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Vladimir Kondratiev
Kondratiev Vladimir Borisovich - Doctor of Economics, Professor, Head of the Center for Industrial and Investment Studies of the Institute of World Economy and International Relations of the Russian Academy of Sciences
The electric power industry is undergoing no less radical changes than during the massive construction of nuclear reactors in the 1960s and 1970s. The share of alternative energy sources is growing, the disproportion in prices for coal and natural gas is increasing, and the role of nuclear energy is being rethought. The world economy is turning from energy-deficient to energy-surplus. The second part of the article looks at the global outlook for the industry and how it can be reformed in the EU, India, Brazil, South Korea and, in more detail, Russia.
The large-scale changes that are currently taking place in the world energy industry are proceeding quite slowly and are often hardly noticeable to others. However, new challenges already face energy companies and politicians, and the future of the industry depends on what answers are found to them for many years to come.
European Union
Compared to the average world structure of electricity generation, the share of nuclear power plants (almost 30%), as well as alternative energy sources - wind, biomass, etc. (about 8%) is noticeably higher in the EU countries.
Rice. one.
Source: U. S. Energy Information Administration. International Energy statistics. Electricity. U.S. Department of Energy. wash. D . C.
The main body responsible for the development and harmonization of the EU energy policy is the Directorate General for Energy (until 2010 - the Directorate General for Energy and Transport). The subsequent levels of regulation are at the level of individual EU member states, each of which may have different systems of industry management. One representative from each EU country is a member of the association of regulators ERGEG (European Regulators "Group for Electricity and Gas). The association was formed by the European Commission as an advisory body on the creation of an internal electricity market. The main activity of the association is the development of draft laws and strategic documents for the development of the industry.
The liberalization of the EU markets did not imply the mandatory privatization of the electric power industry. In many countries, there are still large generating companies, most of whose shares are owned by the state (Italy, Sweden). Companies with a large share and power in the markets of their respective countries are also characteristic of the EU as a whole: these are EdF in France, EdP in Portugal, Electrabel in Belgium, etc.
The functions of transmission of electricity and control of the regimes of power systems in most countries are performed by system operators. There are currently 34 system operators operating in the EU, united in the ENTSO-E association. In accordance with the Third Package of Energy Laws, it carries out pan-European planning and coordination of parallel energy systems.
The EC Directive of June 26, 2003 imposed obligations on the EU member states to deregulate and liberalize the electric power industry. The directive also provided for the subsequent unification of local electricity markets into a single EU internal market. The aims of the reform were to increase the efficiency of the electric power industry, reduce electricity prices, improve the quality of service and increase competition.
First of all, it was envisaged to separate vertically integrated energy companies by types of activity and ensure competition in the generation and sales sectors. There was no question of a mandatory change of ownership, if at the same time the operators of transmission and distribution networks provided non-discriminatory access to the network with an economically justified connection price. A key element of the separation was the formation of independent management and decision-making bodies in the transmission, distribution and generation companies.
The directive was aimed at creating compatible conditions for the supply of electricity to consumers in the EU member states, which will allow in the future to come to a single European electricity market. These conditions include: the level of competition in the market, the economic feasibility of the cost of electricity, the possibility of free choice of a supplier, a system of tenders for the introduction of new capacity, a reduction in CO 2 emissions into the atmosphere, etc.
As a result of the reform, the European electricity market is a conglomeration of interconnected regional markets (Baltic; East Central Europe; West Central Europe; South Central Europe, Northern Europe; South-West Europe and France-UK-Ireland).
One of the main problems on the way to the formation of a single market is the presence of transshipments at cross-border sections between regional markets. It is supposed to solve this problem by stimulating investments in network infrastructure and complete the formation of a single market by 2014. The most developed market is considered to be Northern Europe, especially its Scandinavian part. This market has some of the lowest prices in Europe, and liquidity exceeds 30%.
There are 9 main electricity exchanges in the EU: NordPool, EEX, IPEX, Powernext, APX NL, APX UK, Belpex, Endex and Omel. In recent years, there has been a trend towards the merger of exchanges and the expansion of the territory they cover. On all exchanges, trading is carried out in the “day ahead” mode, on some there are also intraday, balancing and futures markets.
Despite the liberalization carried out, a significant share of regulated electricity supplies remains in many countries. To a greater extent, this applies to the new EU members - Bulgaria, Estonia, Lithuania, Latvia, Hungary, Poland, Romania, Slovakia, however, regulated tariffs for the population remain in some countries with developed markets, such as France and Italy.
India
More than 30% of generating assets are controlled by the government at the national level. The largest generating companies are the National Hydro-Generating Corporation, the Atomic Energy Corporation of India, and the National Thermal Power Corporation. At the state level, the state owns 52% of the generation and distribution companies. Under state control is the PowerGrid of India Corporation, which is responsible for the functioning and development of the national energy system. Approximately 13% of generation at the state level is owned by private owners.
The structure of electricity generation is dominated by coal-fired thermal power plants. Compared to the world average, hydroelectric power plants (25%) and renewable energy sources (7%), primarily biomass, play a relatively large role in India (Fig. 2).
Rice. 2. Structure of electricity generation by types of fuel
Source
.
C.
The Ministry of Energy of India is responsible for the development of the industry and the formation of energy policy in the country as a whole. The implementation of domestic energy policy at the state level is the responsibility of their governments.
