Peter I "The Great".
Reforms of Peter I- transformations in state and public life carried out during the reign of Peter I in Russia.
All the reforming activities of Peter I can be conditionally divided into two periods (stages): -1715 and -.
A feature of the first stage was haste and not always thoughtful nature, which was explained by the conduct of the Northern War. The reforms were aimed primarily at raising funds for the war, were carried out by force and often did not lead to the desired result. In addition to state reforms, extensive reforms were carried out at the first stage in order to modernize the way of life. In the second period, the reforms were more systematic.
From the first years in the policy of Peter there was a tendency to reduce the role of the ineffective Boyar Duma in government. In 1699, the Near Chancellery was organized under the tsar, and later they gathered in its premises Council (Council) of Ministers, which included up to 15 trusted persons who managed individual orders. It was a prototype of the future Governing Senate, formed on February 22 (March 5) of the year. The last mention of the Boyar Duma (more precisely, the "congresses of the boyars") dates back to 1708: at that time, the participants in the meetings of the "conciliums" could be called both "boyars" and "ministers". Since 1708, a certain mode of operation was established in the Council: each minister had special powers, reports and minutes of meetings appear.
In 1711, instead of the Boyar Duma and the Council that replaced it, the Senate was established. Peter formulated the main task of the Senate as follows: Look at the expenses throughout the state, and set aside unnecessary, and especially vain. Collect as much money as possible, because money is the artery of war.»
Created by Peter for the current administration of the state during the absence of the tsar (at that time the tsar went on the Prut campaign), the Senate, consisting of 9 people (presidents of the collegiums), gradually turned from a temporary to a permanent higher government institution, which was enshrined in the Decree of 1722. He controlled justice, was in charge of trade, fees and expenses of the state, oversaw the serviceability of serving military service by the nobles, he was transferred to the functions of the Discharge and Ambassadorial orders.
Decisions in the Senate were taken collectively, at a general meeting and supported by the signatures of all members of the highest state body. Thus, Peter I delegated part of his powers to the Senate, but at the same time placed personal responsibility on its members.
Simultaneously with the Senate, the post of fiscals appeared. The duty of the Chief Fiscal in the Senate and the Fiscals in the provinces was to secretly supervise the activities of institutions: they identified cases of violation of decrees and abuses and reported to the Senate and the Tsar. Since 1715, the work of the Senate was monitored by the Auditor General, who was renamed the Chief Secretary. Since 1722, the control over the Senate has been carried out by the Prosecutor General and the Chief Prosecutor, to whom the prosecutors of all other institutions were subordinate. No decision of the Senate was valid without the consent and signature of the Attorney General. The Prosecutor General and his Deputy Chief Prosecutor reported directly to the sovereign.
The Senate, as a government, could make decisions, but their implementation required an administrative apparatus. In -1721, a reform of the executive bodies of government was carried out, as a result of which, in parallel with the system of orders with their vague functions, 13 colleges were created according to the Swedish model - the predecessors of future ministries. In contrast to orders, the functions and spheres of activity of each collegium were strictly delineated, and relations within the collegium itself were based on the principle of collegiality of decisions. Were introduced:
The central place in the management system was occupied by the secret police: the Preobrazhensky Prikaz (in charge of cases of state crimes) and the Secret Chancellery. These institutions were under the jurisdiction of the emperor himself.
In addition, there were the Salt Office, the Copper Department, and the Land Survey Office.
The "first" colleges were called the Military, Admiralty and Foreign Affairs.
On the rights of colleges there were two institutions: the Synod and the Chief Magistrate.
The results of the management reform of Peter I are ambiguously considered by historians.
In 1719-1723. the fiscals were subordinate to the College of Justice, with the establishment in January 1722 of the post of prosecutor general were supervised by him. Since 1723, the chief fiscal was the general fiscal, appointed by the sovereign, his assistant was the chief fiscal, appointed by the Senate. In this regard, the fiscal service withdrew from the subordination of the College of Justice and regained departmental independence. The vertical of fiscal control was brought to the city level.
The reform of the army: in particular, the introduction of regiments of the new order, reformed according to a foreign model, was begun long before Peter I, even under Alexei Mikhailovich. However, the combat effectiveness of this army was low. The reform of the army and the creation of the navy became necessary conditions for victory in the Northern War -1721. Preparing for the war with Sweden, Peter ordered in 1699 to make a general recruitment and start training military personnel (soldiers, dragoons, reiters, and so on) according to the model established by Preobrazhenets and Semenovtsy. This first recruitment gave 29 infantry regiments and two dragoons. In 1705, every 20 households had to put up one recruit for life service. Subsequently, recruits began to be taken from a certain number of male souls among the peasants. Recruitment to the fleet, as well as to the army, was carried out from recruits.
In addition to the organizational structure, Peter changed the material supply system of the army and did a lot to provide the army with domestic weapons. Already at the height of the Northern War of 1700-1721, Peter opened many weapons factories, the most famous of which were the Tula Arms Factory and the Olonets Artillery Factory. In terms of material support, Pyotr Alekseevich introduced uniform uniforms for the ground (green caftans and black hats) and cavalry troops (blue caftans and black hats) in the Russian army. According to the military regulations [ what?] 1716, the food supply was also rationed, grocery stores were opened throughout the country. [ ]
The age of Peter was marked by a trend towards greater religious tolerance. Peter terminated the "12 Articles" adopted by Sophia, according to which the Old Believers who refused to renounce the "schism" were to be burned at the stake. The "schismatics" were allowed to practice their faith, subject to the recognition of the existing state order and the payment of double taxes. Complete freedom of belief was granted to foreigners who came to Russia, restrictions were lifted on the communication of Orthodox Christians with Christians of other faiths (in particular, interfaith marriages were allowed).
Nevertheless, after an armed skirmish with the monastic brethren in the Polotsk Basilian Monastery on the territory of the Commonwealth, which took place during Vespers on July 11, 1705, and in which four Uniates were mortally wounded, Peter ordered to hang one of the monks who denounced him.
Some historians characterize Peter's policy in trade as a policy of protectionism, which consists in supporting domestic production and imposing higher duties on imported products (this corresponded to the idea of mercantilism). So, in 1724, a protective customs tariff was introduced - high duties on foreign goods that could be manufactured or already produced by domestic enterprises.
The number of factories and plants at the end of Peter's reign reached 233, of which about 90 were large manufactories.
Before Peter I, the order of succession to the throne in Russia was in no way regulated by law, and was entirely determined by tradition. Peter I introduced a decree in 1722 on the succession to the throne, according to which the reigning monarch during his lifetime appoints himself a successor, and the emperor can make anyone his heir (it was assumed that the king would appoint "the most worthy" as his successor). This law was in effect until the reign of Paul I. Peter himself did not have time to use the law.
The main goal pursued by Peter I in social policy is the legal registration of class rights and obligations of each category of the population of Russia. As a result, a new structure of society developed, in which the class character was more clearly formed. The rights and duties of the nobility were expanded, and, at the same time, the serfdom of the peasants was strengthened.
