Nematodes, other name - roundworms, belong to the type of primary cavity worms. Their diversity is very great. Currently, about a million species of this worm have been discovered.
They were called round because a cross section produces a circle. Their body is shrouded in a dense cuticle, longitudinal muscles are located under it. This can be clearly seen in photo of nematode.
There is no circulatory or respiratory system. Breathing is performed by the entire plane of the body or anaerobically. The digestive system is simple and consists of a mouth and anus, between which there is a straight tube.
There is a "mouth" on the head, which is surrounded by lips. Through it, nutrition occurs: food is sucked in. Several species of free-living nematodes also have developed eyes, which can be with different color pigments. The size of the body of worms ranges on average from 1 mm to 37 cm.
In the photo, the structure of the nematode
Nematodes show a vivid example of biological progress. Today they live in all environments. Starting from the salty bottom of the ocean, as a result of evolution, they conquered fresh water bodies, soil, and now they can live and reproduce in any multicellular organism.
Inhabited in the body of the “owner”, it is able to cause various diseases, but not fatal. Nematode uses his food and body for life, and in order not to cause additional harm, he takes his eggs out of organism"owner". Thus, acquiring an intermediate, and settling over a larger territory.
To survive, all worms nematode class, has additional adaptations that he received as a result of evolution. Its dense shell protects against the action of digestive juices, females are very prolific, special organs for attachment. Some of the nematode species are successfully used to exterminate "harmful" worms.
Free-living nematodes contain most of the species of roundworms. All of them are small in size, the giants reach only 3 cm. They can live in any liquid, even in vinegar.
At fairly low temperatures, even at the North Pole. Many nematodes living in soils provide undoubted benefits and play a major role in the process of soil formation.
These nematodes found and in aquarium. They are excellent food for fry. They are grown on purpose or they reproduce themselves by overfeeding or in accumulations of rotting garbage.
Nematodes pierce tissue with them and inject their digestive juice, and then suck in food. This is called extraintestinal digestion. Nematodes that are in the body of the "owner" exist due to nutrients produced by them. What nematodes simply use for their growth and development.
Basically everything nematode types heterosexual. Males are smaller than females, and the rear end is slightly twisted to the side. Reproduction takes place sexually. Some species of females, when ready to mate, emit a strong odor to which the male reacts.
On the photo of the nematode in the fish
The beginning of the life cycle of the nematode begins in the intestine, after fertilization of the female. She descends into the rectum, where she lays her eggs in the anus. After that, she dies. The eggs themselves mature about 6 hours a day. favorable conditions.
Through dirty hands, they enter the gastrointestinal tract again, re-infection occurs. Turning into larvae, after 2 weeks they become sexually mature individuals.
Depending on the type of nematodes, the following gradations of their life cycle are distinguished:
This may be damage to the intestinal walls and blockage of the bile ducts, which is manifested by stool disorder, pain in the navel or wandering, nausea and vomiting.
Further, nematodes, entering the bloodstream, migrating throughout the human body, are able to affect absolutely any of its organs. Therefore, the symptoms can be both shortness of breath and conjunctivitis, and muscle pain. Also characteristic is the development general reaction body: allergic rashes, itching, decreased immunity, a feeling of constant weakness and nausea.
Treatment from nematodes carried out with drugs or oxygen therapy. The drugs are usually quite toxic, so they are prescribed by a doctor. With oxygen therapy, oxygen is introduced into the intestine, and the nematodes die without medical treatment.
In dogs, these are: vomiting, specific yellowish mucous diarrhea; increased appetite; tail biting; lethargy and apathy. When these symptoms appear, it is necessary to take the animal to the veterinarian, where he will prescribe drug treatment.
Topic № 18. Medical helminthology. A type of roundworm.
a brief description of and type classification roundworms.
Common signs of representatives of the type Roundworms:
1) three-layer;
2) the presence of a primary body cavity;
3) bilateral symmetry;
4) an elongated non-segmented body, having a more or less rounded shape in cross section;
5) the presence of the posterior intestine and anus;
6) the location of the mouth opening at the anterior end of the body;
7) partial reduction of the skin-muscular sac or its complete absence in some groups; usually it is represented only by longitudinal muscles, divided into four longitudinal ribbons;
8) lack of respiratory and circulatory systems;
9) dichotomy of the vast majority of forms.
The most important representatives of the class Roundworms are the causative agents of human diseases (ascaris, toxocara, whipworm, hookworm, necator, intestinal acne, pinworm, trichinella, guinea worm, filariae).
Morphology. Sexually mature female roundworms reach a length of 40 cm, males - 15-25 cm. The body is cylindrical, narrowed towards the ends. In the male, the posterior end of the body is spirally rounded to the ventral side.
Localization mature roundworm - small intestine. Atypical localization is possible - in the bile ducts of the liver, pancreatic ducts, in the respiratory tract.
Measures of personal prevention: washing hands after contact with the ground, thoroughly cleaning and washing vegetables, fruits and berries before eating, their heat treatment. Public prevention measures: identification and treatment of patients, sanitary and educational work, improvement of toilets.
Morphology. Sexually mature females have a length of 9-18 cm, males - 5-10 cm. Toksokara look like roundworms, differ from them in the presence of wide lateral wings at the head end. The eggs of Toxocara are almost round, brown, with a finely tuberous shell measuring 66-85 × 64-78 microns.
For diagnostics toxocariasis, immunological reactions are used, most often - the method of enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA).
Prevention toxocariasis is similar to the prevention of ascariasis. Measures for the public prevention of this helminthiasis are also planned deworming of dogs, equipping special areas for their walking, as well as protecting children's playgrounds from fecal contamination.
Pathogenesis. Vlasoglav violates the integrity of the intestine, feeds on blood, causes inflammation. Patients develop anemia, abdominal pain, and possible development of nervous disorders.