Tariffs for the generation of electricity by state-owned generating companies and for the transmission of electricity through the main networks are set by the Central Regulatory Commission of India. At the regional level, the activities of energy companies are regulated by 28 relevant state regulatory commissions of the states.
In recent decades, the Indian government has been liberalizing markets and taking steps to encourage private investment in the power industry while maintaining government regulation of the industry. The Law on Electricity, adopted in 2003, became the main state act of reforming the electric power industry. The law abolished the requirements for mandatory licensing of projects for the construction of generating facilities, created conditions for the development of competition and attraction of foreign investors, and launched the processes of separation by type of activity. In order to attract private investment, the Government of India has issued a special guideline that defines the rules for the participation of private investors in projects for the generation, transmission and distribution of electricity.
For the development of electricity trade, the law establishes the following stages:
determination by the relevant regulatory commission of the tariff for the sold electricity according to the formula "production costs + standard profitability";
determination of the tariff on the basis of competitive bidding;
price competition among electricity producers and market opening.
Since June 2002, the Power Trading Corporation of India (PTC) has been operating in the country, the main activity of which at the first stage was the purchase of surplus electricity from generating companies and their subsequent sale to vertically integrated energy companies of the states at an economically justified cost, ensuring the optimal balance of interests of sellers and buyers .
PTC owned neither generation nor grid assets and functioned as the sole supplier, minimizing the financial and operational risks of electricity buyers and sellers. It guaranteed timely payment to electricity producers and fulfillment of obligations for its supply to buyers.
Brazil
Here, the generation structure is dominated by hydropower, which accounts for up to 80% of the electricity produced in the country. The importance of nuclear power plants, gas and coal-fired power plants is small. Biomass power plants play a relatively important role (Fig. 3).
Rice. 3. Structure of electricity generation by types of fuel
Source: U.S. Energy Information Administration. International Energy Statistics. Electricity. U.S. Department of Energy. wash. D
.
C.
Brazil, along with Canada and China, is among the top three countries with the highest hydroelectric power generation. Thermal power plants, which are a reserve during low water seasons, are highly dependent on imported fuel. Currently, much attention is paid to the development of wind and solar energy, biomass power plants (in particular, ethanol), and small hydroelectric power plants.
Electric power companies in Brazil, according to the form of ownership, can be divided into three groups: state, municipal and private. State-owned companies include: "Eletrobrás" - generation, transmission, distribution; "Eletronorte" - generation, transmission, distribution; "Boa Vista" - distribution; NUCLEN - nuclear power; CEPEL - research.
Municipal enterprises CESP, CEMIG, COPEL, CEEE are engaged in generation, transmission and distribution, "Transmissão Paulista" - only transmission of electricity, and another 11 municipal companies - exclusively distribution. The category of private enterprises includes 5 generation companies and 40 distribution companies.
The largest company in the industry is the Eletrobras holding, 78% of whose shares are currently owned by the state. Eletrobras controls 40% of the installed generating capacity, 60% of the transmission lines and state-owned distribution companies. The ten largest companies in terms of installed capacity are CHESF, Furnas, Eletronorte, Itaipu, CESP (part of the Eletrobras holding), CEMIG-GT, Tractebel, COPEL-GER, AES TIETÊ, Duke Energy .
The national interconnected power system (Rede Basica / SIN) is one of the largest in the world both in terms of network length and installed capacity. Outside the SIN, there is an isolated system for a part of the Amazon region that is controlled by "Eletrobras". Brazil is connected by power lines to Paraguay, Argentina, Venezuela and Uruguay.
The main provisions of sectoral policy are determined by the President of the country on the basis of prior consultations held by the National Energy Policy Council and the Committee of Line Ministries (CNPE). The CNPE is composed of the Ministry of Mines and Energy (MME), the Ministry of Finance and the Ministry of the Environment.
The State Energy Research Company (EPE) is responsible for strategy and planning for the development of the power industry, in addition to the MME (Lead Ministry). EPE develops a strategy for a 10-year period with annual adjustments and for a 25-year period with adjustments every 3 to 4 years. Key documents that define the rules for the operation of the electric power industry in Brazil are developed in EPE and submitted to MME for further approval by the Committee of line ministries.
The independent regulator is the National Electricity Agency (ANEEL) - an autonomous body approved by law, administratively associated with the MME, but not subordinate to it. ANEEL is engaged in the regulation and control of the generation, transmission and distribution of electricity in accordance with applicable laws, directives and government policies.
Initially, Brazil's electricity sector was developed with private capital. Until the 1930s, electricity production was controlled mainly by two large foreign associations - the American-Canadian ("Group Light") and the American (AMFORP). Subsequently, the state began to pursue a policy of nationalization of the industry. In 1961, Eletrobrás and MME were created, and in 1978 the state acquired Group Light.
By the 1990s, the Brazilian electricity sector was based on vertically integrated companies, mostly state-owned. Hyperinflation, the policy of subsidized tariffs and insufficient funding have led to the need to reform the industry. In 1996, reforms were introduced to liberalize the market. In 1998, a wholesale electricity market was created, which began to operate in 2001, after the definition of standards and rules for functioning. From 1995 to 1998, 60% of distribution companies were privatized.