Key milestones:
The place of the former boyars was taken by the “generals”, consisting of the ranks of the first four classes of the “Table of Ranks”. Personal service mixed the representatives of the former tribal nobility with people raised by the service. Peter's legislative measures, without significantly expanding the class rights of the nobility, significantly changed his duties. Military affairs, which in Moscow times was the duty of a narrow class of service people, is now becoming the duty of all sections of the population. The nobleman of the time of Peter the Great still has the exclusive right to land ownership, but as a result of the decrees on uniform inheritance and revision, he is responsible to the state for the tax service of his peasants. The nobility is obliged to study in order to prepare for the service. Peter destroyed the former isolation of the service class, opening, through the length of service through the Table of Ranks, access to the environment of the gentry to people of other classes. On the other hand, by the law of single inheritance, he opened the exit from the nobility to merchants and the clergy to those who wanted it. The nobility of Russia becomes a military-bureaucratic estate, whose rights are created and hereditarily determined by public service, and not by birth.
Peter's reforms changed the position of the peasants. From different categories of peasants who were not in serfdom from the landowners or the church (black-eared peasants of the north, non-Russian nationalities, etc.), a new single category of state peasants was formed - personally free, but paying dues to the state. The opinion that this measure “destroyed the remnants of the free peasantry” is incorrect, since the population groups that made up the state peasants were not considered free in the pre-Petrine period - they were attached to the land (Council Code of 1649) and could be granted by the tsar to private individuals and the church as fortresses. State. peasants in the 18th century had the rights of personally free people (they could own property, act as one of the parties in court, elect representatives to estate bodies, etc.), but were limited in movement and could be (up to early XIX century, when this category was finally approved as free people) were transferred by the monarch to the category of serfs. Legislative acts relating to the serfs proper were contradictory. Thus, the intervention of landowners in the marriage of serfs was limited (decree of 1724), it was forbidden to put serfs in their place as defendants in court and keep them on the right for the debts of the owner. Also, the norm was confirmed on the transfer to custody of the estates of the landowners who ruined their peasants, and the serfs were given the opportunity to enlist in the soldiers, which freed them from serfdom (by decree of Emperor Elizabeth on July 2 (13), the serfs lost this opportunity).
By the decree of 1699 and the verdict of the Town Hall in 1700, peasants engaged in trade or craft were granted the right to move into the settlements, freeing themselves from serfdom (if the peasant was in one). At the same time, measures against fugitive peasants were significantly tightened, large masses of palace peasants were distributed to private individuals, and landowners were allowed to recruit serfs. By a decree on April 7 (17) (according to the Julian calendar), it was allowed to yield, for unpaid debts, "local" serfs, which in fact was a form of serf trading. The taxation of serfs (that is, personal servants without land) with a poll tax led to the merging of serfs with serfs. The church peasants were subordinated to the monastic order and removed from the power of the monasteries.
Under Peter, a new category of dependent farmers was created - peasants assigned to manufactories. These peasants in the 18th century were called possessive. By decree of 1721, nobles and merchants-manufacturers were allowed to buy peasants to manufactories to work for them. The peasants bought to the factory were not considered the property of its owners, but were attached to production, so that the owner of the factory could neither sell nor mortgage the peasants separately from the manufactory. Posessional peasants received a fixed salary and performed a fixed amount of work.
The urban population in the era of Peter I was very small: about 3% of the country's population. The only major city was Moscow, which was the capital until the reign of Peter the Great. Although in terms of the level of development of cities and industry, Russia was much inferior to Western Europe but during the 17th century there was a gradual increase. The social policy of Peter the Great, concerning the urban population, pursued the provision of the payment of the poll tax. To do this, the population was divided into two categories: regular (industrialists, merchants, artisans of workshops) and irregular citizens (everyone else). The difference between an urban regular citizen at the end of Peter's reign and an irregular one was that a regular citizen participated in city government by electing members of the magistrate, was enrolled in a guild and workshop, or carried a monetary duty in the share that fell on him according to the social layout.
Peter changed the beginning of the chronology from the Creation of the World to from the Nativity of Christ. The year 7208 according to the Byzantine era became the year 1700 from the Nativity of Christ, and the New Year began to be celebrated on January 1st. In addition, the uniform application of the Julian calendar was introduced under Peter.
There have been changes in the Russian language, which included 4.5 thousand new words borrowed from European languages.
Peter approved the charter of the organized
Colleges under Peter the Great began to be created in 1717. All of them had a single management system: 1 president, 1 vice president, 4 advisers (generals) and 4 assessors (colonels). Each board had broad powers. In particular, they were allowed to act as a legislative body. Under Peter 1, 12 colleges were created: military, admiralty, foreign affairs, berg, manufactories, chief magistrate, patrimonial, justice, chambers, state offices, revision, commerce. Since 1721, the patriarchate has been liquidated. Instead, the 13th collegium is being created - the Spiritual. Later it was transformed into the Synod.
By creating a new system of governing the country, Peter actually eliminated the system of Orders that had previously functioned. At the same time, Peter was doing what he loved - he carried out reforms in a Western manner. Most colleges were created not out of urgent need, but out of a desire to learn something else from the West. For example, 3 financial institutions (chambers, state offices and revision) were a complete copy of similar Swedish colleges. Nevertheless, most colleges have existed for a long time. They disappeared only as a result of the reform activities of Catherine 2 and Alexander 1.
| Name | Functions and tasks | Years of existence |
|---|---|---|
| Ground Army Management | 1719-1802 | |
| fleet management | 1717-1827 | |
| Interaction with other states | 1718-1832 | |
| heavy industry | 1719-1807 | |
| Light industry | 1719-1805 | |
| Trade issues | 1719-1805 | |
| Government revenues (taxes) | 1718-1801 (did not work from 1785 to 1797) | |
| Government spending | 1717-1780 | |
| Financial control | 1717-1788 | |
| Litigation | 1718-1780 | |
| Land management, resolution of land issues | 1721-1786 | |
| City management | 1720-1796 |
Let us consider in more detail each board, its tasks and leaders.
The decree on the creation of the Military Collegium was signed by Peter 1 at the end of 1719, and the department began to work from the beginning of 1720. The total number of departments under the decree was 530 people, including 454 soldiers assigned to the collegium. At the same time, 83 places were vacant, since there was an acute shortage of professional officers in Russia. The military department was divided into 3 structures:
The leaders of the VK under Peter the Great were:
The department was abolished by decree of 1802 of September 7. It ceased independent existence and transferred its functions to the Ministry.
The Admiralty Board was established in 1717. The basis was the decree of December 22, 1717. The department controlled the entire fleet of Russia, both civilian and military. From the moment the board was formed, until the death of Peter 1, Apraksin Fyodor Matveyevich was in charge of it. His deputy was a Norwegian, Kruys Cornelius.
Since 1723, the Admiralty was subdivided into 12 offices: admiralty (issues of work of shipyards), zeihmeister (artillery), commissariat (solving problems of employees), contractor (contracting), provisions (food issues), treasury (financial issues), calmeister (salary) ), supervisory (supervision of finances), uniform (issues of uniforms), chief sarvaer (direct shipbuilding and the receipt of materials for this), waldmeister (forest management for the needs of the fleet), Moscow.
The board ended its independent existence in 1802, when it came under the control of the Naval Ministry. The final termination of existence refers to 1827, when the body became deliberative and did not solve any practical problems.
The College of Foreign (Foreign) Affairs was established in 1718. It was converted from the Posolsky order. From 1717 to 1734 (during the reign of Peter the Great, Catherine 1, Peter 2 and Anna Ioannovna) the department was managed by Gavrila Ivanovich Golovkin. The Board was an analogue of the modern Ministry of Foreign Affairs. It was this state structure that resolved all issues related to relations with other (foreign) states.