Diagnosis placed when eggs are found in feces.
Prevention- the same as with ascariasis.
Percutaneous infection is possible when a person comes into contact with soil or plants (tea plantation workers, gardeners, diggers, miners are mainly affected). With such infection, the larvae migrate: through blood vessels they penetrate the heart, then the lungs, respiratory tract, pharynx, swallowed with saliva and enter the esophagus, stomach, and then into the duodenum. Mature individuals develop in the intestine. Females and males copulate. Females secrete eggs (up to 10 thousand per day), which are excreted with feces. For the development of eggs and larvae of hookworm, certain conditions are necessary. In addition to oxygen access, high humidity and a relatively high temperature are required (optimum - 30-32 ˚С). All this limits the geographic distribution of hookworm, since the development of this helminth requires conditions with a hot climate. Favorable for hookworm microclimatic conditions (heat and humidity) can be created in mines.
Localization- duodenum.
Diagnostics - microscopic examination of feces for the presence of eggs and larvae of the helminth, immunological reactions.
Personal prevention lies in the fact that in the foci of hookworm it is impossible to walk on the ground without shoes, public - in the identification and treatment of patients in areas where this disease is spread, the installation of toilets of a special type (cementing receivers) and the general public improvement of settlements (sewerage, water supply). Hookworm larvae can be killed in the soil with potassium chloride.
Nekator (Necator americanus)- the causative agent of necatoriasis - a disease clinically indistinguishable from hookworm. In this regard, ankylostomiasis and necatoriasis are combined into one group of diseases - ankylostomiasis. Nectarosis is common in the tropical and subtropical zones, mainly in Asia and South America. Morphologically and biologically, the necator is very similar to the hookworm, but its dimensions are somewhat smaller: the length of the female is 8-13 mm, the male is 5-10 mm. In the oral cavity, instead of teeth, there are 2 sharp cutting plates. The eggs are morphologically indistinguishable from the eggs of the hookhead.
Diagnosis is set in the same way as with ankylostomiasis.
Prevention- the same as with ankylostomiasis.
1. Direct development:
In external environment rhabdite larvae feed on decaying substances, molt, turn into filariform larvae, reach invasive maturity, enter the human intestine through the mouth or percutaneously.
2. Indirect development:
1) Part of the rhabdite larvae in the soil turns into males and females of a free-living generation that feeds on organic substances. Free-living females after fertilization lay eggs, from which rhabdite larvae emerge. Depending on the environmental conditions, the larvae can either turn into sexually mature forms of the next free-living generation, or into filariform larvae that can infect humans;
2) Rhabdit larvae can linger in the intestine and after molting pass into the filariform stage, in which, without leaving the human body, they migrate and finally mature in the intestinal lumen. This is how autosuperinvasion occurs.
Localization - small intestine.
pathogenic value. As a result of the penetration of larvae through the skin, inflammatory processes can occur on it. The early stage of the disease is dominated by allergic symptoms. In patients with strongyloidiasis, normal work is disrupted digestive system sometimes exhaustion sets in.
The lifespan of a pinworm is about 1 month. If a new infection does not occur during this period, it is possible to get rid of pinworms without special treatment.
Diagnostics: microscopic examination of scrapings from the perianal folds and the detection of pinworm eggs. The most common scraping is carried out using the Graham tape method. The staff of the Department of Medical Biology and Genetics developed a "Device for Examining Enterobiasis", based on the use of the adhesive tape method, convenient for examining family microfoci. This device is used in healthcare practice in the Gomel region. Sometimes the diagnosis of enterobiasis can be established when crawling pinworms are found in the feces or perianal region of the child. In the faeces of patients with enterobiasis, eggs are rarely found.
Prevention. Personal prevention consists in careful observance of the rules of personal hygiene. It is especially important to instill hygiene skills in children, to keep their hands and nails clean, to wash children with soap in the morning after sleep. Effective systematic wet cleaning of premises, washing and processing of toys and household items.
Public prevention consists in a planned examination of children's groups for enterobiasis and treatment of patients. In groups where the detection rate of enterobiasis is above 15%, all children are treated. It is very important to conduct a simultaneous examination of all family members of a sick child and treatment of all infested.
Morphological features. Trichinella is a very small helminth. The female has a length of 2.6-3.6 mm, the male - 1.4-1.6 mm.
For the transformation of larvae into sexually mature forms, they must enter the intestines of another host. This happens when a sick animal is eaten by a healthy one. Then the trichinosis capsules dissolve under the action of digestive enzymes, the larvae enter the intestine, and reach sexual maturity within 2-3 days. The cycle of development is closed. In natural foci, trichinella circulates mainly in wild boars (omnivores) and predators (wolf, lynx).
A person becomes infected orally, eating pork or the meat of a bear, wild boar, badger and other animals infected with Trichinella larvae. Thermal exposure to which meat is exposed during normal cooking does not kill Trichinella.
pathogenic value. In humans, the clinical manifestations of trichinosis vary from asymptomatic forms to death, which depends mainly on the number of swallowed larvae. In order to get a serious illness, it is enough to eat 10-15 g of trichinosis meat. Trichinosis is characterized by high fever, headache and muscle pain, swelling of the eyelids, face, high blood eosinophilia, intestinal disorders, and general weakness. With trichinosis, violent allergic reactions of the host organism are observed.
The incidence of trichinosis usually has a group character. Members of the same family, persons participating in the same festive feast, hunting meal, who used the meat of the same trichinosis animal that did not pass preliminary sanitary and veterinary control, get sick.
Prevention. Do not eat pork and meat of wild animals that have not passed the veterinary and sanitary examination. It is necessary to keep pigs in conditions that exclude the possibility of eating the corpses of infected animals. It is necessary to carry out sanitary-educational work among the population.
