager to reassert its influence in the Balkans, began mobilizing its army, but to start the war it was necessary to ensure that the Western powers would not enter the conflict on Turkey's side. The Constantinople Conference of the Great Powers was convened and tried to resolve the conflict diplomatically, but the Porte rejected their proposals. During secret negotiations, it was also possible to obtain guarantees of non-interference from Austria-Hungary in exchange for the Austrian occupation of Bosnia and Herzegovina. On April 24, 1878, Russia officially declared war on Turkey.
Strengths of the parties
In the European theater of operations, Russia had 185 thousand soldiers; together with its Balkan allies, the size of the group reached 300 thousand people. Russia had approximately 100 thousand soldiers in the Caucasus. In turn, the Turks in the European theater had a force of 186 thousand, and in the Caucasus about 90 thousand soldiers. In addition, the Turkish fleet almost completely dominated the Black Sea, and the Porte also had the Danube flotilla.
Progress of the war
In May 1877 Russian troops entered the territory of Romania, on June 27 the main forces of the Russian army crossed the Danube and began to advance deeper into enemy territory. On July 7, General Gurko’s detachment occupied Tarnovo and moved around the Shipka Pass, trying to encircle the Turkish troops located there. As a result, on July 19, the Turks occupied Shipka without a fight. On July 15, the troops of General Kridener occupied Nikopol, but at the same time a large Turkish army under the command of Osman Pasha occupied the fortress of Plevna, which was located on the right flank of the Russian troops. To successfully continue the campaign, it was necessary to take the fortress, but two hasty assaults on July 20 and 31 were unsuccessful. In August, Turkish troops tried to dislodge Russian units from Shipka, but encountered fierce resistance and were forced to withdraw four days later.
On September 11, the third assault on Plevna was launched, despite local successes, which also ended unsuccessfully for the Russian troops. After this, it was decided to begin a tight siege of the fortress, for which General Totleben was called from St. Petersburg. At this time, Suleiman Pasha’s army tried several times to break through the Shipka Pass, but failed each time.
In December 1877, the garrison of Plevna attempted to break through the positions of the Russian troops, but the grenadier corps withstood the attack of the Turks, after which they retreated back to the city and capitulated.
After the capture of Plevna, Russian troops, despite the harsh winter, continued to move south. On December 25, General Gurko’s detachment crossed the Churyak pass and occupied Sofia on January 4, 1878. At the beginning of January the main forces Russian army crossed the Balkan ridge. On January 10, detachment M.D. Skobelev and N.I. Svyatopolk-Mirsky defeated the Turks at Sheinovo, capturing 22 thousand soldiers and officers. Suleiman Pasha's army retreated to Plovdiv, where on January 15-17 it was defeated by Gurko's detachment, losing more than 20 thousand people.
On January 20, Skobelev occupied Adrianople, and on January 30, Russian troops approached the suburbs of Istanbul.
In the Caucasian theater, the Turks managed to occupy the Black Sea coast in May after the uprising in Abkhazia, but already in August they were forced to retreat. On October 15, Russian troops defeated the army of Ahmed Mukhtar Pasha at the Battle of Aladzhi and besieged Kars, which surrendered on November 18.
Results
On March 3, 1878, the Peace of San Stefano was signed. According to it, Kars, Ardahan, Batum and Bayazet, as well as Southern Bessarabia, were ceded to Russia. Bulgaria and Bosnia and Herzegovina received broad autonomy, and Serbia, Montenegro and Romania received independence. In addition, Türkiye was obliged to pay an indemnity of 310 million rubles. The terms of peace were not satisfied by the great powers, and under their pressure Russia was forced to take part in the Berlin Congress, at which the results of the peace were revised. The territory of Bulgaria was reduced, Bayazet remained with Turkey, in addition, Great Britain received Cyprus, and Austria-Hungary received Bosnia and Herzegovina.
Nevertheless, the main result of the war - the independence of the Balkan peoples - was not revised.
In artistic culture
Painting:
Artist V.V. Vereshchagin dedicated his Balkan series of paintings to the war. In addition to him, a series of paintings dedicated to the war was created by N.D. Dmitriev-Orenburgsky.
Literature:
Garshin V.M. From the memoirs of Private Ivanov. 1885.
Akunin Boris. Turkish gambit. 1998.
Pikul V. Bayazet. 1960.
Vasiliev B. They were and were not. 1981.
Cinema:
Heroes of Shipka, 1960
Yulia Vrevskaya, 1978 (dir. Nikola Korabov)
Bayazet, 2003 (dir. Andrey Chernykh, Nikolay Istanbul)
Turkish Gambit, 2005 (Dir. Janik Faziev)
Institute of Noble Maidens, 2010-2013 (dir. Yuri Popovich, Sergei Danelyan)
Relying on the friendly neutrality of Russia, Prussia from 1864 to 1871 won victories over Denmark, Austria and France, and then carried out the unification of Germany and the creation German Empire. The defeat of France by the Prussian army allowed, in turn, Russia to abandon the restrictive articles of the Paris Agreement (primarily the ban on having a navy in the Black Sea). The pinnacle of German-Russian rapprochement was the creation in 1873 of the “Union of Three Emperors” (Russia, Germany and Austria-Hungary). The alliance with Germany, with the weakening of France, allowed Russia to intensify its policy in the Balkans. The reason for intervention in Balkan affairs was the Bosnian uprising of 1875 and the Serbo-Turkish war of 1876. The defeat of Serbia by the Turks and their brutal suppression of the uprising in Bosnia aroused strong sympathy in Russian society, which wanted to help the “brother Slavs.” But there were disagreements among the Russian leadership about the advisability of war with Turkey. Thus, Foreign Minister A.M. Gorchakov, Finance Minister M.H. Reitern and others considered Russia unprepared for a serious conflict, which could cause a financial crisis and a new conflict with the West, primarily with Austria-Hungary and England. Throughout 1876, diplomats sought a compromise, which Türkiye avoided at all costs. She was supported by England, which saw in starting a military fire in the Balkans an opportunity to distract Russia from affairs in Central Asia. Ultimately, following the Sultan's refusal to reform his European provinces, Emperor Alexander II declared war on Turkey on April 12, 1877. Previously (in January 1877), Russian diplomacy managed to settle tensions with Austria-Hungary. She maintained neutrality for the right to occupy Turkish possessions in Bosnia and Herzegovina, Russia regained the territory of southern Bessarabia, lost in the Crimean campaign. It was also decided not to create a large Slavic state in the Balkans.