The collegium existed until 1802, when the Ministry of Foreign Affairs was created, which took over many of the functions of the collegium. The final abolition took place in 1832.
The Berg Collegium was formed in 1719 and was responsible for the mining industry of the Russian Empire. That is, the department managed heavy industry. The specifics of its work was regulated by tasks, so the main centers of work were concentrated in the Urals and Siberia. During the life of Peter 1, the collegium was managed by Bruce Yakov Vilimovich. It is important to note that under Peter the Berg College worked together with the Manufactory College, so Bruce was in charge of both departments. The main task of this body is to try to expand and increase the number of industrial enterprises, primarily in the Ural region. The board worked intermittently. Continuous work was carried out in the periods 1719-1731 (closed by Anna Ioannovna), 1742-1783 (closed by Catherine 2), 1797-1807 (liquidated by Alexander 1).
Manufactory College was founded in 1719. Its main task was to create manufactories. That is, the main area of responsibility is light industry.
Leaders under Peter 1:
After the death of Peter, in 17272, the Manufactory College was liquidated. It was restored only in 1742. In 1779, liquidation again took place, but in 1796 it was restored again. The administration was finally abolished in 1805. The closing order was signed by manufactur802.
The Collegium of Commerce was founded by Peter the Great in 1716. Initially, it was led by Apraksin, but after the leaders were approved by decree of 1717, Tolstoy Petr Andreevich (1718-1722) was appointed manager. Buturlin Ivan Fedorovich, who held the post from 1722 to 1725, was approved as the next president. The main task of management is to resolve all issues one way or another related to trading activities.
Since 1731, this structure was given the functions of three colleges, which temporarily stopped working: berg, manufactory, chief magistrate. The functions of the first two were performed until 1742, and those of the magistrate until 1743.
September 27, 1796 Catherine 2 signs a decree on the closure of the College of Commerce. This required a certain time, but already on November 2, Catherine 2 died, and Paul 1, who took the throne after her, was preserved by the merchant by decree of November 30, 1796. The liberal reforms of Alexander created the Ministry of Finance, under which the collegium worked temporarily, but with a significant limitation of powers. Its final abolition dates back to 1824, when a corresponding decree was signed on January 8.
Chamber College The Chamber College was founded in 1718. It was Peter's favorite brainchild, since this department dealt with taxes, to which the tsar-emperor was extremely supportive.
In the era of Peter the Great, 3 people changed as president of the Chamber Office:
The collegium existed until 1785 without major changes in functions, after which it was temporarily closed. The last period of her work, 1797 - 1801, is connected with the control over farming.
The state-office-collegium was created by Peter in 1717 to perform the functions of managing public expenditures. Here, Peter copied the Swedish model, where the financial institutions of the same name functioned (chambers - profits, state office - losses, revision - control).
Even during the life of Peter, the staff-offices-collegium passed under the authority of the Senate. It happened in 1723. Independence of the organ was returned by Anna Ioannovna in 1730. In this form, the collegium existed until 1780, when Catherine II liquidated it.
The Revision Board was established in 1717 to oversee the country's finances. Until 1723, the organ was managed by Dolgorukov Yakov Fedorovich. Later, Revision lost its independence status for 2 years. From 1723 to 1725 the collegium was placed under the control of the Senate. With the return of independence, the collegium was headed by Bibikov Ivan Ivanovich.
The board existed until 1788, when it was liquidated by the reforms of Catherine 2. It should also be noted that during the short reign of Peter 2, the Revision worked in Moscow.
The decree on the creation of the College of Justice was signed by Peter the Great in 1717, and its work began a year later, in 1718. The body performed the functions of the Supreme Court of Russia in all types of cases. The board was also responsible for the work of the courts. In the Petrine era, this body was controlled by 2 people:
Already after the death of Peter 1, the College of Justice was endowed with additional powers. The “serf office” was transferred to its jurisdiction (until 1740 and the detective order (1730-1763). The implementation of reforms by Catherine 2 stopped the existence of the justices of the collegium. It was liquidated in 1780.
patrimonial board arose in 1721 on the basis of the Local Order. She was responsible for all matters related to the land issue (registration of estates, the transfer of land between people, the issuance of land, confiscation, and so on. Initially, the collegium worked in Moscow, but after 1727 moved to St. Petersburg.
From 1717 to 1721, the justice college was in charge of land issues. In the future, the patrimonial office functioned without major upheavals and changes until the reforms of Catherine II, according to which the patrimonial department was created, and the collegium was closed in 1786.
It was created as a single body that manages all the magistrates of the cities of the Russian Empire. The main magistrate began work in 1720. In addition to the direct management of cities, its functions included the approval of all court decisions in cities: both civil and criminal. There was also control over the collection of taxes in the cities.
Presidents of the college under Peter:
After the death of Peter 1, the magistrate was renamed the City Hall (1727). In 1743, the name of the Chief Magistrate was returned to the body, but it was transferred from St. Petersburg to Moscow. The magistrate was abolished in 1796.
(continuation)
Under the jurisdiction of the Senate stood a series of central institutions known as colleges; they were established in 1718 and finally formed in 1720. The colleges replaced the old orders. With the establishment of the Senate, which gradually assimilated the functions of the most important orders, these latter (for example, the Discharge) were replaced by the "tables" of the Senate; small orders turned into an office and offices of various names and retained their previous organization. Approximately from 1711, Peter I decided to arrange a central administration according to Western European models. Quite consciously, he wanted to transfer the Swedish collegial structure to Russia. The collegiate system was also recommended to him by the theoretician Leibniz. People were sent abroad to study bureaucratic forms and clerical practices; experienced clerks were sent from abroad to organize new institutions with their help. But Peter the Great did not give these foreigners a senior position in the collegiums, and they did not rise above the vice-presidents; Russian people were appointed presidents of the collegiums.
Since 1719, the colleges began their activities, and each for itself drew up a charter that determined its department and office work (these charters learned the name of the regulations). All colleges were established twelve: 1) Foreign Affairs College, 2) Military College, 3) Admiralty (Marine) College, 4) Staff College (expenditure department), 5) Chamber College (income department), 6) Justice College (judicial), 7) Revision Board (financial control), 8) Commerce Board (trade), 9) Manufactory Board (industry), 10) Berg Board (mining), 11) Patronage Board (industry), 12) Chief Magistrate (city government). The last three colleges were formed later than the others. The newly founded institutions, however, did not replace all the old orders. Orders continued to exist either under the name of offices, or under the former name of orders (Medical office, Siberian order).
The building of the Twelve Colleges in St. Petersburg. Unknown artist of the third quarter of the 18th century. Based on an engraving by E. G. Vnukov from a drawing by M. I. Makhaev
The colleges were subordinate to the Senate, which sent them its decrees; in turn, local governments were below the collegiums and obeyed them. But, on the one hand, not all colleges were equally subordinate to the Senate (military and naval were more independent than others); on the other hand, not all colleges were related to regional governments. Above the provincial authorities, as a direct highest authority, stood only the Chambers and Justice Colleges and the Chief Magistrate. Thus, both central and local governments did not represent a strict and harmonious hierarchy.
Each collegium, like the order of the 17th century, consisted of a presence and an office. The presence consisted of the President, Vice President, Councilors, Assessors and 2 Secretaries, who were the Chiefs of the Chancellery. In total, there were no more than 13 people in attendance, and matters were decided by a majority vote.