RISHTA (Dracunculus medinensis) - causative agent of dracunculiasis. It is found in Iraq, India, tropical Africa and several other countries.
Morphology. The filamentous female reaches a length of 30 to 150 cm with a thickness of 1-1.7 mm. Male length 12-29 mm, thickness – 0.4 mm.
Personal prevention. In existing outbreaks of dracunculiasis, unboiled or unfiltered water should not be drunk. Public prevention consists in the protection of places of water supply, the prohibition of bathing in them, the communal improvement of populated areas (water supply).
WUCHERERIA BANCROFTI - causative agent of wuchereriosis. Wuhereriosis is widespread in the tropical countries of Asia, Africa, America, and is noted in Australia.
Dimensions female about 80-100 mm, male – about 40 mm.
development cycle. Sole final host – man, intermediate – mosquitoes of the genera Anopheles, Culex, Aedes, etc. Infection of a person occurs according to the type of specific inoculation. Adult filariae in the human body live up to 20 years, are localized in lymphatic vessels and nodes. Usually males and females are intertwined with each other, forming a ball. Females give birth to microfilariae that migrate from the lymphatic system to the circulatory system. Their life expectancy is about 70 days. If they get to an intermediate host – mosquito when sucking human blood, then here, depending on temperature conditions, the development cycle lasts from 8 to 35 days.
Pathogenesis. The initial stage of the disease is manifested by fever, skin rash, swelling of individual organs. After 2-7 years, expansion of the veins and lymphatic vessels appears, elephantiasis (elephantiasis) occurs – a strong deforming and disfiguring increase in various parts of the body, most often the legs, genitals, in women – mammary glands.
Diagnostics carry out by immunological methods, and also examine the blood for the detection of microfilariae in a smear and a thick drop of blood.
BRUGIA MALAYI - brugiosis causative agent. The invasion is widespread in a number of Asian countries. The size of the female is about 55 mm, the male is about 22 mm. The females are viviparous. Life cycle and the disease itself is similar to wuchereriosis. Definitive host for some strains – man, for others also some animals: wild and domestic cats, dogs, monkeys. intermediate hosts – mosquitoes Anopheles, Aedes, etc. Elephantiasis with brugiasis develops almost exclusively on the lower extremities.
LOA LOA- causative agent of loiasis. Loiasis is widespread in the zone of tropical rainforests of West and Central Africa.
Morphology. Loa loa - white translucent thread-like filariae. The size of the female is about 50-70 × 0.5 mm, the male – 30-34 × 0.3 mm.
Life cycle. final host – human. intermediate host – horseflies of the genus Chrysops. In horseflies, microfilariae reach invasive maturity in 7-10 days.
Pathogenesis. The disease is manifested by allergic reactions, itching of the skin, fever. Loiasis is a chronically occurring filariasis, characterized by soft tissue edema, lesions of the conjunctiva, serous membranes. Penetration of microfilariae into the eyeball can lead to retinal edema.
Diagnostics: finding microfilariae under the conjunctiva of the eye, detection of microfilariae in the blood (thin smears and thick drops), immunological reactions.
Personal prevention: protecting people from horsefly attacks, using repellents. Community Prevention: identification and treatment of patients, educational work with the population.
ONCHOCERCA VOLVULUS - causative agent of onchocerciasis. Onchocerciasis is widespread in African countries, its foci are also found in the tropical zone of America.
Dimensions female about 33-50 mm, male – from 19 to 42 mm.
development cycle. Definitive host only human, intermediate hosts – midges of the genus Simulium. When bitten by a patient, midges absorb microfilariae, which in their body reach invasive maturity in 6-12 days. When midges attack a person, the larvae get on his skin, actively penetrate into it ( route of infection - transmissible percutaneous) and migrate to the lymphatic system, to the subcutaneous adipose tissue, where after 10-18 months they develop to sexually mature forms. The life span of adult helminths in the human body is up to 20 years, individual generations of larvae (microfilariae) – 1-3 years.
Diagnostics: finding microfilariae in the blood (thin smears and a thick drop), in skin sections in the area of onchocercomas, immunological reactions.
Prevention of filariasis - identification and treatment of patients, the fight against mosquitoes, horseflies, midges, the identification of their breeding sites and their elimination.
In Chapter 3, we discussed in detail the causes of forced autonomous existence in natural conditions. These reasons are due to the occurrence of natural disasters, emergency and extreme situations in the natural environment.
As in any other emergency situation, in a situation of forced autonomous existence, a successful outcome depends primarily on right action from the first moment of its inception.
The main condition that determines the success of survival or death is the mood of a person (group) for a safe way out of this situation, his desire to return home, moral obligations to loved ones, society, the consciousness that he still has a lot to do.
A successful outcome, and often the life of a person (group) who finds himself in a situation of forced autonomous existence, depends on the correct, deliberate, worked out to automatism actions.
The first thing to do in this case is to try to calm down and objectively assess the current situation. An analysis of many situations shows that very often the greatest danger for the victims is not the fait accompli itself, but the consequences that await them as a result of their first rash actions.
It is important at the time of an emergency or extreme situation to show a sense of self-control, not to succumb to fear, which does not contribute to concentration of attention, making the right decisions.
The first actions under the influence of emotions are dictated by the instinct of self-preservation and are far from always true. We must try to perceive the danger in parts, identifying the priority of them and the promising ones (which may come if ...).
Consider in parallel actions in emergency and extreme situations in the natural environment with forced autonomous existence, caused by various reasons: a vehicle accident in an uninhabited area, loss of orientation, or the result of a natural disaster.
An emergency situation usually occurs suddenly, and its development cannot always be predicted. Therefore, the course of action in such situations depends on the specific situation.
The experience of many people who have been in extreme situations associated with vehicle accidents (airplane, train, motor transport, etc.) made it possible to determine the general scheme of priority actions for those in distress (Scheme 5).