The plan of the Russian command provided for the end of the war within a few months, so that Europe would not have time to interfere in the course of events. Since Russia had almost no fleet on the Black Sea, repeating the route of Dibich’s campaign to Constantinople through the eastern regions of Bulgaria (near the coast) became difficult. Moreover, in this area there were powerful fortresses of Silistria, Shumla, Varna, Rushchuk, forming a quadrangle, in which the main forces of the Turkish army were located. Advancement in this direction threatened the Russian army with protracted battles. Therefore, it was decided to bypass the ominous quadrangle through the central regions of Bulgaria and go to Constantinople through the Shipka Pass (a pass in the Stara Planina mountains, on the Gabrovo - Kazanlak road. Height 1185 m).
Two main theaters of military operations can be distinguished: Balkan and Caucasian. The main one was the Balkan, where military operations can be divided into three stages. The first (until mid-July 1877) included the crossing of the Danube and the Balkans by Russian troops. The second stage (from the second half of July to the end of November 1877), during which the Turks carried out a number of offensive operations, and the Russians, in general, were in a state of positional defense. The third, final stage (December 1877 - January 1878) is associated with the advance of the Russian army through the Balkans and the victorious end of the war.
First stage
After the start of the war, Romania took the side of Russia and allowed Russian troops to pass through its territory. By the beginning of June 1877, the Russian army, led by Grand Duke Nikolai Nikolaevich (185 thousand people), concentrated on the left bank of the Danube. She was opposed by troops of approximately equal numbers under the command of Abdul Kerim Pasha. Most of them were located in the already mentioned quadrangle of fortresses. The main forces of the Russian army concentrated somewhat to the west, at Zimnitsa. The main crossing of the Danube was being prepared there. Even further west, along the river, from Nikopol to Vidin, Romanian troops (45 thousand people) were stationed. In terms of combat training, the Russian army was superior to the Turkish one. But the Turks were superior to the Russians in the quality of weapons. In particular, they were armed with the latest American and British rifles. The Turkish infantry had more ammunition and entrenching tools. Russian soldiers had to save shots. An infantryman who spent more than 30 rounds of ammunition (more than half of his cartridge bag) during a battle faced punishment. A strong spring flood of the Danube prevented the crossing. In addition, the Turks had up to 20 battleships on the river, controlling coastal zone. April and May passed in the fight against them. In the end, Russian troops, with the help of coastal batteries and mine boats, inflicted damage on the Turkish squadron and forced it to take refuge in Silistria. Only after this did it become possible to cross. On June 10, units of General Zimmermann's XIV Corps crossed the river at Galati. They occupied Northern Dobruja, where they remained idle until the end of the war. It was a red herring. Meanwhile, the main forces secretly accumulated at Zimnitsa. Opposite it, on the right bank, lay the fortified Turkish point of Sistovo.
Crossing near Sistovo (1877). On the night of June 15, the 14th division of General Mikhail Dragomirov crossed the river between Zimnitsa and Sistovo. The soldiers crossed in black winter uniforms to remain undetected in the dark. The first to land on the right bank without firing a single shot was the 3rd Volyn company, led by Captain Fok. The following units crossed the river under heavy fire and immediately entered the battle. After a fierce assault, the Sistov fortifications fell. Russian losses during the crossing amounted to 1.1 thousand people. (killed, wounded and drowned). By June 21, 1877, sappers built a floating bridge at Sistovo, along which the Russian army crossed to the right bank of the Danube. The further plan was as follows. An advance detachment under the command of General Joseph Gurko (12 thousand people) was intended for the offensive through the Balkans. To secure the flanks, two detachments were created - Eastern (40 thousand people) and Western (35 thousand people). The eastern detachment, led by the heir, Tsarevich Alexander Alexandrovich (future Emperor Alexander III), held back the main Turkish troops from the east (from the side of the fortress quadrangle). The western detachment, led by General Nikolai Kridiger, had the goal of expanding the invasion zone to the west.