Peering into the differences between colleges and old orders, we see that the system of colleges greatly simplified the previous confusion of departments, but did not destroy that confusion of personal and collegiate principles that lay at the basis of the former central control. Just as in orders, in their collegiate form, the personal beginning was expressed by the activity of the imperious chairman, so in collegiums influential presidents and prosecutors assigned to the collegiums for general control violated the collegial system with their personal influence and in fact sometimes replaced collegial activity with an individual one.
Addition
The Senate, as the supreme guardian of justice and the state economy, disposed of unsatisfactory subordinate bodies from the very beginning of its activity. That was in the center a bunch of old and new, Moscow and St. Petersburg, orders, offices, offices, commissions with confused departments and uncertain relationships, sometimes with random origins, and in the regions - 8 governors, who sometimes did not obey the tsar himself, not only the Senate . The Senate consisted of the Reprisal Chamber, inherited from the ministerial council, as its judiciary department, and the Accounts Near Office.
Among the main duties of the Senate was "it is possible to collect money" and consider government spending in order to cancel unnecessary ones, but meanwhile no money bills were sent to him from anywhere, and for a number of years he could not draw up a statement of how much was in the whole state in the parish, in expenditure, in balance and in milking. This lack of accountability in the midst of the war and the financial crisis should have convinced Peter I of the need for a complete restructuring of the central government. He himself was too little prepared for this branch of public affairs, did not have enough ideas or observations, and, as before, in finding new sources of income, he used the ingenuity of home-grown profiteers, so now he turned to foreign models and experts for help in managing the device.
He made inquiries about the organization of central institutions abroad: in Sweden, Germany and other countries, he found collegiums; foreigners submitted notes to him on the introduction of collegiums, and he decided to adopt this form of Russian government. Already in 1712, an attempt was made to arrange a "collegium" for trading with the help of foreigners, because, as Peter I wrote, "their trades are incomparably better than ours." He instructed his foreign agents to collect regulations on foreign collegiums and books on jurisprudence, especially to invite foreign businessmen to serve in Russian collegiums, and without people, "it will be impossible to do one book, because all the circumstations are never written." For a long time and with great trouble, learned lawyers and experienced officials, secretaries and scribes, especially from the Slavs, were recruited in Germany and the Czech Republic, who could arrange business in Russian institutions; even captured Swedes who managed to learn Russian were invited to serve.
Having become acquainted with the Swedish colleges, which were then considered exemplary in Europe, Peter I in 1715 decided to take them as a model when organizing his central institutions. There is nothing unexpected or capricious to be seen in this decision. Neither in the Moscow state past, nor in the businessmen surrounding Peter, nor in his own political thinking, did he find any material for building an original system public institutions. He looked at these institutions with the eyes of a shipbuilder: why invent some special Russian frigate when Dutch and English ships sail perfectly on the White and Baltic Seas. A lot of home-made Russian ships have already rotted in Pereyaslavl. But this time, too, things went in the usual course of all the reforms of Peter I: fast decision followed by slow execution. Peter sent the Holstein chamberlist Fick he had hired to Sweden for the closest study of the colleges there and invited the Silesian baron von Luberas, an expert on Swedish institutions, to his service. Both brought him hundreds of regulations and statements from the Swedish colleges and their own projects on their introduction in Russia, and the second hired one and a half hunters in Germany, the Czech Republic and Silesia to serve in Russian colleges. Both of them, especially Fick, took an active part in the formation of these colleges. Finally, by 1718, they drew up a plan for a collegiate structure, established the official composition of each college, appointed presidents and vice-presidents, and all the colleges were ordered to compose regulations on the basis of the Swedish charter, and the clauses of the Swedish charter, inconvenient "or dissimilar to the situation of this state , replace with new ones according to your reasoning".
In 1718, the presidents were to organize their colleges in order to begin their work from 1719; but delays and reschedules followed, and the colleges did not come into effect from 1719, and others from 1720. Initially, 9 colleges were established, which the decree on December 12, 1718 lists in this order and with the following names: 1) foreign affairs, 2) Camor, department of state revenues, 3) Justice, 4) revision, "account of all government receipts and expenditures", i.e. the financial control agency, 5) Military(Collegium), department of the ground military forces, 6) Admiralteyskaya, department of maritime forces, 7) Commerce, Department of Commerce, 8) Berg and manufactories, Department of Mining and Factory Industries, and 9) State offices, Department of Public Expenditure. From this list, first of all, it is clear which state interests, as priority ones, demanded, according to the then concepts, enhanced implementation in management: out of nine collegiums, five were in charge of state and National economy, finance and industry. The boards introduced two principles into management that distinguished them from the old orders: a more systematic and concentrated division of departments and an advisory order of doing business.
Of the nine colleges, only two coincided in terms of business with the old orders: the Collegium of Foreign Affairs with the Ambassadorial Order and the Revision College with the Accounts; the rest of the collegiums represented departments of the new composition. In this composition, the territorial element inherent in the old orders disappeared, most of which were in charge of exclusively or mainly known affairs only in part of the state, in one or several counties. The provincial reform abolished many such orders; in the collegiate reform, the last of them also disappeared. Each board in the branch of government assigned to it extended its action to the entire space of the state. In general, all the old orders that were still living out their lives were either absorbed by the colleges or subordinated to them: for example, 7 orders were included in the Justice Collegium. So the departmental division in the center was simplified and rounded; but there were still a number of new offices and offices, which were either subordinate to the collegiums or constituted special main departments: for example, next to the Military Collegium, there were the offices of the Main Provisional and Artillery and the Main Commissariat, which was in charge of recruiting and equipping the army.
This means that the collegiate reform did not introduce into the departmental routine the simplification and rounding that the painting of colleges promises. And Peter I could not cope with the hereditary habit of administrative side walls, stands and basements, which the old Moscow state builders liked to introduce into their management, imitating private housing construction. However, in the interest of a systematic and even distribution of cases, the original plan of the collegiums was also changed during execution. The Local Order, subordinated to the College of Justice, due to the burden of its affairs, separated into an independent Patronage College, the constituent parts of the Berg and Manufactory Colleges were divided into two special colleges, and the Auditing College, as a control body, merged with the Senate, the highest control, and its separation , according to the frank admission of the decree, "without considering what was done then" as a matter of thoughtlessness. This means that by the end of the reign there were ten colleges.
Another difference between collegiums and orders was the deliberative order of doing business. This order was not alien to the old prikaz administration: according to the Code, judges or heads of prikaz had to decide cases together with comrades and senior clerks. But the command collegiality was not precisely regulated and died out under the pressure of strong bosses. Peter, who carried out this order in the ministerial council, in the district and provincial administration, and then in the Senate, wanted to firmly establish it in all central institutions. Absolute power needs advice to take the place of law; "All the best dispensation happens through advice," says the Military Charter of Peter I; it is easier for one person to hide iniquity than for many comrades: let someone betray it. The presence of the board was made up of 11 members, the president, vice president, 4 advisers and 4 assessors, to which one more adviser or assessor from foreigners was added; of the two secretaries of the collegiate office, one was also appointed from foreigners. Cases were decided by a majority of the votes of the presence, and for the report to the presence they were distributed among advisers and assessors, of which each was in charge of the corresponding part of the office, forming at its head a special branch or department of the collegium. The introduction of foreigners into the collegiums was intended to put experienced leaders next to the Russian newcomers. For the same purpose, Peter I usually appointed a foreigner to the Russian president as vice president. So, in the Military Collegium under President Prince Menshikov, the vice-president is General Veide, in the Chamber Collegium, the president is Prince D. M. Golitsyn, the vice-president is the Revel landrat Baron Nirot; only at the head of the Mining Collegium do we meet two foreigners, the learned artilleryman Bruce and the aforementioned Luberas. The decree of 1717 established the procedure for the appointed presidents to "compose their colleges", to make their presence: for the places of advisers and assessors, they themselves selected two or three candidates, only not from their relatives and "their own creatures"; according to these candidate lists, the meeting of all collegiums ran for positions to be filled.