The result of these measures was the reduction of public spending on investment in infrastructure development - by attracting private capital and stimulating free competition. The level of customer service has significantly increased, the volume of electricity theft, non-payments and technical losses has decreased. However, the long-term drought that affected the volume of electricity production under the dominance of hydropower, the imperfect mechanism of regulation and management of the industry, the unsuccessful distribution of investments and their insufficient volume, as well as the outstripping demand, offset the positive effect of the reforms and were the main causes of the crisis of 2001-2002.
The main directions of the new reform were the centralization of decision-making and giving a greater role to state regulation. The tasks of ensuring the reliability of energy supply to consumers and providing universal access to electricity through social programs were also solved.
In Brazil, there are two platforms for the conclusion of contracts for the sale of electricity:
"Ambiente de Contrataçăo Regulado" (ACR) - for the conclusion of regulated contracts (for a year, 3 and 5 years in advance). Here are the subjects of generation and distribution of electrical energy. The sale and purchase is carried out through an annual auction organized by ANEEL at the request of MME;
"Ambiente de Contrataçăo Livre" (ACL) - for concluding non-regulated contracts. It presents generation entities, sales organizations, importers and exporters of electricity, as well as large consumers.
South Korea
The structure of electricity generation in South Korea is quite uniform. The main shares are in coal-fired power plants operating on liquefied gas and nuclear power plants. At the same time, the share of nuclear energy is noticeably higher than the world average (Fig. 4).
Rice. 4 . Structuregenerationelectricityontypesfuel
Source: U.S. Energy Information Administration. International Energy Statistics. Electricity. U.S. Department of Energy. wash. D . C.
Approximately 93% of the electricity generated in the country comes from the state-owned KEPCO ("Korean Electric Power Company"), in which the state owns 51% of the shares. The remaining 7% is generated by private companies.
Regulation is carried out by the Korean Electricity Commission (KOREC), established in April 2001 under the Ministry of Commerce, Industry and Energy (MOCIE). The main tasks of KOREC are: creation of a competitive environment for electric power companies; resolution of issues affecting the rights of energy consumers; settlement of disputes relating to business activities in the electric power industry.
The basic plan for reforming the electricity industry in South Korea was approved in 1998 and provided for a phased transition to a competitive market:
Stage 1 (2000-2002) - a market in the form of an electricity pool, within which the price is determined based on the costs of electricity production;
Stage 2 (2003-2008) - also a market in the form of a pool, but now the price is determined on the basis of price bids from producers and consumers of electricity;
Stage 3 (starting from 2009) - retail competition.
In 2000, the Korean Electricity Exchange (Korea Power Exchange, KPX) was established, the main task of which was to manage the electricity pool. In 2001, the pool began to function. However, the transition to the second stage of the reform did not take place: the South Korean electricity market still functions as an electricity pool in which buyers do not participate in pricing.
In 2009, at the initiative of the government, a project was launched to study possible options for reforming the electric power industry. The current model continues to be refined in order to improve the conditions for competition between manufacturers.
Currently, KPX, in addition to the functions of a commercial operator for the management of the electricity pool, performs the functions of a system operator, which includes the management of electrical networks and ensuring the reliable functioning of the power system. In addition, KPX carries out long-term planning for the development of generation and electric networks in order to ensure the reliability of electricity supplies. The exchange also provides market participants and electricity consumers with the information they need to make business decisions.
The participants in the electricity pool include electricity producers (as of 2009 - 6 subsidiaries of KEPCO generating companies and 295 private generating companies) and a single electricity purchaser (KEPCO).
Russia
The electric power industry is the basic branch of the Russian economy, providing electric and thermal energy to the needs of the national economy and the population, as well as exporting electricity to the CIS countries and far abroad. Sustainable development and reliable functioning of the industry largely determine the country's energy security and are important factors in its successful economic development.
The modern electric power complex of Russia includes about 600 power plants with a capacity of over 5 MW each. The total installed capacity of power plants in Russia is 223.1 GW. The generation structure is shown in fig. 5.
Rice. 5. Structure of generation by types of fuel in 2011
Source: Rosstat, Ministry of Energy of the Russian Federation.
Every year, all stations generate about a trillion kWh of electricity. In 2012, the power plants of the UES of Russia generated 1,053.4 billion kWh (1.23% more than in 2011).
The leading position in the industry is occupied by thermal power engineering, which for Russia is a historically established and economically justified pattern. The most developed and widespread are thermal power plants for general use, operating on fossil fuels (gas, coal), mainly steam turbines, which account for about 70% of the electricity generated in the country. The largest thermal power plant in Russia is the largest on the Eurasian continent, Surgutskaya GRES-2 (5600 MW), operating on natural gas (the abbreviation GRES, preserved from Soviet times, means the state district power plant). Of the coal-fired power plants, Reftinskaya GRES has the largest installed capacity (3,800 MW). The largest Russian TPPs also include Surgutskaya GRES-1 and Kostromskaya GRES, with a capacity of over 3,000 MW each. In the course of the industry reform, Russia's largest thermal power plants were merged into wholesale generating companies (WGCs) and territorial generating companies (TGCs).
