On January 18, 1871, a new state was formed on the map of Europe, called the German Empire. The founding fathers of this state formation are considered to be an outstanding personality who went down in history under the formidable name of the "Iron Chancellor" - Otto von Bismarck, as well as Wilhelm I of Hohenzollern. The German Empire lasted until November 9, 1918, after which the monarchy was overthrown as a result of the November Revolution. It went down in history as a state distinguished by power and a clearly defined development strategy.
The German Empire is the name that Russian historiographers began to use in the 19th century. The Second Reich, Kaiser's Germany - are found in the literature much less frequently. Its formation was facilitated by the following significant historical events:
In 1879, the Prussian King Wilhelm I, together with Chancellor Otto von Bismarck, declared war on France in order to undermine its economy and influence the political situation of this country. As a result of hostilities, they decided which was created for this purpose, won a complete victory over the French, and in January 1871 at Versailles it was announced that the creation of the German Empire had taken place. From that moment on, a new page appeared in world history. The unification of not only countries but also other states began, which considered joining the empire the most appropriate for themselves. Bavaria and other lands of southern Germany became part of the German Empire.
Austria flatly refused to be a part of it. At the end of the Franco-Prussian War, France paid a huge indemnity (five billion francs), so the formation of the German Empire did not begin from scratch. Thanks to such a serious financial injection, she was able to create her own economy. Kaiser (King) Wilhelm I was nominally at the head, but Chancellor Otto von Bismarck took control of the empire in fact. The states that were not part of the North German Confederation were forcibly subordinated to Prussia, so the creation of the German Empire cannot be called a voluntary association. It consisted of twenty-two German monarchies and the cities of Bremen, Lübeck and Hamburg, which at that time were free.
After the adoption of the Constitution in April 1871, the German Empire received the status and the Prussian king received the title of emperor. During the entire period of its existence, this title was used by three monarchs. This is who was in power from 1871 to 1888, Frederick III, who stayed in power for only 99 days and Wilhelm II (1888-1918). The last emperor, after the overthrow of the monarchy, fled to the Netherlands, where he died in 1941.
The formation of the German Empire contributed to the national unification of the German people and the speedy capitalization of Germany. But after this empire was created, it became very dangerous for all the peoples of Europe and, perhaps, the whole world. The German Empire began to intensively develop its combat power and dictate its conditions from a position of strength. It was at this time that the birth of nationalism began, which subsequently led to two world wars, various bloody revolutions and millions of dead, annihilated people. With the formation of the German Empire in the souls of people German nation the national idea of the world domination of their country and the superiority of the Germans over other peoples settled.
By the beginning of the XIX century. The "Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation" included more than 300 states. These states were formally subordinate to the emperor and the imperial diet, but in practice they had complete independence. Napoleon's conquests ended the existence of the Holy Roman Empire. From 1806 to 1813, the Confederation of the Rhine was formed in the territories of West Germany, which fell under the control of France. After the defeat of Napoleon at Leipzig in 1813, the Confederation of the Rhine collapsed.
On the Congress of Vienna The German Union was created - an association of states under the hegemony of the Austrian Habsburgs, consisting of 34 states and 4 free cities. The ruling body of the German Confederation was the so-called Federal Diet. The presidency of the union belonged to Austria.
The German Union lasted until 1866 and was liquidated after the defeat of Austria in the war with Prussia. Under the name of the North German Confederation, a new state arose. The management of the union was given to the Prussian king ("president"). The southern German states remained outside the union: Bavaria, Saxony, Württemberg, Baden, etc. Thus, the unification of Germany was not completed. This problem was solved by the Franco-Prussian war.
On September 19, 1870, German troops surrounded Paris. The General Staff of the German army was located in the Mirror Hall of the Palace of Versailles. It was here that Otto von Bismarck decided to announce the unification of Germany in single state. The great successes in the war against France, waged by the already united army under the Prussian leadership, gave rise to a wave of patriotic upsurge in German states Oh. The South German powers, who hoped for French help in the fight against Prussian hegemony, joined the North German Confederation during the course of the war.