Capture of Nikopol and first assault on Plevna (1877). Fulfilling the assigned task, Kridiger attacked Nikopol on July 3, which was defended by a 7,000-strong Turkish garrison. After a two-day assault, the Turks capitulated. Russian losses during the attack amounted to about 1.3 thousand people. The fall of Nikopol reduced the threat of a flank attack on Russian crossings at Sistovo. On the western flank, the Turks had the last large detachment in the Vidin fortress. It was commanded by Osman Pasha, who managed to change the situation favorable for the Russians. First stage war. Osman Pasha did not wait in Vidin for further actions of Kridiger. Taking advantage of the passivity of the Romanian army on the right flank of the allied forces, the Turkish commander left Vidin on July 1 and moved towards the Western detachment of the Russians. Having covered 200 km in 6 days. Osman Pasha took up defensive positions with a 17,000-strong detachment in the Plevna area. This decisive maneuver came as a complete surprise to Kridiger, who, after the capture of Nikopol, decided that the Turks were finished in this area. Therefore, the Russian commander remained inactive for two days, instead of immediately capturing Plevna. When he realized it, it was already too late. Danger loomed over the Russian right flank and over their crossing (Plevna was 60 km from Sistovo). As a result of the occupation of Plevna by the Turks, the corridor for the advance of Russian troops in a southern direction narrowed to 100-125 km (from Plevna to Rushchuk). Kridiger decided to correct the situation and immediately sent the 5th division of General Schilder-Schulder (9 thousand people) against Plevna. However, the allocated forces were not enough, and the assault on Plevna on July 8 ended in failure. Having lost about a third of his forces during the attack, Schilder-Schulder was forced to retreat. The damage to the Turks amounted to 2 thousand people. This failure influenced the actions of the Eastern detachment. He abandoned the blockade of the Rushuk fortress and went on the defensive, since reserves to strengthen it were now transferred to Plevna.
Gurko's first Trans-Balkan campaign (1877). While the Eastern and Western detachments were settling down in the Sistov patch, General Gurko’s units quickly moved south to the Balkans. On June 25, the Russians occupied Tarnovo, and on July 2, they crossed the Balkans through the Heineken Pass. To the right, through the Shipka Pass, a Russian-Bulgarian detachment led by General Nikolai Stoletov (about 5 thousand people) was advancing. On July 5-6 he attacked Shipka, but was repulsed. However, on July 7, the Turks, having learned about the capture of the Heineken Pass and their movement to the rear of Gurko’s units, left Shipka. The path through the Balkans was open. Russian regiments and detachments of Bulgarian volunteers descended into the Valley of Roses, enthusiastically greeted by the local population. The message of the Russian Tsar to the Bulgarian people also contained the following words: “Bulgarians, my troops have crossed the Danube, where they have fought more than once to alleviate the plight of the Christians of the Balkan Peninsula... Russia’s task is to create, not to destroy. It is called by the Almighty providence to agree and to pacify all nationalities and all confessions in those parts of Bulgaria where people of different origins and different faiths live together..." Advanced Russian units appeared 50 km from Adrianople. But this was where Gurko’s promotion ended. He did not have enough forces for a successful massive offensive that could decide the outcome of the war. The Turkish command had reserves to repel this bold, but largely improvised onslaught. For protection this direction The corps of Suleiman Pasha (20 thousand people) was transferred by sea from Montenegro, which closed the road to Gurko’s units on the Eski-Zagra - Yeni-Zagra line. In fierce battles on July 18-19, Gurko, who did not receive sufficient reinforcements, managed to defeat the Turkish division of Reuf Pasha near Yeni Zagra, but suffered a heavy defeat near Eski Zagra, where the Bulgarian militia was defeated. Gurko's detachment retreated to the passes. This completed the First Trans-Balkan Campaign.
Second assault on Plevna (1877). On the day when Gurko’s units fought under two Zagras, General Kridiger with a 26,000-strong detachment launched a second assault on Plevna (July 18). Its garrison had reached 24 thousand people by that time. Thanks to the efforts of Osman Pasha and the talented engineer Tevtik Pasha, Plevna turned into a formidable stronghold, surrounded by defensive fortifications and redoubts. The scattered frontal onslaught of the Russians from the east and south crashed against the powerful Turkish defense system. Having lost over 7 thousand people in fruitless attacks, Kridiger’s troops retreated. The Turks lost about 4 thousand people. At the Sistov crossing, panic broke out at the news of this defeat. An approaching detachment of Cossacks was mistaken for the Turkish vanguard of Osman Pasha. There was a shootout. But Osman Pasha did not advance on Sistovo. He limited himself to an attack in the southern direction and the occupation of Lovchi, hoping from here to come into contact with the troops of Suleiman Pasha advancing from the Balkans. The Second Plevna, along with the defeat of Gurko’s detachment at Eski Zagra, forced Russian troops to go on the defensive in the Balkans. The Guards Corps was called from St. Petersburg to the Balkans.
Second phase
In the second half of July, Russian troops in Bulgaria took up defensive positions in a semicircle, the rear of which abutted the Danube. Their borders passed in the region of Plevna (in the west), Shipka (in the south) and east of the Yantra River (in the east). On the right flank against the corps of Osman Pasha (26 thousand people) in Plevna stood the Western detachment (32 thousand people). In the Balkan section, 150 km long, the army of Suleiman Pasha (increased to 45 thousand people by August) was held back by the Southern detachment of General Fyodor Radetzky (40 thousand people). On the eastern flank, 50 km long, against the army of Mehmet Ali Pasha (100 thousand people), the Eastern detachment (45 thousand people) was located. In addition, the 14th Russian Corps (25 thousand people) in Northern Dobruja was held back on the Chernavoda - Kyustendzhi line by approximately equal numbers of Turkish units. After the success at Plevna and Eski Zagra, the Turkish command lost two weeks to agree on the offensive plan, thereby missing a favorable opportunity to inflict a serious defeat on the frustrated Russian units in Bulgaria. Finally, on August 9-10, Turkish troops launched an offensive in the southern and eastern directions. The Turkish command planned to break through the positions of the Southern and Eastern detachments, and then, combining the forces of the armies of Suleiman and Mehmet Ali, with the support of the corps of Osman Pasha, throw the Russians into the Danube.