Hydropower provides system services (frequency, power) and is a key element in ensuring the reliability of the Unified Energy System of the country. Of all the existing types of power plants, it is hydroelectric power plants that are the most maneuverable and are able, if necessary, to quickly increase production volumes, covering peak loads. Russia has a great potential for the development of hydropower: about 9% of the world's hydro resources are concentrated in the country. In terms of these resources, Russia ranks second in the world after China, ahead of the United States, Brazil, and Canada.
Currently, 102 hydroelectric power plants with a capacity of over 100 MW are operating in the country. The total installed capacity of hydroelectric units of all hydroelectric power plants in Russia is approximately 46,000 MW (5th place in the world). In 2011, Russian hydroelectric power plants generated 153.3 billion kWh of electricity. In the total volume of electricity production, the share of HPPs was 16%.
In the course of the reform of the electric power industry, the federal hydro generating company JSC HydroOGK (current name JSC RusHydro) was created, which combined the bulk of the country's hydropower assets. Until recently, the Sayano-Shushenskaya HPP with a capacity of 6721 MW (Khakassia) was considered the largest Russian hydroelectric power plant. However, after a tragic accident on August 17, 2009, its capacities were partially out of order.
Russia has full-cycle nuclear power technology from mining uranium ore to generating electricity. Today, the country operates 10 nuclear power plants (a total of 33 power units) with an installed capacity of 23.2 GW, which generate about 15% of all electricity produced. Another 5 nuclear power plants are under construction. Nuclear power has been widely developed in the European part of Russia (30% of the total electricity generation), especially in the North-West (37%). In December 2007, in accordance with the Decree of the President of the Russian Federation, the State Atomic Energy Corporation Rosatom was established, which manages all nuclear assets, including both the civilian part of the nuclear industry and the nuclear weapons complex. It is also entrusted with the task of fulfilling Russia's international obligations in the field of the peaceful use of atomic energy and the regime for the nonproliferation of nuclear materials.
The main electric power facilities in Russia were built during the Soviet period. However, already at the end of the 1980s, signs of a slowdown in the pace of development of the industry appeared: the renewal of production capacities began to lag behind the growth in electricity consumption. In the 1990s, the volume of electricity consumption decreased significantly, at the same time, the process of capacity renewal practically stopped. In terms of technological indicators, Russian energy companies lagged far behind their counterparts in developed countries. There were no incentives to increase efficiency, rational planning of electricity production and consumption regimes, and energy saving. Due to reduced safety enforcement and significant depreciation of funds, there was a high likelihood of major accidents.
The industry required urgent large-scale transformations that would contribute to the renewal of the main facilities, increase the efficiency, reliability and security of energy supply to consumers. To this end, the Government of the Russian Federation in the early 2000s set a course for the liberalization of the electricity market, reforming the industry and creating conditions for attracting large-scale investments in the electric power industry.
In 2000 - 2001 The private sector was considered as the main possible source of investment resources. The principle of separation of the vertically integrated structure of the industry was implemented. At the same time, the so-called natural monopolies - electricity transmission, operational dispatch control - were separated from competitive sectors: generation and sales, repair and service.
Monopolies, as well as nuclear power plants, remained under state control, while generating, marketing and repair companies had to become private and compete with each other. Due to this, preconditions were created for a free electricity market, where prices are not set by the state, but are determined on the basis of the ratio of supply and demand. As expected, private energy companies will become interested in increasing efficiency and reducing costs.
On the basis of thermal generation, six extraterritorial structures were created - wholesale generating companies (WGCs). HPPs (RusHydro company) were separated into a separate structure. In addition, 14 territorial generating companies (TGCs) were created, which included mainly thermal power plants. On the basis of distribution networks, inter-regional distribution grid companies (IDGCs) arose, united into a holding, the controlling stake of which remained with the state (unlike, for example, in Ukraine, where all oblenergos were transformed into independent companies). Finally, the backbone networks came under the control of the Federal Grid Company (FGC).
The government decree "On reforming the electric power industry of the Russian Federation" was adopted in July 2001, the real reform started in 2003. By the beginning of 2008, the formation of WGCs and TGCs was completed, which were privatized. The new owners, which included both state-owned (Gazprom, Inter RAO) and Russian and foreign private companies (Norilsk Nickel, Oleg Deripaska's Eurosibenergo, Italian Enel, German E.ON), signed very serious investment commitments.
On the whole, since 2008 the Russian energy market has been living and operating according to the new rules. But the results of this work look very contradictory and do not fully satisfy both the government and electricity consumers.
The most notable effect of the reform was the increase in electricity tariffs, which more than doubled in five years. And if for the population its cost is set by the state and is still kept at a relatively low level, then industrial enterprises sometimes pay more than their European competitors. By 2012, average prices for industrial consumers in Russia came close to the American level (Fig. 6) - despite the fact that before the reform they were more than two times lower.
Rice. 6. Average electricity prices for industrial consumers
in Russia and the USA, in US cents per 1 kWh
Since 2002, prices for industry have increased by 2.7 times, which has deprived the domestic economy of one of its most important competitive advantages-lower electricity costs compared to other developed countries. The unpredictable increase in the cost of electricity has called into question the competitiveness of Russia in the world market. Thus, the profitability of energy-intensive industries has noticeably decreased: if, for example, in metallurgy in 2008 it was 21–32%, then in 2012 it was 6–13%, which is even lower than in the crisis year of 2009.