On December 9, 1870, the Reichstag of the North German Confederation decided that the already de facto united state should be called the German Empire. On January 18, 1871, its creation was solemnly proclaimed in the Hall of Mirrors. King of Prussia 74-year-old Wilhelm I was declared Kaiser, hereditary emperor of all Germany. The imperial constitution consolidated the hegemony of Prussia in a united Germany. Bismarck was appointed chancellor of the new state. The emergence of Germany in the center of Europe radically changed the balance of power. The further struggle for the spheres of influence of the young militarized state, which arose thanks to three aggressive wars, determined the tragic history of the world in the first half of the next, 20th century.
On January 28, 1871, an armistice was concluded with France. Most of the French forts, weapons and ammunition were transferred to the German troops, Paris paid 200 million francs indemnity. By this time, German troops had occupied over 1/3 of the territory of France with a population of over 10 million people.
On February 26, a preliminary peace treaty was signed at Versailles. March 1 German troops entered Paris. But after receiving news of the ratification of the preliminary treaty by the National Assembly of France, they were withdrawn from the French capital on March 3.
In the struggle against the Paris Commune, the Germans assisted the Versailles government of Thiers. At the same time, during the diplomatic negotiations, the leaders of Germany tried to use the difficult situation of France in order to worsen the terms of the peace treaty for her. According to the Peace of Frankfurt on May 10, 1871, France handed over to Germany the industrially developed and strategically important regions of Alsace and the northeastern part of Lorraine, undertook to pay 5 billion francs of indemnity, before payment of which German occupation troops were stationed in some regions of the country.
According to the new German constitution, the newly formed empire included 22 monarchies and several free cities. The constitution endowed these states with little autonomy, which was gradually reduced. Prussia accounted for over half of the entire territory of the German Empire and 60% of the country's population. The emperor was the head of the armed forces, appointed officials of the empire. Members of the upper house of the empire - the Bundesrat - were appointed by the governments of the allied states. The chairman of the chamber was the chancellor, appointed by the Prussian king. The rejection of any bill depended on Prussia.
The lower house of parliament retained the name Reichstag. He was elected first for 3 years, then (since 1887) for 5 years "by means of general and direct elections with secret ballot." In fact, the Reichstag had no real power. The share of local governments mainly accounted for the implementation of imperial laws.
In the course of the revolution in Germany, the question of the national unification of the country, of the structure of a united Germany, was put forward. The difficult question was under whose auspices the unification of Austria or Prussia would take place. Most of the German bourgeoisie supported the plan to create a "Little Germany", i.e. the unification of the German states under the auspices of the Prussian dynasty of Hohenzollern without the inclusion of Austria.
In 1862, Otto von Bismarck (1815-1898), Bundeschancellor, was placed at the head of the Prussian government, responsible only to the President of the North German Confederation, who was the King of Prussia. Bismarck proceeded to unify Germany "with iron and blood." The first steps in the unification process were the wars of Prussia with Denmark in 1864 and Austria in 1866.
According to the Peace of Prague, the states of Hanover, Hesse, Nassau, Frankfurt were annexed to Prussia. Austria abstained from participating in resolving German issues. The Peace of Prague also provided for the creation of the North German Union from the states located north of the river. Mine. Prussia was now the undisputed leader of the national unification of Germany.
Russia maintained its neutrality and thereby facilitated the unification process of Prussia. In the North German Confederation formed in 1867, Prussia played a leading role, which was ensured primarily by the transfer of command over the allied forces to it.
The interests of the bourgeoisie were supported by the introduction of complete freedom of movement, a unified system of weights and measures, and the abolition of the remnants of shop privileges, which opened up broader opportunities for the successful development of capitalism and strengthened the alliance of the bourgeoisie with government circles. However, the bourgeoisie did not actually gain access to political power. Remnants of feudalism continued to affect various areas life.
The military and political successes of Prussia frightened France. The government of Napoleon III considered it timely in 1870 to start a war against Prussia. Prussia was more prepared for war than France. If Prussia mobilized over 1 million people, then the French army after mobilization totaled 500 thousand people. Surpassed quantitatively and qualitatively and weapons of the Prussian army.
At the first stage, the Franco-Prussian War was historically progressive for the Germans, as they sought to complete the national unification of Germany. France, on the other hand, set itself the goal of delaying the unification of the German states into a single state and retaining its predominant influence in Europe.
On August 4, 1870, German troops launched a general offensive. France immediately began to fail. In the battle in the Sedan area, the numerically superior German troops dealt a crushing blow to the French army. On September 2, by order of Napoleon III, the sedan fortress capitulated. From September 1870 character Franco-Prussian War is changing. Now France is waging a war of liberation, and Germany is waging an aggressive war - she is striving to tear Alsace and Lorraine from France.