First assault on Shipka (1877). First, Suleiman Pasha went on the offensive. He struck the main blow at the Shipka Pass to open the road to Northern Bulgaria and connect with Osman Pasha and Mehmet Ali. While the Russians held Shipka, the three Turkish troops remained separated. The pass was occupied by the Oryol regiment and the remnants of the Bulgarian militia (4.8 thousand people) under the command of General Stoletov. Due to the arrival of reinforcements, his detachment increased to 7.2 thousand people. Suleiman singled out the shock forces of his army (25 thousand people) against them. On August 9, the Turks launched an assault on Shipka. Thus began the famous six-day Battle of Shipka, which glorified this war. The most brutal battles took place near the Eagle's Nest rock, where the Turks, regardless of losses, attacked the strongest part of the Russian positions head-on. Having fired the cartridges, the defenders of Orliny, suffering from terrible thirst, fought off the Turkish soldiers climbing the pass with stones and rifle butts. After three days of furious onslaught, Suleiman Pasha was preparing for the evening of August 11 to finally destroy the handful of still resisting heroes, when suddenly the mountains resounded with a booming “Hurray!” The advanced units of the 14th division of General Dragomirov (9 thousand people) arrived to help the last defenders of Shipka. Having quickly marched more than 60 km in the summer heat, they frantically attacked the Turks and drove them back from the pass with a bayonet strike. The defense of Shipka was led by General Radetzky, who arrived at the pass. On August 12-14, the battle broke out with new strength. Having received reinforcements, the Russians launched a counter-offensive and tried (August 13-14) to capture the heights west of the pass, but were repulsed. The battles took place in incredibly difficult conditions. Particularly painful in the summer heat was the lack of water, which had to be delivered 17 miles away. But despite everything, the defenders of Shipka, who fought desperately from privates to generals (Radetsky personally led the soldiers in attacks), managed to defend the pass. In the battles of August 9-14, the Russians and Bulgarians lost about 4 thousand people, the Turks (according to their data) - 6.6 thousand people.
Battle of the Lom River (1877). While the fighting raged on Shipka, an equally serious threat loomed over the positions of the Eastern Detachment. On August 10, the main Turkish army, twice its size, under the command of Mehmet Ali, went on the offensive. If successful, Turkish troops could break through to the Sistov crossing and Plevna, as well as go to the rear of the defenders of Shipka, which threatened the Russians with a real disaster. The Turkish army delivered the main blow in the center, in the Byala region, trying to cut the positions of the Eastern detachment in two. After fierce fighting, the Turks captured a strong position on the heights near Katselev and crossed the Cherni-Lom river. Only the courage of the commander of the 33rd division, General Timofeev, who personally led the soldiers into a counterattack, made it possible to stop the dangerous breakthrough. Nevertheless, the heir, Tsarevich Alexander Alexandrovich, decided to withdraw his battered troops to a position near Byala, near the Yantra River. On August 25-26, the Eastern detachment skillfully retreated to a new defensive line. Having regrouped their forces here, the Russians reliably covered the Pleven and Balkan directions. Mehmet Ali's advance was stopped. During the onslaught of Turkish troops on Byala, Osman Pasha tried on August 19 to go on the offensive towards Mehmet Ali in order to squeeze the Russians from both sides. But his strength was not enough, and he was repelled. So, the August offensive of the Turks was repulsed, which allowed the Russians to take active action again. The main target of the attack was Plevna.
Capture of Lovchi and third assault on Plevna (1877). It was decided to begin the Pleven operation with the capture of Lovcha (35 km south of Plevna). From here the Turks threatened the Russian rear at Plevna and Shipka. On August 22, a detachment of Prince Imereti (27 thousand people) attacked Lovcha. It was defended by an 8,000-strong garrison led by Rifat Pasha. The assault on the fortress lasted 12 hours. The detachment of General Mikhail Skobelev distinguished himself in it. By shifting his attack from the right flank to the left, he disorganized the Turkish defense and finally decided the outcome of the intense battle. The Turks' losses amounted to 2.2 thousand people, the Russians - over 1.5 thousand people. The fall of Lovchi eliminated the threat to the southern rear of the Western Detachment and allowed the third assault on Plevna to begin. By that time, Plevna, well fortified by the Turks, the garrison which had increased to 34 thousand people, had turned into the central nerve of the war. Without taking the fortress, the Russians could not advance beyond the Balkans, since they faced a constant threat of a flank attack from it. The siege troops were brought to 85 thousand people by the end of August. (including 32 thousand Romanians). The Romanian King Carol I took overall command of them. The third assault took place on August 30-31. The Romanians, advancing from the eastern side, took the Grivitsky redoubts. The detachment of General Skobelev, who led his soldiers into an attack on a white horse, broke through close to the city from the southwestern side. Despite the murderous fire, Skobelev’s warriors captured two redoubts (Kavanlek and Issa-aga). The path to Plevna was open. Osman threw his last reserves against the units that had broken through. All day on August 31, a fierce battle raged here. Russian command had reserves (less than half of all battalions went to the assault), but Skobelev did not receive them. As a result, the Turks recaptured the redoubts. The remnants of the Skobelev detachment had to retreat. The third assault on Plevna cost the Allies 16 thousand people. (of which over 12 thousand are Russian.). This was the bloodiest battle for the Russians in all the previous Russian-Turkish wars. The Turks lost 3 thousand people. After this failure, Commander-in-Chief Nikolai Nikolaevich proposed to withdraw beyond the Danube. He was supported by a number of military leaders. However, War Minister Milyutin spoke out sharply against it, saying that such a step would deal a huge blow to the prestige of Russia and its army. Emperor Alexander II agreed with Milyutin. It was decided to proceed to the blockade of Plevna. The blockade work was led by the hero of Sevastopol, Totleben.