The competition, on which such hopes were placed, did not justify itself. Despite the creation of a wholesale electricity market in Russia and deregulation of prices for industrial consumers, tariffs continue to rise and the quality of services provided by the industry remains low. Especially noticeable is the lack of free choice of supplier.
The situation with the connection of new consumers, primarily industrial ones, has sharply worsened. According to the Institute for Natural Monopoly Problems, the unit cost of connection per 1 kW of power in 2010 was 1.5 thousand dollars, while in other countries the connection is either free of charge or costs from 50 to 200 dollars. and the difficulty of getting new consumers online has become a huge problem. This process takes an average of more than nine months. According to some Russian experts, this factor is one of the main barriers to the development of small and medium-sized businesses in Russia.
Finally, investments in the Russian energy sector have not been received in the required volume. The investment obligations assumed by the new owners of OGKs and TGKs were not fulfilled. According to Rosstat, in 2009 (that is, after the completion of the reform) 1.9 million kW of new capacities were commissioned. This is lower than in 2005 (2.2 million kW), significantly lower than in 1990 (3.7 million kW), and even more so than in 1985 (9 million kW). In 2011, capacity commissioning indicators decreased and amounted to 1.5 million kW. Figures for individual five-year plans testify even more eloquently (Table 1).
Table 1. Commissioning of new capacities in the electric power industry by five years, million kW
|
1981 - 1985 |
1986 - 1990s |
2001 - 2005 |
2006 - 2010 |
|
30,8 |
21,0 |
The development of world energy at the beginning of the XXI century. will be determined by the complex impact of many economic, natural, scientific, technical and political factors. An estimate of the long-term growth in energy consumption, based on the assumed pace of development of the world energy industry, leads to the conclusion that the average annual increase up to 2030-2050 will probably be 2-3%. In it will be much larger. Given the projected population growth to 8.5 billion by 2025, of which 80% will live in developing countries, it can be expected that these countries will play a decisive role in world energy consumption. This will cause a sharp increase in its production. An increase in electricity production will entail severe environmental pollution. The role in energy supply will increase in the future, given the vast reserves of this raw material, as well as the environmental friendliness of this type of fuel.
The transition from oil to gas is the third energy revolution (the first is the transition from wood to coal, the second is from coal to oil). Oil has now become the last resource in the energy balance of the world. Oil prices will determine the pace of restructuring of the global energy balance. It is believed that consumption in the world will increase by 2030 to almost 8 billion tons, since it is very expensive to convert all coal thermal power plants to oil or gas.
At the International Conference on the Use of Energy Resources (, 1989), an effective solution to the problem was achieved, which increased the number of supporters of its development in many.
On the contrary, in (province of Ontario) a moratorium on the construction of new nuclear power plants has been declared. Nuclear power plants in Eastern Europe are of serious concern, although the nuclear power plants operating in Slovakia are among the best in the world in terms of their performance. The problems of non-waste use of natural uranium as a disposable fuel, as well as the processing and destruction of radioactive waste are being solved.
Different attitudes in many countries to the use of hydropower resources. Only China is planning large hydropower plants. Up to 2000, 60 large HPPs with a total capacity of 70 GW are being designed on the rivers of China.
The most promising direction in energy production involves the use of solar energy (photovoltaic conversion) and the temperature gradient of the ocean for electricity generation, wind energy, geothermal energy, rock energy and energy, fuel cells, wood-to-liquid fuel processing, urban waste processing, biogas application obtained during the processing of industrial and agricultural waste. Developed countries are leading in the development of these technologies, primarily Japan, Canada, and Denmark. In addition, there are developments on how to increase the use of hydro resources, build stations of small capacity at water treatment plants, irrigation canals, using a new design of hydroelectric power plants with low water pressure.
In 2003, the program "Energy Strategy of Russia" was developed, which for the period up to 2020 provided for highly efficient production of electricity, economical systems for its transmission, distribution and use.
Developed in 2010 by the Ministry of Energy of the Russian Federation and OAO SO UES, the Program for the Modernization of the Russian Electric Power Industry for the period up to 2030 has the following main goals:
a) cardinal renewal of the electric power industry based on domestic and international experience;
b) overcoming the growing technological gap;
c) moral and physical aging of fixed assets;
d) increasing the reliability of power supply;
e) improving the energy security of the country;
f) reduction of tariffs for electricity and heat.
The Program provides for the creation of an effective system for managing the operation of the Russian electric power industry, based on new promising technologies for managing the production, transmission and distribution of electricity, the creation of technological intelligent electric power systems and new energy technologies based on, for example:
Distributed generation of electricity using renewable energy sources;
New conductors for power lines and energy storage devices;
Direct conversion of solar energy;
Boilers with circulating fluidized bed.
The solution of these problems should be combined with an in-depth analysis of the issues of development, functioning, stability and reliability of the Unified Energy System of Russia, its connections with the electric power systems of other countries, primarily the CIS countries.
The strategic goals for the development of the domestic electric power industry in the future until 2030 should include the solution of the problem of energy security, as the most important component of the state energy policy, which is an integral part of Russia's national security. At the same time, the development of the electric power industry should ensure:
Guarantee of reliable energy supply of enterprises and the population of the country with electricity;
Improving the efficiency of using energy resources through the use of energy-saving technologies;
Improving the efficiency of the functioning of the energy system of Russia;
Creation and preservation of the integrity of the Unified Energy System throughout Russia with the strengthening of its integration with other energy associations on the Eurasian continent;
Reducing the harmful impact of the energy industry on the environment.