So, I repeat, the collegiate division differed from the clerical one: 1) by the departmental distribution of cases, 2) by the scope of institutions, and 3) by the order of business.
Reforms of the central authorities and administration: the tsarist government, the Senate, collegiums
Peter I became the first absolute monarch (autocrat) in the history of the Russian state. However, in some works, some of Peter's predecessors on the Russian throne are considered autocratic. But neither Grand Duke Ivan III, neither Ivan IV (the Terrible), the first in Russia to officially take the title of tsar and most actively assert his power, nor Alexei Mikhailovich, became autocratic (absolute) monarchs. For objective reasons, they could not eliminate the representative bodies (primarily the Boyar Duma) from the political arena. Only after the actual merging of all Russian lands into a single state, the separation of the tsar from the old aristocracy, and the reduction of the political role of the latter, did the complete liquidation of the boyar Duma and the Zemsky Sobors become possible. Thus, as a result of the objective maturation of internal and external objective conditions, as well as due to a favorable combination of subjective factors, autocracy (absolutism) really took hold in Russia.
After the termination of convocations of Zemsky Sobors The Boyar Duma remained in fact, the only body that restrains the power of the king. However, as the formation Russian state By the beginning of the 18th century, the Duma had ceased to act as a body of representative power of the boyars.
In 1699 was created Near office (an institution exercising administrative and financial control in the state). Formally, it was the office of the Boyar Duma, but its work was led by a dignitary close to Peter I (Nikita Zotov). Meetings of the increasingly shrinking Boyar Duma began to take place in the Middle Office. In 1708, as a rule, 8 people participated in the meetings of the Duma, all of them managed various orders, and this meeting was called the Council of Ministers. This council turned into the Supreme body of power, which, in the absence of the tsar, ruled not only Moscow, but the entire state. The boyars and the judges of the remaining orders were to come to the Near Office three times a week to resolve cases.
Council of Ministers unlike the Boyar Duma, it met without a tsar and was mainly busy fulfilling his instructions. It was an administrative council that answered to the king. In 1710 this council consisted of 8 members. All of them managed separate orders, and there were no boyars - Duma members who did not manage anything: some acted in the provinces, others simply were not convened in the Duma. And the Duma, thus, by 1710 itself turned into a rather close council of ministers (the members of this close council are called ministers in the letters of Peter, in papers and acts of that time).
After the formation of the Senate The Council of Ministers (1711) and the Near Office (1719) ceased to exist.
At the beginning of the 18th century, the spiritual counterbalance to the sole power of the tsar was also eliminated. In 1700, the tenth Russian patriarch died, and the election of a new head of the Orthodox Church was not scheduled. For 21 years the patriarchal throne remained unoccupied. Church affairs were supervised by the "locum tenens" appointed by the tsar, who was later replaced by the Theological College. In the Rules of the Spiritual College (1721), the supremacy of the king's power receives legal consolidation: "The power of monarchs is autocratic, which God himself commands to obey." Consequently, the formation of the Theological College symbolized the transformation of church administration into one of the branches of state administration and testified to the subordination of the church to the king.
The king retained the functions of the highest judge in the state. He led all the armed forces. All acts of authorities, administration and courts were issued on his behalf, in his exclusive competence was the declaration of war, the conclusion of peace, the signing of treaties with foreign states. The monarch was seen as the supreme bearer of legislative and executive power.
The strengthening of the power of the monarch, characteristic of absolutism, was also expressed in some external attributes, the most important of which was the proclamation of the king by the emperor. In 1721, in connection with Russia's victory in the Northern War, the Senate and the Spiritual Synod presented Peter I with the title of "Father of the Fatherland, Emperor of All Russia." This title was eventually recognized by foreign powers and passed to his successors.
On February 22, 1711, Peter himself wrote decree on the composition of the Senate, which began with the phrase: "Determined to be for the absence of Our Governing Senate to govern ...". All members of the Senate were appointed by the king from among his immediate circle (initially - 8 people). All appointments and resignations of senators took place according to nominal royal decrees. The Senate did not interrupt its activities and was a permanent state body. The Governing Senate was established as a collegiate body, whose competence included: administration of justice, resolution of financial issues, general issues of managing trade and other sectors of the economy.
Thus, the Senate was the highest judicial, administrative and legislative institution, which submitted for consideration various issues for legislative resolution by the monarch.
Decree of April 27, 1722. “On the position of the Senate” Peter I gave detailed instructions on important issues of the Senate, regulating the composition, rights and duties of senators, established the rules for the relationship of the Senate with the collegiums, provincial authorities and the prosecutor general. Normative acts issued by the Senate did not have the highest legal force of the law, the Senate only took part in the discussion of bills and gave interpretation of the law. The Senate headed the system of state administration and was the highest authority in relation to all other bodies.
The structure of the Senate evolved gradually. Initially, the Senate consisted of senators and the office, later two branches were formed in its composition: reprisal chamber- on court cases (existed as a special department before the establishment of the College of Justice) and Senate office on management issues.
The Senate had its own office, which was divided into several tables: secret, provincial, bit, fiscal and clerical. Prior to the establishment of the Senate Office, it was the only executive body of the Senate. The separation of the office from the presence was determined, which acted in three compositions: the general meeting of members, the Punishment Chamber and the Senate Office in Moscow. The Reprisal Chamber consisted of two senators and judges appointed by the Senate, who submitted monthly reports to the Senate on current affairs, fines and searches. The verdicts of the Punishment Chamber could be canceled by the general presence of the Senate. The Senate verdict (1713) determined the competence of the Punishment Chamber: consideration of complaints about the wrong decision of cases by governors and orders, fiscal reports.
The Senate had auxiliary bodies (positions), which did not include senators, such bodies were the racket master, the king of arms, provincial commissars.
Reketmeister position was established under the Senate in 1720; If they complained about the red tape - the racket master personally demanded that the case be expedited, if there were complaints about the "injustice" of the boards, then, having considered the case, he reported it to the Senate.
Duties of the Herald Master(the position was established in 1722) included compiling lists of the entire state, nobles, ensuring that there were no more than 1/3 of each noble family in the civil service.
The positions of provincial commissars, who oversaw local, military, financial affairs, recruitment, maintenance of regiments, were introduced by the Senate in March 1711. Provincial commissars were directly involved in the execution of decrees sent by the Senate and colleges.
Decrees of December 11, 1717 “On the staff of the Colleges and on the opening time of them” and of December 15, 1717 “On the appointment of Presidents and Vice Presidents in the Colleges” 9 colleges were created: Foreign Affairs, Chambers, Justits, Revision, Military, Admiralty, Commerce, State Offices, Berg and Manufactories.
The competence of the Board of Foreign Affairs, which replaced the Embassy Office, by decree of December 12, 1718, was to be in charge of “all kinds of foreign and embassy affairs”, coordinate the activities of diplomatic agents, manage relations and negotiations with foreign ambassadors, and carry out diplomatic correspondence. The peculiarities of the collegium was that “no court cases are judged” in it.