On October 27, 1870, Marshal A. Baeen (1811-1888) surrendered the Metz fortress with 180,000 troops without a fight. With the surrender of the French, significant enemy forces were released to ensure the siege of Paris. On January 18, 1871, Wilhelm I (1797-1888) was solemnly proclaimed Hereditary King of the German Empire in the Palace of the French Kings at Versailles.
Fear of revolutionary action by the workers forced the French government to conclude peace as soon as possible. On January 28, a truce was signed on difficult terms. The peace treaty concluded on May 10, 1871, was even more difficult. France pledged to pay 5 billion francs indemnity, conceded Alsace and the north-eastern part of Lorraine to Germany.
The victory of Prussia over France completed the unification of Germany into a single state - the German Empire.
The unification of Germany was completed "from above", during the war of conquest. The Prussian Junkers (large landowners) acted as the dominant force in the unification process, in which the policy of militarism played an enormous role.
Those German states that remained outside the North German Confederation were subordinated by Bismarck to Prussia. The German Empire united 22 German monarchies and three free cities of Lübeck, Bremen and Hamburg. In April 1871, the German constitution was adopted, which approved the federal state structure country.
The national unification of Germany was a progressive phenomenon that contributed to the further development of capitalism in the country. However, the form of unification led by the Prussian monarchy was reactionary and dangerous for the peoples of Europe. The triumph of Germany turned her military forces into essential tool domestic and foreign policy. The ruling circles put forward the goal of Germany's breakthrough to world domination.
Geographic map central Europe until the middle of the 19th century, it resembled a complex mosaic. On the territory of one modern Germany there were several dozen independent states. the site today will talk about how these states managed to unite into the German Empire.
Flag of the German Empire
Ephemeral State
The Holy Roman Empire, which began in 962, united vast territories. During its heyday, it included the lands of the modern Netherlands, Italy, the Czech Republic and Germany. However, over time, the centralization of power weakened, after the 18th century the Holy Roman Empire became one of the loosest state formations in Europe.
Members of the Holy Roman Empire
Against the background of large-scale problems within the empire, among the huge number of small German principalities, the Archduchy of Austria and the Kingdom of Prussia took the leading roles. In the 18th century, Austrian expansion in the southern and eastern directions intensified more and more, at the same time, Prussia increased its influence on the German lands.
After the XVIII century, the Holy Roman Empire became a loose formation
Collapse of the Holy Roman Empire
Big commotion on political map Europe was arranged by Napoleon: his military campaigns, by and large, ended the existence of the Holy Roman Empire. After the defeat of Austria, it was decided to radically change the structure of the HRE: after the transformation, it began to unite virtually independent states. On August 6, 1806, Emperor Franz II resigned all his powers, the Holy Roman Empire officially ceased to exist.
iron and blood
The National Assembly went down in history as the "Frankfurt Parliament" .
The 30s of the 19th century were the time when the German principalities, under the influence of industrialization, sought to increase their economic strength. For these purposes, the largest principalities in 1834 united in the German Customs Union. There were no customs barriers within the union, and the members of the unions introduced a single tariff on goods from other countries.
In 1848, the Germans demanded the creation of a centralized state
Inspired by the idea of a united Germany, in 1848 the Germans took to the streets of large cities, demanding the creation of a centralized state. Even a revolutionary national All-German Assembly met in Frankfurt am Main. However, Prussia, Bavaria, Austria and Saxony did not support the initiatives of the All-German Assembly - the unrest that broke out in some states was suppressed by the Prussian troops.
Iron Chancellor
Punch cartoon: Bismarck manipulates Russia, Austria and Germany
As before, Prussia and Austria remained the main players in the race to unify Germany under their rule. Otto von Bismarck, at that time an ordinary high-ranking Prussian official, gradually strengthened his position in the ruling circles. His main goal was to unify Germany by all means, using a variety of methods. “Germany is too cramped for Austria and Prussia,” said great politician on the eve of the great Austro-Prussian war. In 1866, as Minister of Foreign Affairs, Bismarck decided to take a risky step - the future "Iron Chancellor" went into open armed conflict with Austria. “If we are defeated, I will not return here. I will die in the final attack. You can die only once, and it is best for the defeated to die, ”he said then.