The target indicators of the program include the following basic expected indicators of its implementation:
1. Reducing the specific fuel consumption for the supply of electricity from TPPs from 332.7 to 300 c.f. /(kWh) in 2020 and up to 270 c.e. /(kWh) in 2030
2. Reducing electricity losses in the Unified National Electric Grid from 4.6% to 3.5% in 2020 and to 3% in 2030
3. Reducing electricity losses in distribution networks from 8.9% to 6.5% in 2020 and 5% in 2030
The results of the studies on the optimal development of generating capacities revealed that the bulk of the commissioning of generating capacities should be carried out at thermal power plants (from 70 to 180 million kW, depending on the level of electricity consumption) in areas that need new generating capacities.
The main direction of technical re-equipment and reconstruction of thermal power plants is the replacement of power plants that are exhausting their resource with new advanced, highly efficient technologies and equipment, which is located in existing or new main buildings on the same sites. At thermal gas power plants, combined cycle plants are used, at thermal coal-fired power plants - plants with fuel combustion in a circulating fluidized bed. In the distant future, coal-fired combined cycle technologies with pre-gasification of coal or its combustion in boilers equipped with pressurized fluidized bed furnaces will be used.
Commissioning of generating capacities at HPPs and NPPs turns out to be insignificant compared to commissioning at TPPs, which is associated with significant capital costs for their construction and a long construction period. Therefore, the main directions for the development of hydropower in Russia, for example, until 2015, are to ensure the reconstruction and technical re-equipment of existing HPPs, the completion of the construction of HPPs, the maintenance of economically justified rates of hydropower construction in the future (with a total commissioning of about 2-3 GW of HPP capacity during every subsequent five years).
In Siberia, the Far East, the North Caucasus, the Northwest and the European part, hydroelectric power plants with a total capacity of about 9,000 MW are to be completed. The need for accelerated commissioning of individual HPP construction projects (Bureiskaya in the Far East, Zelenchukskaya and Irganaiskaya in the North Caucasus) is due to an acute shortage of electricity in the areas of their location.
The list of promising projects for hydropower facilities includes dozens of medium and large hydropower facilities with a total capacity of about 40 million kW. The most promising regions for hydropower construction in Russia remain the Far East, the North-West and the North Caucasus.
An important addition to the development of traditional hydropower is the development of small hydropower. In the period up to 2030, a large number of small HPPs with a unit capacity of less than 30 MW with a total annual electricity generation of 2.2 billion kWh can be built (mainly in the European part of the country).
The development of nuclear energy is associated with the completion of construction and commissioning of high-readiness units, as well as work to extend the life of nuclear power plants for an economically justified period of time. In the long term, the commissioning of power at nuclear power plants will be associated with the replacement of dismantled units at a number of existing plants with new generation power units that meet modern safety requirements. It is planned to build a new generation head power unit at a pilot nuclear power plant in the village of Sosnovy Bor; construction of Smolensk NPP-2 and South Ural NPP.
It is planned to significantly expand the use of non-traditional renewable energy sources where it is economically beneficial:
Wind turbines for remote consumers;
Solar installations for heating and hot water supply;
Outlets of geothermal waters;
Installations for the production of biogas from animal waste.
The share of non-traditional sources, including the use of small rivers, may amount to 1.0–1.5% by 2015 in the country's total energy balance.
Russia has significant tidal energy potential, estimated at 270 billion kWh. The following can be considered as promising facilities: Tugurskaya (tidal power plant) TPP in the southern part of the Sea of Okhotsk, Mezenskaya TPP on the White Sea, however, the commissioning of these facilities is possible only in the distant future.
When forming a unified energy system of Russia and a unified energy interconnection throughout the Eurasian continent, the key problems are the problems of increasing the capacity of intersystem communications.
The program for the development of the existing electrical network in Russia should provide for the elimination of existing technological restrictions on the transmission of electricity between different regions of Russia in the next decade, including ensuring better use of the energy potential of Siberian hydroelectric power plants. Currently, the "locked" capacity of the region is about 10 million kW. This problem can be solved by creating reliable interconnections that ensure the parallel operation of the power systems of the European part, Siberia and the Far East.
One of the most effective ways to solve the problem of increasing the capacity and controllability of power lines is the use of flexible (controlled) power lines. This fundamentally new technology in the field of electric power industry is based on the widespread introduction of power electronics or converter technology of the latest generation, the latest technologies in the field of high-temperature superconductivity, microprocessor automatic control and regulation systems.
Power transmission line control (TL) is part of the overall system for controlling power flows in networks, switching on backup sources of electricity, optimizing the operating modes of power lines and generators at power plants, including through the use of various energy storage devices (inductive, capacitive, electrochemical and others). All this cannot be done without creating a global system for exchanging information about the state of all elements of the system, including sources, networks and consumers, as well as a common system for managing the balance of power and energy in the system.