In the event of a forced landing of an aircraft, a natural disaster (an avalanche, the threat of mudflow, a forest fire), you must immediately leave the danger zone. At the same time, you should take out the wounded to a safe area, try to take away all available equipment, supplies of water and food without risk to life. After that, you should promptly discuss the current situation, determine the safest place, outline the path of movement to it and relocate there. All work at the accident site is supervised by the crew commander or team leader.
Only after finally making sure that all people and equipment, food and water supplies are safe, proceed to further actions.
In the event of an extreme situation in the natural environment (loss of orientation, lagging behind the group, a sharp deterioration
weather conditions) in no case should you conflict and relax. Endurance, self-control, discipline, and most importantly - the desire and ability to survive will help to win. General scheme The priority actions for those who have fallen into extreme conditions in nature are shown in Scheme 6.
Both in emergencies and in extreme situations in conditions natural environment priority actions should be aimed at providing medical assistance to the victims, then at eliminating the threatening factor or quickly leaving it.
In parallel with the provision of medical assistance, it is necessary to start building the simplest temporary shelter that can protect the victims from wind, snow, rain or the scorching sun. Hypothermia or excessive overheating of the body can greatly complicate the situation. Then, in addition to all the existing difficulties, it will be necessary to deal with the consequences of hypothermia and overheating (frostbite, general hypothermia, thermal and sunstroke). In extreme situations, this will only aggravate the situation of the victims. Special attention at the same time, it should be given to the wounded, weakened, women and children.
It should not be forgotten that the aggravation of the situation can also occur due to sudden changes in the weather. Therefore, it is necessary to constantly monitor its state and anticipate the possibility of its change.
For the same purpose, an examination of the appearance is carried out, putting in order their clothes and shoes. In an extreme situation, when it is impossible to receive outside help, it is important to keep the things you have on yourself, since normal life depends on this in the future. We must do our best to preserve heat resources in cold weather and internal water supplies in the heat. If the clothes need repair, it should be done immediately. People who do not have enough clothing to protect themselves from cold and heat should be taken care of, if possible evenly distributed among all the victims.
If there is a lack of clothing in cold weather, it is necessary to use the available property that can protect from the cold. Everyone should know: protecting the body from the cold will primarily affect the economy of food.
After that, they collect in one place all the things lost when leaving for a safe place, items of equipment (at first glance, perhaps unnecessary), which can be useful in an emergency. They are sorted, separating the necessary in the first place and temporarily unclaimed, packed or neatly folded in a safe place.
All things, equipment and personal property, including personal hygiene items, in an extreme situation become public and are used to meet the needs of all victims. All food products and available water supplies are collected in a single reserve, forming an emergency reserve. Responsible for the safety of things, equipment, products are appointed. Unauthorized use is strictly prohibited. After that, a natural question arises: what to do next?
To make a decision on further actions, it is necessary to assess the actual situation and answer the following questions.
1. If your location is unknown, were you following the assigned (agreed) route at the time of the accident? If your absence is discovered, the initial searches will be made in the area of your intended route.
2. Are the remains of the vehicle clearly visible from the air or surrounding hills? Can you make them more visible?
3. Do the local authorities have sufficient forces and means at their disposal to organize an effective search?
4. Are the weather conditions conducive to the operation of search and rescue aircraft and helicopters?
5. Are transit or other aircraft flying over you? If yes, how often?
6. Do you know exactly where you are? If so, how close are you to any settlement? What is the nature of the area between you and this locality? What are the climatic conditions and possible difficulties intended route of travel? How long will it take to reach this settlement?
7. Will all members of the group or crew be able to survive the transition in this area? Are there any seriously injured people requiring immediate medical attention?
8. Do you have enough things and equipment for a long journey, do you have compasses, matches, etc.?
9. What supplies of food and water do you have? Assess your emergency supplies and those that can be replenished from natural sources. Whether there is a good source water near the site of your accident? Will you be able to forage in a deserted area after you use up your emergency supplies?
10. What do you know about how to survive in the natural conditions in which you find yourself? If you are not confident in your knowledge and skills, stay in place for three days.
There are two options for making decisions: stay at the scene of the accident and wait for help, or try to get to the nearest settlement.
The decision to leave the scene of the incident is made in cases where:
- there is no certainty that the incident is known at the exit (departure) point of the group;
- the exact location of the nearest settlement is known, the distance to it is small and the state of health of people allows to overcome it;
There was an immediate threat to life: a forest fire, a break in the ice field, a flood, etc.;
- people cannot be detected by rescuers at this place due to the dense vegetation surrounding them;
- for three days there is no communication and help.
At the scene of the incident, it is necessary to indicate the direction of your departure: leave a note, lay out an arrow, make notches on trees, tie bunches of grass, etc.
Before leaving, you should make a thorough reconnaissance, determine the direction of the exit, pack and prepare everything you need for carrying (maybe even a fire if there are no matches).
Having made a decision to leave the scene of an accident, it is necessary to adhere to certain rules (Scheme 7).
The decision to remain at the scene of an accident is made if:
- a distress call or a message about the scene is transmitted using an emergency radio station;
- the scene of the incident has not been precisely determined, the terrain is unfamiliar and difficult to pass (mountains, forests, deep ravines, swamps, a thick layer of snow cover, etc.);
Scheme 7. The procedure for making a decision to leave the scene and the sequence of their implementation
Scheme 8. The order of actions when deciding to stay at the scene and the sequence of their implementation
- the direction to settlements and the distance to them are unknown;
- most people cannot move independently due to injuries or illnesses.
Having decided to stay at the scene of the accident, it is necessary to adhere to the basic rules of safe behavior that will allow you to survive and wait for the help of rescuers (diagram 8).