Autumn offensive of the Turks (1877). A new failure near Plevna forced the Russian command to abandon active operations and wait for reinforcements. The initiative again passed to the Turkish army. On September 5, Suleiman again attacked Shipka, but was repulsed. The Turks lost 2 thousand people, the Russians - 1 thousand. On September 9, the positions of the Eastern detachment were attacked by the army of Mehmet-Ali. However, her entire offensive was reduced to an assault on Russian positions at Chair-kioi. After a two-day battle, the Turkish army retreated to its original positions. After this, Mehmet Ali was replaced by Suleiman Pasha. In general, the September offensive of the Turks was quite passive and did not cause any special complications. The energetic Suleiman Pasha, who took command, developed a plan for a new November offensive. It provided for a three-pronged attack. The army of Mehmet-Ali (35 thousand people) was supposed to advance from Sofia to Lovcha. The southern army, led by Wessel Pasha, was to capture Shipka and move to Tarnovo. The main Eastern army of Suleiman Pasha struck at Elena and Tarnovo. The first attack was supposed to be on Lovcha. But Mehmet-Ali delayed his speech, and in the two-day battle of Novachin (November 10-11), Gurko’s detachment defeated his advanced units. The Turkish onslaught on Shipka on the night of November 9 (in the area of Mount St. Nicholas) was also repelled. After these unsuccessful attempts, the army of Suleiman Pasha went on the offensive. On November 14, Suleiman Pasha launched a diversionary attack on the left flank of the Eastern detachment, and then went to his strike group (35 thousand people). It was intended to attack Elena in order to interrupt communication between the Eastern and Southern detachments of the Russians. On November 22, the Turks unleashed a powerful blow on Elena and defeated the detachment of Svyatopolk-Mirsky 2nd (5 thousand people) stationed here.
The positions of the Eastern Detachment were broken through, and the path to Tarnovo, where large Russian warehouses were located, was open. But Suleiman did not continue the offensive the next day, which allowed the heir, Tsarevich Alexander, to transfer reinforcements here. They attacked the Turks and closed the gap. The capture of Elena was the last success of the Turkish army in this war. Then Suleiman again moved the attack to the left flank of the Eastern detachment. On November 30, 1877, a Turkish strike group (40 thousand people) attacked units of the Eastern detachment (28 thousand people) near the village of Mechka. The main blow fell on the positions of the 12th Corps, commanded by Grand Duke Vladimir Alexandrovich. After a fierce battle, the Turkish onslaught was stopped. The Russians launched a counterattack and drove back the attackers beyond Lom. The damage to the Turks amounted to 3 thousand people, to the Russians - about 1 thousand people. For the Sword, the heir, Tsarevich Alexander, received the Star of St. George. In general, the Eastern detachment had to hold back the main Turkish onslaught. In carrying out this task, considerable credit belongs to the heir, Tsarevich Alexander Alexandrovich, who showed undoubted military leadership talents in this war. It is interesting that he was a staunch opponent of wars and became famous for the fact that Russia never fought a war during his reign. Ruling the country Alexander III showed military abilities not on the battlefield, but in the field of solid strengthening of the Russian armed forces. He believed that Russia was for peaceful life we need two faithful allies - the army and Navy. The Battle of Mechka was the last major attempt by the Turkish army to defeat Russian troops in Bulgaria. At the end of this battle, the sad news of the surrender of Plevna came to the headquarters of Suleiman Pasha, which radically changed the situation on the Russian-Turkish front.
Siege and fall of Plevna (1877). Totleben, who led the siege of Plevna, spoke out decisively against a new assault. He considered the main thing to be to achieve a complete blockade of the fortress. To do this, it was necessary to cut the Sofia-Plevna road, along which the besieged garrison received reinforcements. The approaches to it were guarded by the Turkish redoubts Gorny Dubnyak, Dolny Dubnyak and Telish. To take them, a special detachment was formed led by General Gurko (22 thousand people). On October 12, 1877, after a powerful artillery barrage, the Russians launched an attack on Gorny Dubnyak. It was defended by a garrison led by Ahmet Hivzi Pasha (4.5 thousand people). The assault was distinguished by persistence and bloodshed. The Russians lost over 3.5 thousand people, the Turks - 3.8 thousand people. (including 2.3 thousand prisoners). At the same time, an attack was carried out on the Telish fortifications, which surrendered only 4 days later. About 5 thousand people were captured. After the fall of Gorny Dubnyak and Telish, the garrison of Dolny Dubnyak abandoned their positions and retreated to Plevna, which was now completely blocked. By mid-November, the number of troops near Plevna exceeded 100 thousand people. against a 50,000-strong garrison whose food supplies were running out. By the end of November, there was only 5 days' worth of food left in the fortress. Under these conditions, Osman Pasha tried to break out of the fortress on November 28. The honor of repelling this desperate onslaught belonged to the grenadiers of General Ivan Ganetsky. Having lost 6 thousand people, Osman Pasha surrendered. The fall of Plevna changed the situation dramatically. The Turks lost an army of 50 thousand, and the Russians freed 100 thousand people. for the offensive. The victory came at a high price. Total losses Russians near Plevna amounted to 32 thousand people.