Board of Chambers carried out the highest supervision of all types of fees (customs duties, drinking fees), observed the arable farming, collected data on the market and prices, controlled the salt mines and the monetary business. The chamber college had its representatives in the provinces.
Justice College exercised judicial functions in criminal offenses, civil and fiscal cases, headed an extensive judicial system, which consisted of provincial lower and city courts, as well as court courts. Acted as a court of first instance in contentious cases. Its decisions could be appealed to the Senate.
Revision Board it was prescribed to exercise financial control over the use of public funds by central and local bodies "for the sake of a decent correction and revision of all accounting matters in income and expenditure." Every year, all collegiums and offices sent account statements to the collegium according to the income and expense books compiled by them, and in case of dissimilarity, the Revision Collegium tried and punished officials for crimes on income and accounts. In 1722 the functions of the collegium were transferred to the Senate.
To the Military College was entrusted with the management of "all military affairs": recruiting the regular army, managing the affairs of the Cossacks, arranging hospitals, and providing for the army. In the system of the Military Collegium there was a military justice, consisting of regimental and general kriegsrechts.
Admiralty board was in charge of "the fleet with all the naval military servants, including those belonging to maritime affairs and administrations" It included the Naval and Admiralty Offices, as well as the Uniform, Waldmeister, Academic, Canal offices and Particular shipyard.
College of Commerce contributed to the development of all branches of trade, especially foreign. The Board carried out customs supervision, drew up customs charters and tariffs, monitored the correctness of measures and weights, was engaged in the construction and equipment of merchant ships, and performed judicial functions.
State-offices-collegium exercised control over public spending, constituted the state staff (emperor's staff, staff of all colleges, provinces, provinces). It had its own provincial bodies - renters, which were local treasuries.
The responsibilities of the Berg Collegium included issues of the metallurgical industry, the management of mints and money yards, the purchase of gold and silver abroad, and judicial functions within its competence. A network of local authorities has been established. The Berg Collegium was merged with another - the Manufactory Collegium "according to the similarity of their affairs and duties" and as one institution existed until 1722. The Manufactory Collegium dealt with issues of all industry, excluding mining, and managed the manufactories of the Moscow province, the central and northeastern parts Volga and Siberia. The board gave permission to open manufactories, ensured the fulfillment of state orders, and provided various benefits to industrialists. Also, its competence included: the exile of those convicted in criminal cases to manufactories, the control of production technology, the supply of factories with materials. Unlike other colleges, it did not have its own bodies in the provinces and provinces.
Also in 1721, the Spiritual College was formed, which was then transformed in 1722 into the Holy Governing Synod, which was equal in rights with the Senate and reported directly to the king. The synod was the main central institution for ecclesiastical matters. He appointed bishops, exercised financial control, was in charge of his estates, and exercised judicial functions in relation to such crimes as heresy, blasphemy, schism, and so on. Particularly important decisions were made by the general meeting - the conference.
The Little Russian Collegium was formed by a decree of April 27, 1722, with the aim of "protecting the Little Russian people" from "unrighteous trials" and "oppression" by taxes on the territory of Ukraine. She exercised judicial power, was in charge of collecting taxes in Ukraine.
In total, by the end of the first quarter of the eighteenth century. there were 13 collegiums, which became central state institutions, formed according to a functional principle. In addition, there were other central institutions (for example, the Secret Chancellery, formed in 1718, which was in charge of detecting and prosecuting political crimes, the Chief Magistrate, formed in 1720 and managing the urban estate, the Medical Chancellery).
Unlike orders that acted on the basis of custom and precedent, collegiums had to be guided by clear legal norms and job descriptions.
The most common piece of legislation in this area was General Regulations (1720), which was a charter for the activities of state collegiums, offices and offices and determined the composition of their members, competence, functions, and procedures. The subsequent development of the principle of official, bureaucratic length of service was reflected in Peter's "Table of Ranks" (1722). The new law divided the service into civil and military. It defined 14 classes, or ranks, of officials. Anyone who received the rank of 8th class became a hereditary nobleman. The ranks from the 14th to the 9th also gave the nobility, but only personal.
The adoption of the “Table of Ranks” testified that the bureaucratic principle in the formation of the state apparatus undoubtedly defeated the aristocratic principle. Professional qualities, personal devotion and length of service become decisive for promotion. A sign of bureaucracy as a management system is the inclusion of each official in a clear hierarchical power structure (vertically) and his guidance in his activities by strict and precise prescriptions of the law, regulations, instructions.
The positive features of the new bureaucratic apparatus were professionalism, specialization, normativity, while the negative features were its complexity, high cost, self-employment, and inflexibility.
To control the activities of the state apparatus, Peter I, by his decrees of March 2 and 5, 1711, created fiscalate(from lat. fiscus - state treasury) as a special branch of the Senate administration ("to inflict fiscals in all matters"). The head of the fiscals - the chief fiscal - was attached to the Senate, which "was in charge of the fiscals." At the same time, the fiscals were also confidants of the tsar. The latter appointed chief fiscal, who took the oath to the king and was responsible to him. The decree of March 17, 1714 outlined the competence of the fiscals: to inspect everything that “may be to the detriment of the state interest”; to report “on malicious intent against the person of His Majesty or treason, on indignation or rebellion”, “whether spies are sneaking into the state”, as well as the fight against bribery and embezzlement. The basic principle of determining their competence is "recovery of all silent cases."
Fiscal network expanded and gradually two principles of fiscal formation emerged: territorial and departmental. By decree of March 17, 1714, it was prescribed in each province "to be 4 people, including provincial fiscals from which ranks worthy, also from the merchant class." The provincial fiscal supervised the city fiscals and once a year "took" control over them. In the spiritual department, the organization of fiscals was headed by the proto-inquisitor, in the dioceses - provincial fiscals, in monasteries - inquisitors.
Over time, it was supposed to introduce fiscal system in all departments. After the establishment of the College of Justice, fiscal affairs came under its jurisdiction and fell under the control of the Senate, and with the establishment of the post of Prosecutor General, the fiscals began to obey him. In 1723, a fiscal general was appointed, who was the highest authority for fiscals. In accordance with the decrees (1724 and 1725), he had the right to claim any case for himself. His assistant was the Chief Fiscal.
If the fiscals were partly under the jurisdiction of the Senate, then the prosecutor general and chief prosecutors reported only to the emperor. Prosecutorial oversight extended even to the Senate. Decree of April 27, 1722 "On the position of the Prosecutor General" established his competence, which included: presence in the Senate and control over the fiscals. The Prosecutor General had the right: to raise a question before the Senate to develop a draft decision submitted to the emperor for approval, to make a protest and suspend the case, informing the emperor about it.
Since the institution of fiscals was subordinate to the prosecutor general, the prosecutor's office also supervised covert undercover surveillance.
The prosecutor of the collegium had to attend the meetings of the collegiums, supervise the work of the institution, control finances, consider the reports of the fiscals, check the protocols and other documentation of the collegium.
The system of supervising and controlling state bodies was supplemented by the Secret Chancellery, whose responsibility was to supervise the work of all institutions, including the Senate, Synod, fiscals and prosecutors.
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Colleges under Peter 1
Creating the "new" Russian Empire, Peter 1 carried out many reforms, one of which was the elimination of unsuitable state bodies. So, the emperor eliminated the outdated system of orders (they are also chambers, bodies of central government), replacing it with new central bodies of sectoral government - colleges.