In a temporary camp, by building a reliable shelter from improvised means, you can create conditions for a normal rest, long-term preservation normal life, providing care for the sick and wounded. Being in one place it is easier to organize the collection of edible plants, berries, fishing and hunting.
To organize such a camp, it is necessary to develop detailed plan action, which includes:
1) choose the most suitable place for the camp, taking into account the terrain, the proximity of firewood and water, the absence of dangers on its territory (dead wood, rockfalls, avalanches, flooding, etc.);
2) camp planning: identifying a site for the construction of temporary but secure housing, places for cooking, storing food, property, garbage and toilets;
3) determining the type of temporary shelter, based on the capabilities of the area and the abilities of the "builders";
4) preparation and start of shelter construction;
5) preparing a place for a fire, preparing a sufficient amount of firewood and making a fire.
For the successful implementation of this plan, as well as for the creation of a normal climate in the group, it is necessary to distribute responsibilities among all its members, taking into account their state of health and abilities. As you can see, here the actions are carried out in the same way as in a regular tourist group. Then it is clear that it is necessary to single out people responsible for building a dwelling, obtaining and searching for food, breeding, maintaining a fire and preparing hot food, providing medical care, etc.
At the same time, an indispensable condition is that everyone must have an assignment. This is not a frivolous requirement. The fact is that the success of survival in an extreme situation is determined by the abilities and capabilities not only of each member of the group individually, but also of the group as a whole. However, the life of the entire group depends on the physical and moral condition of each member of the group. Therefore, from the first moments of the onset of the accident, it is necessary to make efforts (and sometimes considerable ones) to preserve the moral and volitional state of the group as a whole and of each participant individually.
An indispensable condition for the successful actions of the group in an extreme situation is the presence of a leader. They can be a full-time leader - crew commander, head of the tourist group. In their absence, it can be one of the most prepared people, an authoritative person who is able to rally the team and direct its efforts to survive in an extreme situation. It can be a person familiar with the rules of survival - a tourist, a hunter, a geologist.
With skillful leadership, the group will get rid of such negative manifestations of human behavior as panic, confusion, self-doubt, disunity in actions, selfishness and dependence. Otherwise, conflicts are inevitable, it would seem, for the most insignificant reasons. It is the task of the leader to prevent them from flaring up, gaining strength and splitting the group. Solving this problem will help to avoid many additional troubles to the existing ones.
In the event of a vehicle accident, the group may be completely different people. However, even the members of the tourist group that got into extreme situation previously unknown qualities may appear. With the decisive role of the leader, much depends on the members of the group. Tolerance for the weaknesses or irritation of others, the ability to be the first to reconcile will help to avoid conflicts that destroy the unity of the group. Although there are creative conflicts that make it possible to find best solution some problem. In an extreme situation, when everyone's nerves are on edge, as a rule, destructive conflicts arise.
One-man command does not mean refusing to consult with group members on any issues. The ability to listen to them is a great advantage of a leader. But, not agreeing with the arguments of the interlocutors, he must reasonably explain the reason for making his own decision.
Summing up the description of the priority actions of a person (group) who finds himself in an extreme situation of forced autonomous existence, a general conclusion can be made about the rules of behavior based on the results of the analysis of such situations by rescuers. When faced with an emergency situation, you must:
be able to anticipate danger;
be able to control their behavior;
be independent;
be able to think and think;
make quick decisions;
be persistent and stubborn when needed;
be able to obey if necessary;
do not despair, if there is no more strength, fight for your life;
look for other ways before finally giving up; and… even then don't give up.
Thus, a successful outcome in an extreme situation depends on the person himself, on his will, composure, discipline, physical fitness, and most importantly, the ability to act in an extreme situation.
Human life does not always take place in optimal conditions favorable for the physiological and mental activity of the body. Often a person finds himself in more difficult conditions, and sometimes in extreme situations that are dangerous for his health and life. Military service, and even more so possible conditions real combat are associated with increased emotional tension and significant physical exertion. For a successful exit from difficult situations, one must prepare oneself, acquire the necessary knowledge and skills, increase emotional and volitional stability, and improve physical fitness.
The concept of an extreme situation. Situations that go beyond the usual, which are characterized by intense exposure to adverse environmental factors, and sometimes the presence of an immediate threat to human life and health, are called extreme. The person is in extreme conditions for various reasons. Often this happens through one's own fault - either as a result of a lack of knowledge and experience of safe behavior in the natural and social environment, or due to neglect of safety norms and rules, frivolity. Faced with unforeseen circumstances, finding themselves in a difficult, unusual environment, people sometimes turn out to be completely helpless, unable to solve the simplest, but vital questions.
Psychology of people's behavior in an extreme situation. In an extreme situation, a person experiences a special state of emotional tension, called stress. Such tension changes the usual mental processes person, weakens perception, sensations, attention, dulls the imagination, idea, memory, slows down thinking and speech.
In general, the relationship between the strength of stress and performance can be represented as follows. As emotional tension increases, at first the working capacity and capabilities of a person increase in comparison with a calm state, reach a maximum value, and then begin to fall. At the same time, first of all, perception and thinking become more difficult, and the more, the more the situation is more complicated. With an increase in tension, errors appear in the performance of individual operations or their omissions, the desire to move on to simpler actions. Sometimes, at the same time, old, but already unsuitable skills in a given situation come to life - a person acts mechanically, not conscious of his actions. With even more severe stress, a feeling of confusion appears, an inability to concentrate on the activities performed, as well as unnecessary, impulsive movements and actions, or vice versa - a sharp stiffness, lethargy.
The considered scheme is conditional and general. In fact psychological impact dangerous situations is manifested in people ambiguously, represents an individual, personally expressed reaction. There are people who act more effectively in a state of high emotional stress - at exams, important competitions, in life-threatening situations or in battle. others similar situations they are psychologically demobilized, they experience a kind of "psychological shock" - there is a strong lethargy or fussiness, haste, inability to act reasonably.