Shipka seat (1877). While Osman Pasha still held out in Plevna, on Shipka, the former southern point Russian front, the famous winter sitting began in November. Snow fell in the mountains, the passes were snowy, and severe frosts struck. It was during this period that the Russians suffered their most severe losses at Shipka. And not from bullets, but from a more terrible enemy - icy cold. During the “sitting” period, the Russian losses amounted to: 700 people from battles, 9.5 thousand people from diseases and frostbite. Thus, the 24th Division, sent to Shipka without warm boots and short fur coats, lost up to 2/3 of its strength (6.2 thousand people) from frostbite in two weeks. Despite extremely difficult conditions, Radetzky and his soldiers continued to hold the pass. The Shipka sitting, which required extraordinary stamina from the Russian soldiers, ended with the beginning of the general offensive of the Russian army.
Third stage
By the end of the year, favorable preconditions had developed in the Balkans for the Russian army to go on the offensive. Its number reached 314 thousand people. against 183 thousand people. from the Turks. In addition, the capture of Plevna and the victory at Mechka secured the flanks of the Russian troops. However, the onset of winter sharply reduced the possibilities of offensive actions. The Balkans were already covered in deep snow and were considered impassable at this time of year. Nevertheless, at the military council on November 30, 1877, it was decided to cross the Balkans in winter. Wintering in the mountains threatened the soldiers with death. But if the army had left the passes for winter quarters, then in the spring we would have to storm the Balkan steeps again. Therefore, it was decided to descend from the mountains, but in a different direction - to Constantinople. For this purpose, several detachments were allocated, of which the two main ones were Western and Southern. The Western one, led by Gurko (60 thousand people), was supposed to go to Sofia, going behind the rear of the Turkish troops at Shipka. Radetzky's southern detachment (over 40 thousand people) advanced in the Shipka area. Two more detachments led by generals Kartsev (5 thousand people) and Dellingshausen (22 thousand people) advanced respectively through the Trajan Val and Tvarditsky Pass. A breakthrough in several places at once did not give the Turkish command the opportunity to concentrate its forces in any one direction. Thus began the most striking operation of this war. After almost six months of trampling under Plevna, the Russians unexpectedly took off and decided the outcome of the campaign in just a month, stunning Europe and Turkey.
Battle of the Shanes (1877). South of the Shipka Pass, in the area of the village of Sheinovo, there was the Turkish army of Wessel Pasha (30-35 thousand people). Radetsky's plan consisted of double coverage of Wessel Pasha's army with columns of generals Skobelev (16.5 thousand people) and Svyatopolk-Mirsky (19 thousand people). They had to overcome the Balkan passes (Imitli and Tryavnensky), and then, reaching the Sheinovo area, launch flank attacks on the Turkish army located there. Radetzky himself, with the units remaining on Shipka, launched a diversionary attack in the center. A winter crossing through the Balkans (often waist-deep in snow) in 20-degree frost was fraught with great risk. However, the Russians managed to overcome the snow-covered steep slopes. The column of Svyatopolk-Mirsky was the first to reach Sheinovo on December 27. She immediately entered the battle and captured the front line of Turkish fortifications. Skobelev's right column was delayed in leaving. She had to endure harsh weather conditions overcome deep snow, climbing narrow mountain paths. Skobelev's lateness gave the Turks a chance to defeat Svyatopolk-Mirsky's detachment. But their attacks on the morning of January 28 were repulsed. To help their own, Radetzky's detachment rushed from Shipka into a frontal attack on the Turks. This bold onslaught was repulsed, but pinned down part of the Turkish forces. Finally, having overcome the snow drifts, Skobelev’s units entered the battle area. They quickly attacked the Turkish camp and broke into Sheinovo from the west. This onslaught decided the outcome of the battle. At 15:00 the surrounded Turkish troops capitulated. 22 thousand people surrendered. Turkish losses in killed and wounded amounted to 1 thousand people. The Russians lost about 5 thousand people. The victory at Sheinovo ensured a breakthrough in the Balkans and opened the way for the Russians to Adrianople.
Battle of Philippolis (1878). Due to a blizzard in the mountains, Gurko’s detachment, moving in a roundabout way, spent 8 days instead of the intended two. Local residents familiar with the mountains believed that the Russians were heading to certain death. But they eventually came to victory. In the battles of December 19-20, advancing waist-deep in snow, Russian soldiers knocked down Turkish troops from their positions on the passes, then descended from the Balkans and occupied Sofia on December 23 without a fight. Further, near Philippopolis (now Plovdiv), stood the army of Suleiman Pasha (50 thousand people) transferred from eastern Bulgaria. This was the last major barrier on the way to Adrianople. On the night of January 3, the advanced Russian units forded icy waters Maritsa River and entered into battle with Turkish outposts west of the city. On January 4, Gurko’s detachment continued the offensive and, bypassing Suleiman’s army, cut off its escape route to the east, to Adrianople. On January 5, the Turkish army began to hastily retreat along the last free road to the south, towards the Aegean Sea. In the battles near Philippopolis, she lost 20 thousand people. (killed, wounded, captured, deserted) and ceased to exist as a serious combat unit. The Russians lost 1.2 thousand people. This was the last one major battle Russian-Turkish war of 1877-1878. In the battles of Sheinovo and Philippopolis, the Russians defeated the main forces of the Turks beyond the Balkans. A significant role in the success of the winter campaign was played by the fact that the troops were led by the most capable military leaders - Gurko and Radetzky. On January 14-16, their detachments united in Adrianople. It was first occupied by the vanguard, which was led by the third brilliant hero of that war - General Skobelev. On January 19, 1878, a truce was concluded here, which drew a line under the history of Russian-Turkish military rivalry in South-Eastern Europe.