Peter borrowed a model for the establishment of Collegia from Europe - state structures Sweden and Germany. The regulations were drawn up on the basis of the legislative acts of Sweden, of course, with an eye on Russian reality.
The reform began as early as 1712 with an attempt to establish a College of Commerce. But the final register (list) was approved only in 1718. According to him, nine Collegias were established: Military, Admiralty Collegium, Foreign Affairs, Commerce Collegium, Chamber Collegium, or Collegium of State Duties, Berg Manufactory Collegium, Justice Collegium, Revision Collegium, State Office.
Others were later established: the College of Justice for Livonian and Estonian Affairs (1720), the Estates College (1721), the College of Economy (1726). In addition, in 1720 the Chief Magistrate was established, and in 1721 - the Theological College, or the Holy Synod.
Functions of the Colleges under Peter 1
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College |
What did you control |
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Admiralties |
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foreign affairs |
Foreign policy |
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College of Commerce |
Trade |
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Berg Manufactory College |
Industry and mining |
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Justice College |
local courts |
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Revision Board |
State budget funds |
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State office |
Government spending |
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Justice Collegium of Livonian and Estonian Affairs |
§ Activity Protestant churches on the territory of the Russian Empire § Administrative and judicial issues of the provinces of Sweden annexed to the Russian Empire |
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Votchinnaya |
land holdings |
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Savings |
Land holdings of clerics and institutions |
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Chief Magistrate |
The work of magistrates |
Internal structure
The boards were headed by presidents, who were appointed by the Senate (the highest state body), but taking into account the opinion of the emperor. In the absence of the president, his functions passed to the vice president, appointed in a similar way. In addition to them, the College included advisers and assessors (appointed by the Senate), as well as clerical officials. In addition, each Collegium had a prosecutor who supervised the decision of cases and the execution of decrees.
All decisions were made collectively, at meetings. Peter paid great attention to the new principle of office work, believing that the right decision can only be made jointly, after listening to the opinion of everyone.
collegium petr structure activities
Historical meaning
It is difficult to overestimate the significance of the reform carried out by Peter the Great. The collegiums functioned in accordance with uniform norms of activity. Departmental functions were clearly distributed. Localism was finally abolished. The establishment of these governing bodies was the final stage in the centralization and bureaucratization of the state administration apparatus. However, it is impossible not to clarify that the emperor's brilliant idea was not fully implemented. Thus, the main goal of the reform - the division of functions performed by departments - has not been achieved in relation to some Collegiums.
Since 1802, the gradual abolition of the Colleges began against the backdrop of a new system of ministries.
Under the jurisdiction of the Senate stood a series of central institutions known as colleges; they were established in 1718 and finally formed in 1720. The colleges replaced the old orders. With the establishment of the Senate, which gradually assimilated the functions of the most important orders, these latter (for example, the Discharge) were replaced by the "tables" of the Senate; small orders turned into an office and offices of various names and retained their previous organization. Since about 1711 Peter I conceived to arrange a central administration according to Western European models. Quite consciously, he wanted to transfer the Swedish collegial structure to Russia. The collegiate system was also recommended to him by the theorist Leibniz. People were sent abroad to study bureaucratic forms and clerical practices; experienced clerks were sent from abroad to organize new institutions with their help. But Peter the Great did not give these foreigners a senior position in the collegiums, and they did not rise above the vice-presidents; Russian people were appointed presidents of the collegiums.
The boards were subordinated Senate who sent them his decrees; in turn, local governments were below the collegiums and obeyed them. But, on the one hand, not all colleges were equally subordinate to the Senate (military and naval were more independent than others); on the other hand, not all colleges were related to regional governments. Above the provincial authorities, as a direct highest authority, stood only the Chambers and Justice Collegiums and Chief Magistrate. Thus, both central and local governments did not represent a strict and harmonious hierarchy.
Each collegium, like the order of the 17th century, consisted of a presence and an office. The presence consisted of the President, Vice President, Councilors, Assessors and 2 Secretaries, who were the Chiefs of the Chancellery. In total, there were no more than 13 people in attendance, and matters were decided by a majority vote.
Peering into the differences between the colleges and the old orders, we see that the system of colleges greatly simplified the previous confusion of departments, but did not destroy the confusion of personal and collegiate principles that underlay the former central administration. Just as in orders, in their collegiate form, the personal beginning was expressed by the activity of the imperious chairman, so in collegiums influential presidents and prosecutors assigned to the collegiums for general control violated the collegial system with their personal influence and in fact sometimes replaced collegial activity with an individual one.
highest reputation throughout Europe, the Swedish system of government boards was used, and deservedly: it was debugged to such an extent that the Swedish government was able to govern the country without disruption, despite the fifteen-year absence of the monarch, the loss of the army, the collapse of the empire and the deadly plague. Peter, who admired both Charles and the Swedish state machine and did not at all consider it shameful for himself to borrow something from the enemy, decided to establish colleges in his country on the model and likeness of the Swedish ones.
In 1718 it was developed new system government controlled. Thirty-four pre-existing orders * were replaced by nine new colleges: the Collegium of Foreign (later - Foreign) Affairs, the Chamber Collegium, which was in charge of state revenues, the Justice Collegium, the Military and Admiralty Collegium, the Kommsrts Collegium, which dealt with trade issues, the Bsrg-i -Manufactory Board and State Office Board, which was in charge of public spending, and the Revision Board, which controlled the spending of budget funds **.
* Number of orders in Russia XVII - early XVIII centuries it is impossible to establish precisely - the process of reorganization went on continuously.
** The number of collegiums has been constantly changing. In 1721 there were 11 colleges, in 1723 - 10. In 1722, D. Trezzini received a painting for the placement of colleges in a new building on Vasilyevsky Island. There were 12 sites in total. In addition to 10 collegiums, it was planned to build 2 more premises: a hall of ceremonial receptions and the Senate. This is how the name "The Building of the Twelve Collegia" appeared.
The presidents of these collegiums were Russians (and all of them from among Peter's closest friends and associates), while foreigners became vice-presidents. However, two exceptions were made; A Scot, General Jacob Bruce, became the President of the Berg-and-Manufactory Collegium, while the Russians Golovkin and Shafirov became the President and Vice-President of the Dust in the Collegium of Foreign Affairs. The presidents of all colleges automatically became members of the Senate, which made this body of power like a council of ministers.
So that the institutions of power borrowed from abroad could work successfully, Peter intensively invited foreign specialists. Russian diplomatic agents, traveling all over Europe, lured foreigners to work in the new Russian government institutions. They even invited Swedish prisoners of war who had learned the Russian language. Some Swedes turned down such offers, Weber believed, because they feared impediments to their return to their homeland. However, in the end, there were enough foreigners, and the same Weber described with admiration the lively activities of the College of Foreign grandfathers; “There is hardly anywhere in the world to be found an office of foreign affairs that would send dispatches in so many languages. “There are sixteen translators and secretaries here who know Russian, Latin, Polish, High German, Low German, English, Danish, French, Italian, Spanish, Greek, Turkish, Chinese, Tatar, Kalmyk and Mongolian.”