How to reduce the likelihood of being in an extreme situation and increase the chances of maintaining health and life in difficult conditions?
Emotional-volitional preparation for actions in extreme situations. In life-threatening situations, a huge role is played by the emotional-volitional stability of a person, which is formed both during his daily life, and in the process of targeted emotional-volitional training. An important role in such training is played by methods of emotional-volitional self-regulation: self-persuasion, self-order, volitional self-regulation (self-suggestion).
essence self-belief consists in deliberately convincing oneself of something by selecting appropriate arguments. Self-persuasion, as a rule, is used in cases where a person generally positively perceives some idea, but he lacks the determination to put it into practice. Everyone, for example, understands that human health largely depends on physical education, but not everyone systematically engages in it. The success of this method depends on knowledge, logical thinking and a sense of duty. The process of self-persuasion comes down to a discussion with oneself - to putting forward and comparing arguments and counterarguments in favor of what you want and what you need to do.
Another effective technique for developing self-control and the ability to manage oneself even in extreme situations is self-order. It works when a person knows how to control his thoughts, follows his word, obeys his inner voice. Self-order turns out to be much more effective if it corresponds to the leading life positions of a person, his convictions. Self-command and self-persuasion are interconnected. Self-order becomes most effective if it is done on the basis of self-persuasion, and self-persuasion leads to a volitional act if it ends with a self-order: “That's it!”, “Enough!”, “One more time!”, “We must!”, “Stop!”, "Forward!" etc.
AT Everyday life self-order helps to overcome difficulties in a variety of life situations. By self-order, you can get out of bed, do physical exercises, observe discipline, bring the work you have started to the end, do uninteresting, but necessary work and much more. The ability to obey self-order can play a decisive role in the event of an extreme situation, in a tense moment of battle, or when performing difficult duties of military service.
Volitional self-regulation develops in a person such strong-willed qualities as courage, determination, stamina, self-control, endurance, independence, initiative. This is achieved through constantly controlled overcoming of both real-life dangers and difficulties of everyday life, as well as exercises, tests, and tests created for educational purposes.
One of the essential conditions for tempering a person's will is systematic physical education and sports. Overcoming difficulties in the course of training serves as training not only for the muscles, but also for the will. Exercises of a psychophysical nature, which include exercises for attention, coordination of movements, speed, and endurance, have the greatest impact. Rapid turnaround exercises are effective, requiring quick, meaningful decision making within a limited amount of time.
Great importance in the development psychological stability play exercises, the implementation of which is associated with risk and requires overcoming a sense of fear. These are acrobatic jumps; jumping into the water from a height; jumping over obstacles; climbing on a horizontal rope located at a height of 4-10 m above the water; dashes along a log, fortified at a height or above water; Skydiving; various types of martial arts. Psychologically, the same role is played by: overcoming special obstacle courses and structures, a military game on the ground "Test yourself", hiking trips. Such exercises can cause tension, fear, fear, excitement, hesitation, the need to overpower, force yourself. At the same time, they develop strong-willed qualities, temper the psyche.
The knowledge gained when teaching actions in extreme situations is, as a rule, not enough - more skills and abilities are needed. At the same time, recreating a really extreme situation is sometimes difficult, and sometimes impossible. How, for example, to create a flood for educational purposes, and even more so a hurricane or an earthquake? In such cases, the so-called ideomotor training comes to the rescue. The real situation here is replaced by an idea about it, but the actions should be close to real. The effectiveness of such training largely depends on how fully and comprehensively the mentally constructed extreme situation is close to the real one and whether it caused mental processes similar to real ones in the trainee.
The improvement of volitional qualities will become more fruitful if the difficulties are constantly complicated to the maximum feasible. At the same time, the process of emotional-volitional training itself must be continuous, and the nature of the difficulties must be varied and versatile.
Human actions in an emergency. In general terms, it is advisable for a person who finds himself in an extreme situation to act as follows:
The initial overcoming of stress, at least partially, is very important, because otherwise further actions may turn out to be erroneous and lead to a worsening of the situation. Methods of emotional-volitional self-regulation can help in overcoming stress. Physical influences or irritants are also useful: sharp rubbing with the palms of the face, temples; blows on the cheeks; sudden movements of parts of the body or the whole body, similar to the removal of drowsiness; spraying or dousing the face, head or whole body with water; taking anti-anxiety medications. Methods and means of relieving stress depend on the individual emotional and volitional stability of a person, the depth of stress and the available means (water, medicines). The time limit is also decisive. If a person gets lost in the forest, then he has some time to relieve stress. Another thing is if a wall collapses on him or an avalanche of fire moves - here everything is decided by moments.
After the complete or partial removal of the stressful state, the current situation should be assessed. First, it is necessary to determine whether or not the hazardous impact that created the extreme situation has ended, and whether its recurrence is likely. Next, you should immediately determine the state of health - your own and those around you, the number of sick and wounded who require priority assistance. After that, it is necessary to take into account the availability of material resources: water, food, medicines, etc. It is quite obvious that the most important thing will be the availability of water in hot weather, warm clothes and fuel in winter, and weapons and ammunition in the conduct of hostilities. When assessing the situation, one should take into account the season, weather, time of day, terrain (forest, swamp, roads, remoteness of settlements) and other points that are important in this current situation.
A decision is made based on an assessment of the situation. In some situations, there may be only one the right decision, in others - several options with different probabilities of a favorable outcome. AT short term you need to make the best decision. It takes practice to learn this. In this case, it is not necessary to specify all possible situations, because there can be many of them. It is important to learn how to act logically, consistently, rationally and quickly. It is necessary to develop a behavioral stereotype of actions in extreme situations and constantly improve it both in terms of the range of possible situations, and in terms of the speed and accuracy of decisions made.