In the Caucasus, the forces of the parties were approximately equal. Russian army under general command Grand Duke Mikhail Nikolaevich numbered 100 thousand people. Turkish army under the command of Mukhtar Pasha - 90 thousand people. Russian forces were distributed as follows. In the west, the Black Sea coast area was guarded by the Kobuleti detachment under the command of General Oklobzhio (25 thousand people). Further, in the Akhaltsikhe-Akhalkalaki region, the Akhatsikhe detachment of General Devel (9 thousand people) was located. In the center, near Alexandropol, were the main forces led by General Loris-Melikov (50 thousand people). On the southern flank stood the Erivan detachment of General Tergukasov (11 thousand people). The last three detachments made up the Caucasian Corps, which was headed by Loris-Melikov. The war in the Caucasus developed similarly to the Balkan scenario. First there was an offensive by the Russian troops, then they went on the defensive, and then a new offensive and inflicted a complete defeat on the enemy. On the day war was declared, the Caucasian Corps immediately went on the offensive in three detachments. The offensive took Mukhtar Pasha by surprise. He did not have time to deploy his troops and retreated beyond Kars to cover the Erzurum direction. Loris-Melikov did not pursue the Turks. Having united his main forces with the Akhaltsikhe detachment, the Russian commander began the siege of Kars. A detachment under the command of General Gaiman (19 thousand people) was sent forward, in the direction of Erzurum. South of Kars the Erivan detachment of Tergukasov was advancing. He occupied Bayazet without a fight, and then moved along the Alashkert Valley towards Erzurum. On June 9, near Dayar, Tergukasov’s 7,000-strong detachment was attacked by Mukhtar Pasha’s 18,000-strong army. Tergukasov repelled the onslaught and began to wait for the actions of his northern colleague, Gaiman. He didn't have to wait long.
Battle of Zivin (1877). Retreat of the Erivan detachment (1877). On June 13, 1877, Geiman’s detachment (19 thousand people) attacked the fortified positions of the Turks in the Zivin area (halfway from Kars to Erzurum). They were defended by the Turkish detachment of Khaki Pasha (10 thousand people). The poorly prepared assault on the Zivin fortifications (only a quarter of the Russian detachment was brought into battle) was repulsed. The Russians lost 844 people, the Turks - 540 people. The Zivin failure had serious consequences. After it, Loris-Melikov lifted the siege of Kars and ordered a retreat to the Russian border. It was especially difficult for the Erivan detachment, which went far into Turkish territory. He had to return back through the sun-scorched valley, suffering from the heat and lack of food. “At that time, there were no camp kitchens,” recalled officer A.A. Brusilov, a participant in that war. “When the troops were on the move or without a convoy, like us, the food was distributed from hand to hand, and everyone cooked for themselves what they could. In this soldiers and officers suffered equally." In the rear of the Erivan detachment was the Turkish corps of Faik Pasha (10 thousand people), which besieged Bayazet. And the numerically superior Turkish army threatened from the front. The successful completion of this difficult 200-kilometer retreat was greatly facilitated by the heroic defense of the Bayazet fortress.
Defense of Bayazet (1877). In this citadel there was a Russian garrison, which consisted of 32 officers and 1587 lower ranks. The siege began on June 4. The assault on June 8 ended in failure for the Turks. Then Faik Pasha moved on to blockade, hoping that hunger and heat would cope with the besieged better than his soldiers. But despite the lack of water, the Russian garrison rejected offers to surrender. By the end of June, soldiers were given only one wooden spoon of water a day in the summer heat. The situation seemed so hopeless that the commandant of Bayazet, Lieutenant Colonel Patsevich, spoke at the military council in favor of surrender. But he was shot dead by officers outraged by this proposal. The defense was led by Major Shtokvich. The garrison continued to hold firm, hoping for rescue. And the hopes of the Bayazeti people came true. On June 28, units of General Tergukasov arrived to their aid, fought their way to the fortress and saved its defenders. The losses of the garrison during the siege amounted to 7 officers and 310 lower ranks. The heroic defense of Bayazet did not allow the Turks to reach the rear of the troops of General Tergukasov and cut off their retreat to the Russian border.