"Germany is too small for Austria and Prussia," said Bismarck.
thorny path to the post of first chancellor
In the summer of 1866, Bismarck addressed the people of Germany with a heartfelt speech. A sophisticated diplomat and a skillful politician, he presented Prussia as a victim of Austrian aggression, exposed the whole matter in such a way that it seemed that Austria was unleashing this war. Italy joined the war against Austria under a secret treaty, and small armies of the North German principalities also joined the Prussian troops.
The course of the war
After the battle of Custotz, the Italian army capitulated
The Italian army was not able to fight for a long time with the superior strength of the Austrian army, but it certainly fulfilled its main task. The Austrian commanders-in-chief were forced to wage war on two fronts: including a large grouping of Austrian troops formed on the Italian front. At the same time, the Prussians marched victoriously through the Bavarian lands, meeting only understaffed units of the South German army that did not have time to fully mobilize. By mid-July, the Prussian army was on the outskirts of Vienna. The continuation of the war could lead to the collapse of the Austrian Empire, because, sensing the weakness of the state, local separatists began to rise in Hungary. Bismarck hastened to conclude a peace treaty: the war ended faster than the great powers had time to come to their senses. As a result of the war, Austria withdrew from the German Confederation.
North German Confederation
Coat of arms of the North German Confederation
In the occupied territories, the Prussian authorities put pressure on local monarchs so that they would not try to fight for the restoration of their own power. Just a few weeks after the end of the war, Bismarck developed a document under which the states of Northern Germany entered into an alliance with Prussia, and were to integrate in the future. The Prussian king became the head of the North German Confederation.
The war ended faster than the great powers knew
Patriotic enthusiasm
Proclamation of the German Empire in Palace of Versailles
The idea of the unification of Germany flared up with new force when the next volleys of guns were heard. In the war between Prussia and France in 1870, the South German states immediately took the position of the Prussians and the North German Confederation. Absolutely unprepared for war, the French army suffered one defeat after another, which ensured a colossal rise in national consciousness among the Germans. On January 28, 1871, Paris capitulated, and the South German states began accession negotiations with the North German Confederation. December 10, 1870 Otto von Bismarck literally brought the Prussian king Wilhelm I the imperial crown. Thus began its existence Deutsche Reich, or German Empire.
Having made peace with Austria, Prussia began to prepare the third, final act on the way to the unification of Germany under the leadership of Prussia. Bismarck needed Russia's neutrality in the upcoming war with France, which did not want to allow a strong reunited Germany to appear on its eastern borders. Bismarck set about carefully diplomatic preparations for this strike.
Wanting to provoke a war at all costs, Bismarck forged an important diplomatic document. On July 13, 1870, having received a telegram from Ems outlining the conversation between the Prussian king and the French ambassador, Bismarck shortened the text of the dispatch, giving it an insulting character to France. After reading the telegram, Moltke remarked: “That sounds quite different; before it sounded like a signal to retreat, and now it is a fanfare answering the challenge ”Bismarck O. Thoughts and memories, v.2, p.84 .. He ordered the falsified“ Ems dispatch ”to be published in print.
July 19, 1870 France declared war on Prussia. As a result of a series of successive defeats, the main forces of the French army were defeated within a few months. The Prussian army in August threw back one part of the French troops to the fortress of Metz and besieged it there, surrounded the other near Sedan. Here, the 82,000-strong French army surrendered together with Emperor Napoleon III. On September 4, 1870, a revolution took place in Paris, the bankrupt Napoleonic regime collapsed under the onslaught of the people. But events unexpectedly unfolded in France that took both Bismarck and Moltke by surprise. After the collapse of the Napoleonic regime in France, the Thiers government came to power. France became a republic headed by a "government of national defence". Bismarck and the Prussian generals suddenly saw a new enemy in front of them. The People's War brought many difficulties. From the second half of September, the Germans, having captured Versailles, began the siege of Paris. The bourgeois government of France entered into negotiations with the Prussians for surrender.
The Franco-Prussian war (more correctly called the Franco-German war) was of a dual nature. Since the unification of Germany was an act of historical necessity, the war, which had the goal of completing this unification, objectively served progress. But its progressiveness extended only up to a certain point. As soon as the decisive victory over the French had been won and the obstacles to the unification of Germany removed, the historically progressive mission of the war was over. All subsequent actions of the Germans, and above all the terms of peace imposed on France, were already purely predatory and predatory.