The favorable outcome of the autonomous existence of a person largely depends on his psychophysiological qualities, sound knowledge of the basics of survival and other factors. The main task of a person who has fallen into an extreme situation is to survive. Under any circumstances, the survival of a person, first of all, depends on himself. It's about not only about his skills. Most often, the situation of autonomy arises unexpectedly. The first reaction of a person who has fallen into dangerous situation, - fear. That's why mandatory conditions Successful overcoming of all difficulties in an autonomous situation is the manifestation of will, perseverance, competent actions. Panic and fear dramatically reduce the chances of salvation.
With a short-term external threat, a person acts on a sensual level, obeying the instinct of self-preservation: bounces off a falling tree, clings to stationary objects when falling, tries to stay on the surface of the water when there is a threat of drowning. There is no need to talk about some kind of will to live in such cases. Long-term survival is quite another matter. In conditions of autonomous existence, sooner or later, a critical moment comes when exorbitant physical and mental stress, the seeming senselessness of further resistance suppress the will, a person is seized by passivity, indifference. He is no longer afraid of the possible tragic consequences of ill-conceived overnight stays, risky crossings. He does not believe in the possibility of salvation and therefore perishes without exhausting his reserves of strength to the end, without using food supplies.
Survival, based only on the biological laws of self-preservation, is short-lived. It is characterized by rapidly developing mental disorders and hysterical behavioral reactions. The desire to survive must be conscious and purposeful, and must be dictated not by instinct, but by conscious necessity.
Fear- this is an emotional reaction to danger, which may be accompanied by such physical sensations as trembling, rapid breathing, strong heartbeat. This is a natural reaction inherent in every normal person. It is the fear for one's life that causes the desire to act in the name of one's own salvation. If a person knows how to act, fear sharpens the reaction, activates thinking. If a person has no idea what to do, feels pain or weakness from blood loss, then fear can lead to stress - excessively strong tension, inhibition of thoughts and actions.
These sensations can be so intense that sudden intense fear can lead to death. There are various ways to overcome fear. If a person is familiar with the method of auto-training, then he will be able to relax, calm down, and analyze the situation impartially in a matter of minutes. If not, then thinking about something else will help the person relax and be distracted. Breathing exercises have a good effect. You need to take a few deep breaths. When a person experiences fear or stress, his pulse accelerates, and the person begins to breathe very quickly. Forcing yourself to breathe slowly means convincing the body that the stress is passing, whether it has passed or not.
What can help overcome fear in terms of autonomy? This is a sense of duty (if other people's lives depend on you); faith that they are looking for you, and help will come soon, or you yourself will find the right way out of this situation and find a way to people; love for loved ones (for example, the desire not to hurt relatives with their death), etc.
Under certain circumstances, the degree of adverse environmental impact on a person is so pronounced that it leads to the development of stress. stressors there may be, in addition to a feeling of fear, physical pain, cold, heat, hunger, overwork, despondency.
So, physical pain, causing suffering, irritates a person, and acting for a long time, becomes the cause of a serious health disorder, affects a person’s behavior. Makes it more vulnerable to negative environmental influences. On the other hand, a person deprived of pain sensitivity is exposed to even greater danger, since he cannot eliminate the life-threatening consequences of an injury, especially with injuries. internal organs. A strong-willed person can not only cope with pain, but is even able to forget about it for a while, focusing on the problems of survival.
Cold, reducing physical activity and performance, has an impact on the human psyche. Not only the muscles become numb, but also the brain, the will, without which any struggle is doomed to defeat. A decrease in body temperature by 2 °C causes serious disturbances in the vital functions of systems, and a decrease in human body temperature by 5 °C leads to death. The intensity of heat transfer depends on many reasons: the physical parameters of the environment (temperature and humidity, wind strength, etc.), the individual characteristics of the human body, the heat-shielding properties of clothing on it and its behavior. Therefore, in the zone of low temperatures, human activity in conditions of autonomy begins with measures to protect against the cold - the construction of shelters, making fire, cooking hot food and drinking.
Heat, especially with additional exposure to direct solar radiation, causes significant changes in the human body, sometimes in a short time. With an increase in body temperature by 2 ° C, disturbances in cardiovascular activity and a noticeable decrease in working capacity are noted. An increase by 4...5°C is incompatible with the vital activity of the organism. Particularly dangerous impact high temperatures with a lack drinking water, because in this case, along with overheating, dehydration develops. The construction of a sun tent, the restriction of physical activity during the hot part of the day, the prudent use of water supplies - these measures will greatly alleviate the situation of people in distress in a zone of high temperatures.
Thirst- the body's natural response to a lack of fluid. The human body is 65-70% water. With a loss of water in the amount of 1 ... 2% by weight of a person, thirst is felt, then nausea, fever, and fatigue begin. The loss of 10% of water causes profound changes in the body and, with further dehydration, can lead to death. Dehydration of the body becomes a serious hindrance to human activity in conditions of autonomy.
Hunger- a set of sensations associated with the body's need for food. This is the weakest stressor. It is known that a person can go without food for a long time, while maintaining efficiency. However, with a lack of water, exposure to cold, pain and other adverse factors, fasting periods can be drastically reduced. Therefore, hunger is dangerous in most cases only in combination with other stressors.
Overwork- kind of state human body, which occurs after a long (and sometimes short-term, but intense) physical or mental stress. Such a state is fraught with potential danger, as it dulls the will, makes a person compliant to his own weaknesses. Therefore, in the conditions of autonomy from the very first minutes, it is necessary to determine for oneself the priority tasks that must be carried out strictly, and the secondary ones.
But, if over time one of the priorities becomes secondary, it is a distress signal. The psychological attitude: “This work is not urgent, it can be postponed until tomorrow,” can lead to the most serious consequences. A good prevention of overwork is the correct, even distribution of physical activity, timely rest, which by all available means must be made the most complete.