The industry of any country consists of a large number of diverse industries, such as mechanical engineering or the electric power industry. These are the directions in which a particular country is developing, and different countries may have different accents depending on many factors, such as natural resources, technological development, and so on. This article will focus on one very important and actively developing industry today - the electric power industry. The electric power industry is an industry that has been constantly developing for many years, but it is in recent years that it has begun to actively move forward, pushing humanity towards the use of more environmentally friendly energy sources.
So, first of all, it is necessary to understand what this industry is in general. The electric power industry is a subdivision of the energy sector, which is responsible for the production, distribution, transmission and sale of electrical energy. Among other branches of this sphere, it is the electric power industry that is the most popular and widespread at once for a number of reasons. For example, due to the ease of its distribution, the possibility of transmitting it over huge distances in the shortest possible time intervals, and also because of its versatility, electrical energy can be easily transformed, if necessary, into others such as heat, light, chemical, and so on. Thus, it is the development of this industry that the governments of world powers pay great attention to. The electric power industry is the industry with the future. This is what many people think, and that is why you need to familiarize yourself with it in more detail with the help of this article.
To fully understand how important this industry is to the world, you need to look at how the power industry has evolved throughout its history. It is immediately worth noting that electricity production is indicated in billions of kilowatts per hour. In 1890, when the electric power industry was just beginning to develop, only nine billion kWh were produced. The big leap took place by 1950, when more than a hundred times more electricity was being produced. Since that moment, development has taken giant strides - every decade, several thousand billion kW / h were added at once. As a result, by 2013, the world powers produced a total of 23127 billion kWh - an incredible figure that continues to grow every year. To date, China and the United States of America provide the most electricity - these are the two countries that have the most developed sectors of the electric power industry. China accounts for 23 percent of the world's electricity, while the US accounts for 18 percent. They are followed by Japan, Russia and India - each of these countries has at least a four times smaller share in world electricity production. Well, now you also know the general geography of the electric power industry - it's time to move on to specific types of this industry.
You already know that the electric power industry is an energy industry, and the energy industry itself, in turn, is an industry as a whole. However, the branching does not end there - there are several types of electric power industry, some of them are very common and are used everywhere, others are not so popular. There are also alternative areas of the electric power industry, where non-traditional methods are used to achieve large-scale production of electricity without harm to the environment, as well as neutralizing all the negative features of traditional methods. But first things first.
First of all, it is necessary to talk about the thermal power industry, as it is the most common and well-known all over the world. How is electricity generated in this way? It is easy to guess that in this case, thermal energy is converted into electrical energy, and thermal energy is obtained by burning various types of fuel. Combined heat and power plants can be found in almost every country - this is the easiest and most convenient process for obtaining large amounts of energy at low cost. However, this process is one of the most harmful to the environment. Firstly, natural fuel is used to generate electricity, which is guaranteed to run out someday. Secondly, combustion products are released into the atmosphere, poisoning it. That is why there are alternative methods of generating electricity. However, these are far from all traditional types of electric power industry - there are others, and further we will concentrate on them.
As in the previous case, when considering nuclear power, you can learn a lot from the name. The generation of electricity in this case is carried out in nuclear reactors, where the splitting of atoms and the fission of their nuclei occur - as a result of these actions, a large release of energy occurs, which is then transformed into electrical energy. It is unlikely that anyone else knows that this is the most unsafe electric power industry. The industry of far from every country has its share in the global production of nuclear electricity. Any leak from such a reactor can lead to catastrophic consequences - just remember Chernobyl, as well as accidents in Japan. However, more and more attention has been paid to safety recently, so nuclear power plants are being built further.
Another popular way to generate electricity is to get it from water. This process takes place in hydroelectric power plants, it does not require dangerous nuclear fission processes, nor environmentally harmful fuel combustion, but it also has its drawbacks. Firstly, this is a violation of the natural flow of rivers - dams are built on them, due to which the necessary flow of water into the turbines is created, due to which energy is obtained. Often, due to the construction of dams, rivers, lakes and other natural reservoirs are drained and die, so it cannot be said that this is an ideal option for this energy industry. Accordingly, many power industry enterprises are turning not to traditional, but to alternative types of electricity generation.
Alternative electric power industry is a collection of types of electric power industry that differ from traditional ones mainly in that they do not require any kind of harm to the environment, and also do not endanger anyone. We are talking about hydrogen, tidal, wave and many other varieties. The most common of these are wind and solar energy. It is on them that the emphasis is placed - many believe that they are the future of this industry. What is the meaning of these species?
Wind power is the generation of electricity from wind. Windmills are built in the fields, which work very efficiently and provide energy not much worse than the methods previously described, but at the same time, only wind is needed to operate the windmills. Naturally, the disadvantage of this method is that the wind is a natural element that cannot be subjugated, but scientists are working to improve the functionality of modern windmills. As for solar energy, here electricity is obtained from sunlight. As in the case of the previous view, here it is also necessary to work on increasing the storage capacity, since the sun does not always shine - and even if the weather is cloudless, in any case, at some point, the night comes when the solar panels are not able to produce electricity.
Well, now you know all the main types of electricity generation, however, as you could already understand from the definition of the term electric power industry, everything is not limited to receiving everything. Energy must be transferred and distributed. So, it is transmitted through power lines. These are metal conductors that create one large electrical network throughout the world. Previously, overhead lines were most often used - you can see them along the roads, thrown from one pillar to another. Recently, however, cable lines that are laid underground have become very popular.