However, despite the fact that knowledgeable foreigners worked at all levels in the new government apparatus, the new system was constantly in a fever. Foreign specialists experienced great difficulties in trying to explain to Russian officials the essence of the new system, especially since even the interpreters who knew the language were not very versed in the specific terminology adopted in Sweden. It was even more difficult to explain the mechanism of operation of the new system of government to the provincial officials, who were often characterized by dense ignorance. Sometimes they sent such reports to Petersburg that it was impossible not only to attribute them to any category of business papers, but even to understand what they were about, or even just to read them.
Among other things, some presidents of the colleges were not very zealous about their duties, and Peter again and again had to reason with them like boys. He demanded that they without fail appear in their colleges on Tuesdays and Thursdays and seek to maintain due order and propriety, both in the Senate and in the colleges themselves. They were strictly ordered not to conduct at meetings "talks about extraneous matters that do not concern our service, and even less to engage in idle conversations and jokes", not to interrupt each other during speeches and to behave as befits statesmen, and not "bazaar women" .
Peter hoped that by introducing the presidents of the colleges into the Senate, he would make this body of power more effective, but the ongoing envy and enmity among the nobles led to the fact that as soon as they gathered in the absence of the king, noisy disputes and squabbles began. Senators descended from ancient families, such as Dolgoruky or Golitsyn, despised the puny upstarts Menshikov, Shafirov and Yaguzhinsky. The President of the Board of Foreign Affairs Golovkin and its vice-president Shafirov could not stand each other. The clashes became more and more violent, passions ran high, the senators openly denounced each other in embezzlement. In the end, just as Peter left for the Caspian Sea, a resolution was adopted accusing Shafirov of outrageous and lawless behavior in the Senate. Upon his return, Peter appointed a High Court of Senators and Generals to hear the case. Having gathered in Preobrazhenskoye, the judges listened to the testimony and sentenced Shafirov to death.
On February 16, 1723, Shafirov was brought from Preobrazhensky to the Kremlin in a simple sleigh. They read the sentence to him, tore off his wig and old fur coat and put him on the scaffold. Having made the sign of the cross, the convict knelt down and laid his head on the chopping block. The executioner lifted the ax, and at that moment Peter's cabinet secretary Alexei Makarov stepped forward and announced that, out of respect for the long service, the sovereign had ordered Shafirov's life to be saved and the execution to be replaced by exile in Siberia. Shafirov got to his feet and, with tears in his eyes, staggered down from the scaffold. He was taken to the Senate, where, shocked by what had happened, former colleagues vied with each other to congratulate him on his pardon. To calm the suffering old man Shafirov, the doctor bled him, and he, reflecting on his gloomy future in exile, said: “It would be better to open a large vein for me in order to get rid of the torment at once.” However, later the exile to Siberia for Shafirov and his family was replaced by a settlement in Novgorod. After the death of Peter I, Catherine forgave Shafirov, and under Empress Anna Ivanovna he returned to the system of power again.
The new administrative bodies often did not justify the hopes that Peter placed on them. They were alien to the Russian tradition, and officials had neither the necessary knowledge nor incentives to work. The formidable figure of the omnipresent king did not always arouse in his subjects the desire to show initiative and decisiveness. On the one hand, Peter ordered to act more boldly and take responsibility, and on the other hand, severely punished for any mistake. Naturally, the officials were cautious in every possible way and behaved like that servant who will not pull the drowning master out of the water until he is convinced that this is part of his duties and is written in the contract.
Over time, Peter himself began to understand this. He came to the conclusion that government should be carried out through laws and regulations, and not by urging on the part of those in power, including himself. It is not necessary to command people, but to teach them, to instruct and convince, to explain what the interests of the state are, so that everyone can understand it. Therefore, royal decrees issued after 1716, as a rule, were preceded by arguments about the necessity and usefulness of this or that legal provision, quotations, historical parallels, appeals to logic and common sense.
Despite all the shortcomings, the new system of public administration was a useful innovation. Russia was changing, and the Senate and collegiums managed the changed state and society more effectively than the old Moscow orders and the boyar Duma could do. Both the Senate and collegiums existed in Russia until the fall of the dynasty, although the collegiums were subsequently transformed into ministries. In 1722, the architect Domenico Trezzini began the construction of an unusually long red brick building on Vasilyevsky Island, on the Neva embankment. It was to house the collegiums and the Senate. Today, this building, the largest of the surviving from the times of Peter the Great, houses St. Petersburg University.
The reforms carried out by Peter had no less tangible effect on the fate of individuals than on the fate of state institutions. The social structure of Russia, similar to that which existed in medieval Europe, was based on the universal duty to serve. The serf peasant had to serve his master, and he, in turn, the sovereign. Peter was far from intending to break or even weaken this universal relationship of service. He only modified it, striving, as far as possible, to force all sections of the population to serve with full dedication. No concessions or exceptions were made for anyone. The service was the essence of the life of Peter himself, and he used all his power and energy to encourage everyone to serve with the greatest benefit for the fatherland. The nobles, who served as officers in the reorganized Russian army and navy, had to master modern weapons and tactics; Those who entered the service in state institutions created according to the European model also required special knowledge and skills for the full performance of duties. The concept of service has changed and expanded: in order to serve in accordance with the requirements of the time, one had to study.
Peter made his first attempt to bring educated national cadres to Russia as early as 1696, when, before leaving with the Great Embassy, he sent a group of young noblemen to study in the West. After the Poltava victory, Peter's concern for the education of his subjects became more focused and systematic. In 1712, a decree was issued, according to which the Senate was to submit information about all the noble undergrowth. The young men were divided into three groups: the youngest were sent to study seamanship in Revel, those older were sent to Holland for the same purpose, and the oldest were enlisted in the army. In 1714, the tsar threw a net wider: all young nobles from ten to thirty years old who were not in the service were ordered to report to the Senate before the end of winter.
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term paper, added 02/11/2007
Organization of state institutions of the XVIII century. (higher, central and local). Analysis of the structure, composition and work of the collegium and office according to the General Regulations. Types of documents, their form and title formulas in accordance with the Table of Ranks.
thesis, added 10/20/2010
The development of a class-representative monarchy into an absolute one in Russia. The main characteristics of an absolute monarchy. Functions of the Senate, collegiums and their activities. Reasons for strengthening the bodies and means of state control during the reign of Peter I.
abstract, added 12/26/2010
Reforms of the highest state bodies under Alexander I. From collegiums to ministries. Change of local state and public estate management. Public administration under Nicholas I: "Apogee of autocracy".
abstract, added 06/28/2007
The history of the formation of the Senate, the introduction of the principle of collegiality. Reorganization of the diplomatic service. Establishment of the Collegium of Foreign Affairs, functions of its divisions and officials. Replacing the patriarchate with a collegial form of church government.
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History of medieval Russia. Zemsky Sobor as the highest advisory class-representative body. Sudebnik of 1550 and management reforms. Reorganization of central and local governments. Creation of central government bodies.
abstract, added 01/08/2011
Establishment of absolutism in Russia. Administrative reforms of Peter I: reforms of the highest state bodies, transformation of the central bodies of state administration. Strengthening the Russian bureaucracy. Reforms of local and city government.
term paper, added 02/18/2012
Justification of the need and description of the composition of the administrative reforms of Peter I. Historical study of the transition to the reform of state bodies of Petrine Russia and the creation of new state governing bodies. Formation of absolutism.
term paper, added 11/03/2012
The formation of the Russian fleet since the construction of the Naval Academy in St. Petersburg under Peter I. Training of specialists in the field of navigation, artillery, fortification and ship construction. Development of naval theory and marine sciences.