Battle of Aladzhi Heights (1877). After the Russians lifted the siege of Kars and retreated to the border, Mukhtar Pasha went on the offensive. However, he did not dare to give the Russian army a field battle, but took up heavily fortified positions on the Aladzhi Heights, east of Kars, where he stood throughout August. The standstill continued in September. Finally, on September 20, Loris-Melikov, who concentrated a 56,000-strong strike force against Aladzhi, himself went on the offensive against the troops of Mukhtar Pasha (38,000 people). The fierce battle lasted three days (until September 22) and ended in complete failure for Loris-Melikov. Having lost over 3 thousand people. In bloody frontal attacks, the Russians retreated to their original lines. Despite his success, Mukhtar Pasha decided to retreat to Kars on the eve of winter. As soon as the Turkish withdrawal became apparent, Loris-Melikov launched a second attack (October 2-3). This onslaught, combining a frontal attack with a flanking outflanking, was crowned with success. The Turkish army suffered a crushing defeat and lost more than half of its strength (killed, wounded, captured, deserted). Its remnants retreated in disorder to Kars and then to Erzurum. The Russians lost 1.5 thousand people during the second assault. The Battle of Aladzhia became decisive in the Caucasian theater of operations. After this victory, the initiative completely passed to the Russian army. At the Battle of Aladzha, the Russians made extensive use of the telegraph to control troops for the first time. |^
Battle of Devais Bonnoux (1877). After the defeat of the Turks on the Aladzhi Heights, the Russians again besieged Kare. Gaiman's detachment was again sent forward to Erzurum. But this time Mukhtar Pasha did not linger in the Zivin positions, but retreated further to the west. On October 15, he united near the town of Kepri-Key with the corps of Izmail Pasha, which was retreating from the Russian border, which had previously acted against the Erivan detachment of Tergukasov. Now the forces of Mukhtar Pasha have increased to 20 thousand people. Following Izmail’s corps was Tergukasov’s detachment, which on October 21 united with Geiman’s detachment, which led the joint forces (25 thousand people). Two days later, in the vicinity of Erzurum, near Deve Boynu, Geiman attacked the army of Mukhtar Pasha. Gaiman began a demonstration of an attack on the right flank of the Turks, where Mukhtar Pasha transferred all reserves. Meanwhile, Tergukasov decisively attacked the left flank of the Turks and inflicted a severe defeat on their army. Russian losses amounted to just over 600 people. The Turks would have lost a thousand people. (of which 3 thousand were prisoners). After this, the path to Erzurum was open. However, Gaiman remained inactive for three days and only approached the fortress on October 27. This allowed Mukhtar Pasha to strengthen himself and put his disordered units in order. The assault on October 28 was repulsed, forcing Gaiman to retreat from the fortress. In the conditions of the onset of cold weather, he withdrew his troops to the Passinskaya Valley for the winter.
Capture of Kars (1877). While Geiman and Tergukasov were marching towards Erzurum, Russian troops laid siege to Kars on October 9, 1877. The siege corps was headed by General Lazarev. (32 thousand people). The fortress was defended by a 25,000-strong Turkish garrison led by Hussein Pasha. The assault was preceded by a bombardment of the fortifications, which lasted intermittently for 8 days. On the night of November 6, Russian troops launched an attack, which ended with the capture of the fortress. General Lazarev himself played an important role in the assault. He led a detachment that captured the eastern forts of the fortress and repelled a counterattack by Hussein Pasha's units. The Turks lost 3 thousand killed and 5 thousand wounded. 17 thousand, people surrendered. Russian losses during the assault exceeded 2 thousand people. The capture of Kars actually ended the war in the Caucasian theater of military operations.
Peace of San Stefano (1878). On February 19, 1878, a peace treaty was concluded in San Stefano (near Constantinople), ending the Russian-Turkish war of 1877-1878. Russia received back from Romania the southern part of Bessarabia, lost after the Crimean War, and from Turkey the port of Batum, the Kars region, the city of Bayazet and the Alashkert Valley. Romania took the Dobruja region from Turkey. Complete independence of Serbia and Montenegro was established with the provision of a number of territories to them. The main result of the agreement was the emergence of a new large and virtually independent state in the Balkans - the Bulgarian Principality.
Berlin Congress (1878). The terms of the treaty caused protest from England and Austria-Hungary. The threat of a new war forced St. Petersburg to reconsider the Treaty of San Stefano. Also in 1878, the Berlin Congress was convened, at which the leading powers changed the previous version of the territorial structure in the Balkans and Eastern Turkey. Acquisitions of Serbia and Montenegro were reduced, the area of the Bulgarian Principality was cut almost threefold. Austria-Hungary occupied Turkish possessions in Bosnia and Herzegovina. From its acquisitions in Eastern Turkey, Russia returned the Alashkert Valley and the city of Bayazet. Thus, the Russian side had, in general, to return to the version of the territorial structure agreed upon before the war with Austria-Hungary.
Despite the Berlin restrictions, Russia still regained the lands lost under the Treaty of Paris (with the exception of the mouth of the Danube), and achieved the implementation (although far from complete) of the Balkan strategy of Nicholas I. This Russian-Turkish clash completes Russia's implementation of its high missions for the liberation of Orthodox peoples from Turkish oppression. As a result of Russia's centuries-long struggle across the Danube, Romania, Serbia, Greece and Bulgaria gained independence. The Berlin Congress led to the gradual emergence of a new balance of power in Europe. Russian-German relations cooled noticeably. But the Austro-German alliance strengthened, in which there was no longer a place for Russia. Its traditional orientation toward Germany was coming to an end. In the 80s Germany forms a military-political alliance with Austria-Hungary and Italy. Berlin's hostility is pushing St. Petersburg towards a partnership with France, which, fearing new German aggression, is now actively seeking Russian support. In 1892-1894. A military-political Franco-Russian alliance is being formed. It became the main counterweight to the Triple Alliance (Germany, Austria-Hungary and Italy). These two blocs determined the new balance of power in Europe. Another important consequence of the Berlin Congress was the weakening of Russia’s prestige in the countries of the Balkan region. The Congress in Berlin dispelled Slavophile dreams of uniting the South Slavs into a union led by the Russian Empire.
The death toll in the Russian army was 105 thousand people. As in the previous Russian-Turkish wars, the main damage was caused by diseases (primarily typhus) - 82 thousand people. 75% of military losses occurred in the Balkan theater of operations.
Shefov N.A. The most famous wars and battles of Russia M. "Veche", 2000.
"From Ancient Rus' to the Russian Empire." Shishkin Sergey Petrovich, Ufa.