The electric power industry of Russia began to develop at the same time as the world's - in 1891, when the transmission of electric power for almost two hundred kilometers was successfully carried out for the first time. In the realities of pre-revolutionary Russia, the electric power industry was incredibly underdeveloped - the annual electricity generation for such a huge country was only 1.9 billion kWh. When the revolution took place, Vladimir Ilyich Lenin proposed the implementation of which was started immediately. Already by 1931, the planned plan was fulfilled, but the speed of development was so impressive that by 1935 the plan was overfulfilled three times. Thanks to this reform, by 1940, the annual electricity generation in Russia amounted to 50 billion kW / h, which is twenty-five times more than before the revolution. Unfortunately, the dramatic progress was interrupted by the Second World War, but after its completion, work was restored, and by 1950 the Soviet Union was generating 90 billion kW / h, which was about ten percent of the total electricity generation around the world. By the mid-sixties, the Soviet Union had taken second place in the world in terms of electricity production and was second only to the United States. The situation remained at the same high level until the collapse of the USSR, when the electric power industry was far from the only industry that was badly affected by this event. In 2003, a new Federal Law on the electric power industry was signed, within the framework of which the rapid development of this industry in Russia should take place in the coming decades. And the country is definitely moving in that direction. However, it is one thing to sign the Federal Law on the electric power industry, and quite another to implement it. This is what will be discussed next. You will learn about the current problems of the electric power industry in Russia, as well as what ways will be chosen to solve them.
The Russian power industry is already in much better shape than ten years ago, so it's safe to say that progress is being made. However, at a recent energy forum, the main problems of this industry in the country were identified. And the first of these is the overcapacity of electricity generation, which was caused by the mass construction of low-capacity power plants in the USSR instead of the construction of a small number of high-capacity power plants. All these stations still need to be serviced, so there are two ways out of the situation. The first is the decommissioning of capacities. This option would be ideal if not for the huge cost of such a project. Therefore, Russia is likely to move towards the second exit, namely the increase in consumption.
After the introduction of Western stations, the Russian industry felt very acutely its dependence on foreign supplies - this also greatly affected the electric power industry, where practically in none of the modern areas of activity the full process of production of certain generators took place exclusively on the territory of the Russian Federation. Accordingly, the government plans to increase production capacities in the right directions, control their localization, and also try to get rid of dependence on imports as much as possible.
The problem is that modern Russian companies operating in the electric power industry pollute the air very much. However, the Ministry of Ecology of the Russian Federation tightened the legislation and began to collect fines more often for violation of established norms. Unfortunately, companies suffering from this do not plan to try to optimize their production - they are throwing all their efforts into overwhelming the “greens” with numbers and demanding the easing of legislation.
To date, the total debt of electricity users throughout Russia is about 460 billion Russian rubles. Naturally, if the country had at its disposal all the money that was owed to it, then it could develop the electric power industry much faster. Therefore, the government plans to tighten penalties for late payments on electricity bills, and will also encourage those who do not want to pay their bills in the future to install their own solar panels and supply themselves with energy.
The main problem of the domestic electric power industry is the complete regulation of the market. In European countries, the regulation of the energy market is almost completely absent, there is real competition there, so the industry is developing at a tremendous pace. All these rules and regulations hinder development very much, and as a result, the Russian Federation has already started buying electricity from Finland, where the market is practically unregulated. The only solution to this problem is the transition to a free market model and a complete deregulation.
The modern development of the economy has sharply revealed the main problems in the development of the energy complex. The era of hydrocarbons is slowly but surely coming to its logical conclusion. It should be replaced by innovative technologies, which are associated with the main energy perspectives.
Perhaps, one of the most important problems of the energy complex can be considered the high cost of energy, which, in turn, leads to an increase in the cost of manufactured products. Despite the fact that in recent years there have been active developments that can allow the use of, none of them is currently capable of completely displacing hydrocarbons from the global energy arena. Alternative technologies are an addition to traditional sources, but not a replacement, at least not yet.
In the conditions of Russia, the problem is further aggravated by the state of decline of the energy complex. Power generating complexes are not in the best condition, many power plants are physically destroyed. As a result, the cost of electricity does not decrease, but constantly increases.
For a long time, the world energy community relied on the atom, but this direction of development can also be called a dead end. In European countries, there is a trend towards the gradual abandonment of nuclear power plants. The failure of the energy of the atom is also emphasized by the fact that over the long decades of development it has not been able to displace hydrocarbons.
As already noted, energy development prospects are primarily associated with the development of effective alternative sources. The most studied areas in this area are:
None of these directions is able to solve the problem of the energy crisis, when simply supplementing old energy sources with alternative ones is no longer enough. Developments are carried out in different directions and are at different stages of their development. Nevertheless, it is already possible to outline the range of technologies that can initiate:
This is only a tiny list of innovative technologies, each of which has sufficient development potential. In general, the world scientific community is able to develop not only alternative energy sources, which can already be called old, but also truly innovative technologies.
It should be noted that in recent years, more and more technologies have appeared that until recently seemed fantastic. The development of such energy sources can completely transform the familiar world. We will name only the most famous of them:
It should be expected that other technologies will appear in the coming years, the development of which will make it possible to abandon the use of hydrocarbons and, importantly, to reduce the cost of energy.