So, in this war, France was defeated and the North German Confederation, Prussia faced the long-planned task of annexing the South German states.
After the Prussian army defeated the main forces of France, on January 18, 1871, in the Palace of Versailles, on the territory of defeated France, the Prussian king Wilhelm 1 was proclaimed emperor of Germany.
The cruel terms of the armistice and the peace treaty imposed on France testified that Bismarck had managed to satisfy the basic economic, political and military demands of the Junker-bourgeois and militaristic empire. From now on, Bismarck became "the idol of the ruling classes - the junkers and the bourgeoisie, all those circles that united under the banner of militarism, nationalism and empire" Yerusalimsky A.S. Bismarck: a political biography, p.83. He became the "Iron Chancellor" of Germany.
Thus, “Bismarck from fragmented Germany “with iron and blood” created a militaristic state in the center of Europe” Galkin I.S. Creation of the German Empire 1815-1871, p. 174. Necessary in the historical sense and the main work of Bismarck's life was done.
In general, in my opinion, it is possible to assess the implementation of the German unification process in different ways. Of course, the methods of unification were quite tough, however, in the situation that developed in Germany in the 1860s and 70s, they were necessary. The very fact of unification, despite the anti-democratic nature of its path, was progressive, as it put an end to centuries of fragmentation, removed obstacles to economic development country, in addition, created new conditions and opportunities for the deployment of socio-political struggle, for the rise of the German labor movement. Also, in my opinion, the role of Otto von Bismarck in the formation of the German Empire should not be underestimated. Of course, there were objective political and economic prerequisites for the unification of the German states, but without the active influence of the subjective factor, which was Bismarck's policy, natural process the unification of German lands could be carried out for quite a long time.
One way or another, in my opinion, one thing is clear: the formation of the German Empire, which was a consequence of Bismarck's policy, qualitatively changed the political balance of power in Europe and had a significant impact on further development not only European but also world history.
On March 3, 1871, elections were held for the first German Reichstag, the main task was to adopt new edition the Imperial Constitution, which was adopted by the Reichstag on 14 April. Engels spoke very precisely about this: “The Constitution ... was “cut to the measure” of Bismarck. It was a further step on the path to his sole domination, carried out by balancing between the parties in the Reichstag and between the particularist states in the Federal Council - a further step along the path of Bonapartism ”Marx K., Engels F. Soch., vol. 21, p. 474 ..
Indeed, it would have been difficult for Bismarck to hold on to his post, and even more so to use the enormous power that he possessed, if it were not for the peculiar state structure of the German Empire. No one, probably, defined the essence of the political regime of the empire more aptly than Marx: "... sheathed in parliamentary forms, mixed with feudal appendages and at the same time already under the influence of the bourgeoisie, bureaucratically cobbled together, police guarded military despotism ..." Marx K., Engels F. Soch., v.19, p.28.. This definition concentrates the main features of the form of the Bonapartist dictatorship that was established in Germany, primarily through the efforts of Bismarck. It assumed authoritarian methods of government. Hence - the restriction of the rights of the Reichstag, the absence of a government responsible to the parliament, the concentration of the levers of power in a narrow circle - Wilhelm 1, Bismarck, Moltke. She, this dictatorship, meant reliance on military force and bureaucracy. Finally, it rested on constant maneuvering between the leading classes, primarily between the big capitalists and the agrarians, and hence between the parties representing their interests.
Bismarck officially took up his new position from the moment the department of the Allied Chancellor was transformed into the office of the Reich Chancellor on May 12, 1871. From then on he held this post until his resignation in 1890. He also retained the positions of the Reich Foreign Minister and the Prussian Minister president.
Of course, in the early 70s, Bismarck's position in the ruling elite was significantly strengthened due to his successes in foreign policy and his role in the creation of the empire. But, since in the final analysis Bismarck's fate depended on his influence with the emperor, and not on constitutional guarantees, his position always remained internally shaky.
As for Bismarck personally, he was never again destined to rise to the level of tasks solved in 1864-1871, when he acted as a kind of instrument of historical necessity. significant character. His actions began to show much more signs of class narrowness and nationalist narrowness than before. And on the whole, Bismarck's activity after 1871 seems to be more contradictory, leading not to the consequences for which it was calculated, full of various blunders. The latter applies both to the external, and - and to a greater extent - to domestic politics"Iron Chancellor".