Despondency- a mental state caused by loneliness, the failure of conceived plans (for example, unsuccessful attempts to orient, get food, water). Its development is facilitated by unemployment, monotonous monotonous work, the absence of a clear goal. This state can be avoided by assuming certain responsibilities, achieving their steady implementation, setting specific, but necessarily feasible tasks.
Loneliness. If in conditions of autonomy you find yourself completely alone and you have no one to share your fate with, then in such a situation it is very important to make “friends”. This will be a kind of way out of the state of loneliness. Everything that is around you, make a tree your friends, wrist watch, a box of matches, a saving spring, etc. Talk to them, sing songs to them, tell jokes, ask questions, etc. It is also necessary to talk to yourself, to encourage and support yourself in every way, to praise for good luck (caught fish, made a fire, orientated, built a hut, etc.). However, if you have done the wrong thing, never scold yourself, remembering that it is human to err.
In addition, a person cannot act successfully if he does not have a clear goal and a plan to achieve it. At first, it may seem to a person that he knows nothing and can do nothing. But one has only to divide the situation and tasks into its component parts, as it turns out that much is within his power. in the surest way to overcome fear and confusion is the organization of systematic actions to ensure survival. To do this, a person needs to set himself a clear attitude to act in a possible emergency situation.
The readiness of a person who has fallen into extreme conditions for conscious, confident and prudent actions is determined by his emotional and volitional stability. In order to have stability of this kind, a person must consciously relate to the development of his emotional-volitional qualities. Methods of emotional-volitional self-regulation - self-persuasion, self-order, suggestion. Deliberately convincing oneself of something by selecting appropriate arguments and arguments is the essence of self-persuasion. With its help, you can regulate mental states and actions. The success of applying this method depends on the level of accumulated knowledge, logical thinking, and a sense of duty. Self-persuasion is important because it provides a person with inner agreement with himself.
Self-order allows a person who finds himself in an extreme situation to subdue and direct his activity in a given channel of expediency. Self-order works if a person knows how to control his thoughts, follows his word, obeys his inner voice. To successfully master self-order, you need to adhere to the following rules:
Be proactive;
Any difficulties will be overcome only by those who are able to order themselves;
Resolutely and firmly order yourself when you need to overcome laziness, timidity, fear, bad mood;
We must stubbornly overcome everything that hinders the achievement of the goal, and above all, the shortcomings of our character;
Strong is the one who has power over himself, knows how to manage himself.
Of course, all stresses - fear, pain, cold, heat and despondency are most easily tolerated when a person is not alone. All the hardships and hardships that have arisen in the event of a vehicle accident, natural disaster or loss of orientation (in an uninhabited area or a cave), are more easily tolerated in a team. There is an opportunity to discuss their situation together, it is easier to provide first aid to the victims. But there is one very important rule - in a group of people in an extreme situation, there should not be a collective leadership! The division of responsibilities reduces physical exercise. And the presence of an experienced leader in the group allows you to quickly make the right decisions.
test questions
1. What is the most affordable way obtaining food in an autonomous existence?
2. What are the methods of self-help in autonomous existence?
3. How to send a distress signal?
4. What plants can be used to stop bleeding and have a healing effect while surviving in extreme conditions?
5. Which plant can be used as cotton?
6. What plants can be used instead of iodine?
7. What plant helps with the bites of wasps, bumblebees?
8. How to behave to a person who finds himself in extreme conditions of the natural environment?
9. What are the ways of orientation?
10. What action plan should be drawn up if a person decides to “stay on the scene” of the accident and wait for help?
11. What determines the readiness of a person who has found himself in extreme conditions for conscious, confident and prudent actions?
12. What methods of emotional-volitional self-regulation do you know?
13. How does self-order help a person who finds himself in an extreme situation?
14. What is necessary for the successful mastery of self-order?
15. What is terrain orientation?
16. How to choose a place to sleep?
17. What to do in case of loss of orientation?
18. What can help overcome fear in terms of autonomy?
19. What are the possible stressors in the conditions of autonomous existence?
20. In conditions of shortage of drinking water, what rules should be followed?
21. Safe distance from the fire to the tent?
22. To give a signal from the ground to an air vehicle, how should a signal mirror be used?
23. What is the procedure for setting up a tent tent?
24. What are the signs of sustainable bad weather.
25. What are the signs of a change in the weather for the better.
26. How to determine the sides of the horizon using a watch?
27. How to determine the sides of the horizon by the position of the North Star and the Moon?
28. How to determine the sides of the horizon by the sun and hours?
29. What local objects can be used to determine the sides of the horizon?
30. What is movement in azimuth?
31. How to determine the magnetic azimuth?
32. How to determine the distance traveled?
33. What are the ways to determine the distance to inaccessible objects?
34. How to determine the distance to a person using a ruler?
35. Explain the way to determine the width of the river.
36. How to determine the height of an object by the length of the shadow?
37. At what distance are different sounds heard?
38. How to determine the height of vertical objects in the absence of a shadow?
39. How to determine the distance to an object using a range finder?
40. How to maintain the desired direction when moving?
41. How to overcome swamps and flooded lowlands?
42. How to overcome rivers with a rocky bottom?
43. What should be feared when moving along the beds of frozen rivers?
44. By what signs can one judge the proximity of a settlement?
45. What is a gnomon, what is it used for?
46. How to determine the time with the help of birds?
47. How to determine the time with the help of plants?
48. What are the signs of the approach of stable good weather.
49. What are the signs of a change in frosty weather.
50. What are the signs of approaching bad weather.
51. How to make a shelter in the snow?
52. What types of fires do you know?
53. Describe various types campfire.
54. How to organize an overnight stay?
